Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
Burkutu, a locally brewed alcohol obtained from five Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, namely Hong, Song, Yola North, Numan, and Ganye, was examined for the presence and levels of some residues of the pesticides dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan (DDT), endosulfan, and lindane by high-performance liquid chromatography. The results showed that the Burkutu obtained in Song Local Government Areas has the highest concentration of DDT (4.1825 mg/dm3), endosulfan (3.8320 mg/dm3), and lindane (2.1510 mg/dm3) compared to the other areas studied. The findings of this research work showed the presence of these persistent pollutants in all the Burkutu samples examined and may be attributed to the sources of water used for the local brewed. The agrochemical used on form produce during storage, mineralogical content, and soil texture, and also some can be traced down to the sorghum used which is the raw material used processing Burkutu. Therefore, the potential for its presence in the Burkutu is serious health risks, which is alarming and depict a threat to public health.
Characteristics of Wet Coffee Processing Waste and Its Environmental Impact i...IJRES Journal
This study aimed to characterize wet coffee processing waste and determine total reducing sugar potential of coffee waste (pulp juice and mucilage) in Ethiopia. The volatile solid of the waste was determined and showed that the waste (pulp juice and mucilage) has high organic component, 66.5% and 90.2%, respectively. The study showed that the waste (pulp juice and mucilage) is acidic with pH 4.75 and 3.67, respectively. The results also showed that the wastes are serious problems for environment because of their high BOD/COD values. The values are BOD of 25,600 mg/L and COD of 45,000 mg/L for pulp juice and BOD of 19,810 mg/L and COD of 33,600 mg/L for mucilage. The COD:BOD ratio is less than 5:1, which shows the wastes are bio-degradable. Generally, the study showed that the wastes are potential environmental problems and cause water pollution due to high organic component and acidic nature. The waste was hydrolyzed by dilute H2SO4 (1, 2, 3 and 4%) and distilled water. Total sugar content of the sample was determined and maximum value (85%) is obtained from hydrolysis by 3% H2SO4. The results obtained at hydrolysis of 4, 2, 1% H2SO4 and distilled water are 72.86, 76.50, 63.75 and 56.66%, respectively.
Characteristics of Wet Coffee Processing Waste and Its Environmental Impact i...IJRES Journal
This study aimed to characterize wet coffee processing waste and determine total reducing sugar potential of coffee waste (pulp juice and mucilage) in Ethiopia. The volatile solid of the waste was determined and showed that the waste (pulp juice and mucilage) has high organic component, 66.5% and 90.2%, respectively. The study showed that the waste (pulp juice and mucilage) is acidic with pH 4.75 and 3.67, respectively. The results also showed that the wastes are serious problems for environment because of their high BOD/COD values. The values are BOD of 25,600 mg/L and COD of 45,000 mg/L for pulp juice and BOD of 19,810 mg/L and COD of 33,600 mg/L for mucilage. The COD:BOD ratio is less than 5:1, which shows the wastes are bio-degradable. Generally, the study showed that the wastes are potential environmental problems and cause water pollution due to high organic component and acidic nature. The waste was hydrolyzed by dilute H2SO4 (1, 2, 3 and 4%) and distilled water. Total sugar content of the sample was determined and maximum value (85%) is obtained from hydrolysis by 3% H2SO4. The results obtained at hydrolysis of 4, 2, 1% H2SO4 and distilled water are 72.86, 76.50, 63.75 and 56.66%, respectively.
Kunu-zaki is a nourishing non-alcoholic beverage widely consumed in Nigeria. There is no standardized method for its preparation thus production practices differ amongst retailers. This study was undertaken to evaluate the bacteriological quality of kunu drink retailed in major markets of Owerri metropolis, Nigeria. Triplicate samples were obtained from four markets in Owerri and a control sample prepared in the laboratory. Kunu drink was analysed using the standard pour plate procedure. The results obtained showed that total heterotrophic bacteria count, total coliform count and total Salmonella Shigella count ranged from 1.4 x 103 – 4.5 x 104 cfu/ml, 1.2 x 103 – 3.8 x 104 cfu/ml to 0.6 x 103 – 3.1 x 104 respectively. A total of 9 bacteria genera including Staphylococcus specie, E. coli, Enterobacter specie, Proteus specie, Citrobacter specie, Serratia specie, Lactobacillus specie, Salmonella specie and Streptococcus specie were isolated with the highest percentage frequency of occurrence recorded for Staphylococcus sp. (16.66%) indicating possible low hygiene of the kunu zaki producers. The bacteria genera isolated from kunu zaki sold in Owerri and their number constitute main concerns for
public health as these can cause a variety of infections or food intoxications. Thus, there is a need to establish a system of monitoring of street vended kunu zaki to make sure that it is safe for consumption.
Harmful pesticides and how smallholder women farmers can doDonald ofoegbu
A presentation delivered at the Small-Scale Women Farmers Organization in Nigeria (SWOFON) Annual National Forum 29th - 30th November 2021. Raising awareness on Harmful Pesticides and how smallholder women farmers can protect themselves - shift away
Standard water quality requirements and management strategies for fish farmin...eSAT Journals
A study on standard water quality requirements and management strategies suitable for fish farming is presented. The water quality criteria studied based on physical, chemical and biological properties of water include temperature, turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solid (TDS), nitrate- nitrogen, pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total hardness. Water samples from Otamiri River in Imo state, Nigeria, were analyzed based on the afore-mentioned criteria to assess its suitability as a source of water for fish farming. The results of the analysis compared with international standards revealed that the river temperature of 26.90C, nitrate-nitrogen value of 0.015 mg/l and total suspended solids of 18.60 mg/l fall within the acceptable range for fish farming. However, the pH of 5.82, total hardness of 5.8 mg/l, total dissolved solids of 13.60 mg/l and biochemical oxygen demand of 0.6 mg/l all differed slightly from the standard recommended values. This study will aid fish farmers on the necessary treatment needed to effectively use water from this source for fish farming.
Keywords: Water quality criteria, Otamiri River, biochemical oxygen demand, total suspended and total dissolved solids.
Study and prediction of persistent organochlorine and organophosphorous pesti...iosrjce
The indiscriminate use of toxic pesticides had created an environment that without this poison the
plant life is unfruitful leading to the farmer’s life miserable. For several years, this phenomenon was continuing
and the ecosystem is protecting the environment and the life of human being from high risk of toxicity. But, how
long it will continue or weather a paradigm change in the agricultural field is required? With this objective a
field study was conducted in the cardamom plantations of Idukki district in South India to estimate and predict
the persistence of pesticide residue in the soil environment. It is observed that residues of endosulfan, DDT and
organophosphorous pesticides were present in soil samples at 31.6 %, 29 % and 21 % respectively. The present
study gives a prediction of the concentration of persistent pesticide residues in the soil if the present dose and
frequency of application is continued. The study also highlighted the adsorption capacity of soil in the study
area and low water solubility of pesticides used in cardamom plantations which is referred as partition
coefficient. The soil properties such as pH, organic content and microbial concentration which determine the
fate of degradation of pesticides and formation of its metabolites are also been discussed in this context. Based
on the observations and analysis, it is concluded that the formation of degradation products and bound residues
decrease at higher concentration of pesticide applications but the concentration of persistent pesticides
increases and the biodegradation reduced in such cases due to bound residues and reduced biological activity.
The predicted values on multiple applications where the concentrations in soil may build up and reach a
plateau, are 2.559,0.2559, 1.7324 and 0.659 mgKg-1
in the case of endosulfan, DDT, organophosphorous and
total pesticides respectively.
Justine Maïworé1*, Armand Abdou Bouba2, Leopold Tastadjieu Ngoune3, Carl Moses Mbofung4
1Department of Life and Earth Sciences, University of Maroua, Higher Teachers Training College, Maroua, Cameroun
2Department of Agriculture, Livestock and By-products, Higher Institute of the Sahel, ISS, University of Maroua,
Cameroon
3Department of Food Science and Nutrition, National Advanced School of Agro-Industrial Sciences, University of
Ngaoundere, Adamaoua, Cameroon
4University of Bamenda, General Secretariat, Nkwen, Bamenda
*Address for Correspondence: Dr. Justine Maïworé, Senior Lecturer, Department of Life and Earth Sciences Higher
Teachers Training College, University of Maroua, Cameroun
Received: 04 Sept 2016/Revised: 28 Sept 2016/Accepted: 06 Oct 2016
ABSTRACT- To fight against thirst, peoples in sahelian regions have many choices: they can drink water or kinds of
beverages like "kounou", lemon juice, tamarind juice baobab juice, tea or "folere" juice. These beverages have been
prepared with wells water, drilling water or with the water of the national network distribution. The aim of this study was
to evaluate the microbial quality of some non-alcoholic street waters and beverages sold in Maroua, Mora, Mokolo, Kaele,
Kousseri and Yagoua, six major cities of the far north Region of Cameroun. Sampling was performed three times in three
different points for the same product in each locality. Results obtained showed that water used in the production of
different beverages sold in the towns of Maroua, Kousseri, Yagoua, Mora, Kaele and Mokolo is mostly provided by the
national water distribution network with 51.24%; Drilling with 32.19%; wells with 6.34%. Among the beverages
produced, "folere" juice was the most consumed (33%) while "kounou" was least consumed (9%). The products sold by
mobile vendors have a higher microbial concentration than those of the fixed vendors. Although there was absence of
Escherichia coli and Clostridium botulinum in our products; total coliforms were the pathogens most isolated in our
beverages and among mobile street vendors.
Key-words- Microbial quality, Source of water, Beverages, Far-north Region, Cameroon
Analysis of microbiological and chemical risks in fresh and smoked fishes sol...AI Publications
The diseases due to fish contamination are an important public health concern worldwide particularly histamine fish poisoning. Histamine is produced during bacterial decarboxylation of the histidine present in fish muscles. The aim of this study is to analyze microbiological and chemical factors of degradation of fresh fish at Lomé fishery port and assess histamine content in smoked fish sold in local market. The method of European Regulation has been used to determine Total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN) and the content of histamine was performed by Agilent 1290 Infinity II HPLC. The standard NF V08-051: 1999 was used for the count of microbial colonies expressed in colony forming units (CFU/ml). The results show that 100% of fresh fishes were highly contaminated by total aerobic flora (225 0000 CFU/g), Thermotolerant coliforms (88750 CFU/g) and E. coli (103 920 CFU/g). The content of Total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN) of anchovies and sardinella was ranged from 23.34 ± 0.23 to 103.14 ± 0.27 mg/100g. Smoked fishes from three markets have shown higher histamine mean levels varying from 295.06 to 746.54 mg/kg. These results show that Togolese are exposed to high concentrations of histamine when consuming smoked fish. Determination of histamine is very important due to its toxicity for humans and as an indicator of the freshness of fish and fish products.
Nutrient and Bioactive Potentials of some Agricultural Food WastesPremier Publishers
The current research investigated the proximate, mineral content and phytochemical constituents of five (5) food wastes, namely: Telfairia occidentalis (fluted pumpkin) seed peels and pod; Artocarpus camansi (breadnut) seed peels and creamy pulp and Mucuna urens (horse eye bean) seed peels. The results of the proximate analysis of the food wastes revealed that the samples have varying percentage range of 51.70-70.25 for carbohydrate, 7.35-11.90 for protein, 1.90-6.20 for fat, 2.80-11.60 for fiber, 3.40-15.25 for ash and 4.40-18.15 for moisture. The percentage carbohydrate content showed that pumpkin seed peel had the lowest yield while pumpkin pod peel had the highest. The result of the mineral analysis revealed that the five food wastes analysed contain Zn, K, P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Na, however, the levels of Fe, Ca, P and Mg were significantly higher (p<0.05) relative to the other minerals. The phytochemical estimation of the samples showed that the food wastes contain several bioactive compounds in different concentrations. Some of the phytochemicals found in the food wastes are spartein, phytate, anthocyanin, tannin, lunamarin, ribalinidine, catechin, rutin, kaempferol, oxalate, epicatechin, phenol and sapogenin. This study revealed that these food wastes possess some nutritive and medicinal potential.
water, a substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen and existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. It is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds. A tasteless and odourless liquid at room temperature, it has the important ability to dissolve many other substances.
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Similar to Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
Kunu-zaki is a nourishing non-alcoholic beverage widely consumed in Nigeria. There is no standardized method for its preparation thus production practices differ amongst retailers. This study was undertaken to evaluate the bacteriological quality of kunu drink retailed in major markets of Owerri metropolis, Nigeria. Triplicate samples were obtained from four markets in Owerri and a control sample prepared in the laboratory. Kunu drink was analysed using the standard pour plate procedure. The results obtained showed that total heterotrophic bacteria count, total coliform count and total Salmonella Shigella count ranged from 1.4 x 103 – 4.5 x 104 cfu/ml, 1.2 x 103 – 3.8 x 104 cfu/ml to 0.6 x 103 – 3.1 x 104 respectively. A total of 9 bacteria genera including Staphylococcus specie, E. coli, Enterobacter specie, Proteus specie, Citrobacter specie, Serratia specie, Lactobacillus specie, Salmonella specie and Streptococcus specie were isolated with the highest percentage frequency of occurrence recorded for Staphylococcus sp. (16.66%) indicating possible low hygiene of the kunu zaki producers. The bacteria genera isolated from kunu zaki sold in Owerri and their number constitute main concerns for
public health as these can cause a variety of infections or food intoxications. Thus, there is a need to establish a system of monitoring of street vended kunu zaki to make sure that it is safe for consumption.
Harmful pesticides and how smallholder women farmers can doDonald ofoegbu
A presentation delivered at the Small-Scale Women Farmers Organization in Nigeria (SWOFON) Annual National Forum 29th - 30th November 2021. Raising awareness on Harmful Pesticides and how smallholder women farmers can protect themselves - shift away
Standard water quality requirements and management strategies for fish farmin...eSAT Journals
A study on standard water quality requirements and management strategies suitable for fish farming is presented. The water quality criteria studied based on physical, chemical and biological properties of water include temperature, turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solid (TDS), nitrate- nitrogen, pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total hardness. Water samples from Otamiri River in Imo state, Nigeria, were analyzed based on the afore-mentioned criteria to assess its suitability as a source of water for fish farming. The results of the analysis compared with international standards revealed that the river temperature of 26.90C, nitrate-nitrogen value of 0.015 mg/l and total suspended solids of 18.60 mg/l fall within the acceptable range for fish farming. However, the pH of 5.82, total hardness of 5.8 mg/l, total dissolved solids of 13.60 mg/l and biochemical oxygen demand of 0.6 mg/l all differed slightly from the standard recommended values. This study will aid fish farmers on the necessary treatment needed to effectively use water from this source for fish farming.
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Study and prediction of persistent organochlorine and organophosphorous pesti...iosrjce
The indiscriminate use of toxic pesticides had created an environment that without this poison the
plant life is unfruitful leading to the farmer’s life miserable. For several years, this phenomenon was continuing
and the ecosystem is protecting the environment and the life of human being from high risk of toxicity. But, how
long it will continue or weather a paradigm change in the agricultural field is required? With this objective a
field study was conducted in the cardamom plantations of Idukki district in South India to estimate and predict
the persistence of pesticide residue in the soil environment. It is observed that residues of endosulfan, DDT and
organophosphorous pesticides were present in soil samples at 31.6 %, 29 % and 21 % respectively. The present
study gives a prediction of the concentration of persistent pesticide residues in the soil if the present dose and
frequency of application is continued. The study also highlighted the adsorption capacity of soil in the study
area and low water solubility of pesticides used in cardamom plantations which is referred as partition
coefficient. The soil properties such as pH, organic content and microbial concentration which determine the
fate of degradation of pesticides and formation of its metabolites are also been discussed in this context. Based
on the observations and analysis, it is concluded that the formation of degradation products and bound residues
decrease at higher concentration of pesticide applications but the concentration of persistent pesticides
increases and the biodegradation reduced in such cases due to bound residues and reduced biological activity.
The predicted values on multiple applications where the concentrations in soil may build up and reach a
plateau, are 2.559,0.2559, 1.7324 and 0.659 mgKg-1
in the case of endosulfan, DDT, organophosphorous and
total pesticides respectively.
Justine Maïworé1*, Armand Abdou Bouba2, Leopold Tastadjieu Ngoune3, Carl Moses Mbofung4
1Department of Life and Earth Sciences, University of Maroua, Higher Teachers Training College, Maroua, Cameroun
2Department of Agriculture, Livestock and By-products, Higher Institute of the Sahel, ISS, University of Maroua,
Cameroon
3Department of Food Science and Nutrition, National Advanced School of Agro-Industrial Sciences, University of
Ngaoundere, Adamaoua, Cameroon
4University of Bamenda, General Secretariat, Nkwen, Bamenda
*Address for Correspondence: Dr. Justine Maïworé, Senior Lecturer, Department of Life and Earth Sciences Higher
Teachers Training College, University of Maroua, Cameroun
Received: 04 Sept 2016/Revised: 28 Sept 2016/Accepted: 06 Oct 2016
ABSTRACT- To fight against thirst, peoples in sahelian regions have many choices: they can drink water or kinds of
beverages like "kounou", lemon juice, tamarind juice baobab juice, tea or "folere" juice. These beverages have been
prepared with wells water, drilling water or with the water of the national network distribution. The aim of this study was
to evaluate the microbial quality of some non-alcoholic street waters and beverages sold in Maroua, Mora, Mokolo, Kaele,
Kousseri and Yagoua, six major cities of the far north Region of Cameroun. Sampling was performed three times in three
different points for the same product in each locality. Results obtained showed that water used in the production of
different beverages sold in the towns of Maroua, Kousseri, Yagoua, Mora, Kaele and Mokolo is mostly provided by the
national water distribution network with 51.24%; Drilling with 32.19%; wells with 6.34%. Among the beverages
produced, "folere" juice was the most consumed (33%) while "kounou" was least consumed (9%). The products sold by
mobile vendors have a higher microbial concentration than those of the fixed vendors. Although there was absence of
Escherichia coli and Clostridium botulinum in our products; total coliforms were the pathogens most isolated in our
beverages and among mobile street vendors.
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Analysis of microbiological and chemical risks in fresh and smoked fishes sol...AI Publications
The diseases due to fish contamination are an important public health concern worldwide particularly histamine fish poisoning. Histamine is produced during bacterial decarboxylation of the histidine present in fish muscles. The aim of this study is to analyze microbiological and chemical factors of degradation of fresh fish at Lomé fishery port and assess histamine content in smoked fish sold in local market. The method of European Regulation has been used to determine Total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN) and the content of histamine was performed by Agilent 1290 Infinity II HPLC. The standard NF V08-051: 1999 was used for the count of microbial colonies expressed in colony forming units (CFU/ml). The results show that 100% of fresh fishes were highly contaminated by total aerobic flora (225 0000 CFU/g), Thermotolerant coliforms (88750 CFU/g) and E. coli (103 920 CFU/g). The content of Total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN) of anchovies and sardinella was ranged from 23.34 ± 0.23 to 103.14 ± 0.27 mg/100g. Smoked fishes from three markets have shown higher histamine mean levels varying from 295.06 to 746.54 mg/kg. These results show that Togolese are exposed to high concentrations of histamine when consuming smoked fish. Determination of histamine is very important due to its toxicity for humans and as an indicator of the freshness of fish and fish products.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
1. www.ajms.com 11
ISSN 2581-3463
REVIEW ARTICLE
Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally
Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa
State, Nigeria
Maitera N. Oliver1
, Hitler Louis2,3
, Waziri M. Musa1
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola,
Nigeria, 2
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Calabar,
Calabar, Nigeria, 3
CAS Key Laboratory For Nanosystem and Hierarchical Fabrication, CAS Centre For
Excellence in Nanoscience, National Centre For Nanoscience and Technology, University of Chinese Academy
of Science, Beijing, P. R. China.
Received: 02-02-2018; Revised: 10-03-2018; Accepted: 01-04-2018
ABSTRACT
Burkutu, a locally brewed alcohol obtained from five Local GovernmentAreas ofAdamawa State, namely
Hong, Song, Yola North, Numan, and Ganye, was examined for the presence and levels of some residues
of the pesticides dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan (DDT), endosulfan, and lindane by high-performance
liquid chromatography. The results showed that the Burkutu obtained in Song Local Government Areas
has the highest concentration of DDT (4.1825 mg/dm3
), endosulfan (3.8320 mg/dm3
), and lindane
(2.1510 mg/dm3
) compared to the other areas studied. The findings of this research work showed the
presence of these persistent pollutants in all the Burkutu samples examined and may be attributed to
the sources of water used for the local brewed. The agrochemical used on form produce during storage,
mineralogical content, and soil texture, and also some can be traced down to the sorghum used which
is the raw material used processing Burkutu. Therefore, the potential for its presence in the Burkutu is
serious health risks, which is alarming and depict a threat to public health.
Key words: Burkutu, concentration, Nigeria, pesticide pollutants
INTRODUCTION
When used, the pesticides are spread to all plant
parts and the remaining waste load depends on
the crop characteristics, its tissues, as well as the
physicochemical properties of the substances.
If the application is carried out in the foliage,
for example, the dissipation of waste occurs
more quickly as compared with the application
in fruits.[1,2]
Establishing continuum monitoring
programs of pesticide waste in food for several
consecutive years make it possible to know
the profile of the existing waste and manage
quality assurance, focusing on the education of
farmers, control of selling pesticides, integrated
Address for correspondence:
Hitler Louis,
E-mail: Louis@nanoctr.cnolivermaitera@yahoo.com
pest management, and increase in organic
farming. Waste management programs have been
continuously applied in foods of plant origin,
animal origin, grain cereals, and infant food in
many countries.[3-5]
Burkutuisvinegar-likeflavoredalcoholicbeverage
prepared by steeping sorghum grains in water
overnight, following which excessive water is
drained. The grains are then spread out onto a mat
or tray, covered with banana leaves, and allowed to
germinate. During germination process, the grains
are watered on alternate days and turned over at
intervals. Germination continues for 4–5 days,
following which the dried malt is ground into a
powder. Sweet potato starch or raw grain starch is
added to a mixture of ground malt and hot water
in a ratio of one-part sweet potatoes to two-part
malt and six-part water to form sweet liquid wort.
The resulting mixture is allowed to ferment for
2. Oliver, et al.: Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in
Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
AJMS/Jan-Feb-2018/Vol 2/Issue 2 12
2 days, boiled for approximately 4 h and allowed
to mature for 2 days. The resulting product was a
cloudy alcoholic beverage. The alcohol contents
of Burkutu range from 3% to 8%. It is widely
consumed in West Africa most especially North
Eastern part of Nigeria, Adamawa State by the
Bwachama/Mbula, Chamba, Yungur, Lunguda,
Kilba, Highi, Marghi, and Fulani tribes within the
state during occasions such as festivals, wedding,
burial, farming, and daily, most especially the
one produced on commercial basis. During
the 1950s and 1960s, there was an enormous
increase in the use of chemicals in agriculture,
industrial manufacturing and around the home.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was used
to remove lice and control mosquitoes, and other
pesticides were used to kill insects and control
weeds in an effect to improve crop yields.[6-9]
During the 1970s, we began to appreciate that
even a small dose can harm sensitive individuals.
In “Silent Spring,” Rachel Carson sounded one of
the first alarms about the effects of environmental
contaminants.[10]
Humans, being at the top of the
food chain, accumulate DDTin fat; fat is mobilized
during lactation, and mothers who breastfeed pass
along the DDT to their infants, who receive a large
dose due to their low weight. Many of the early
pesticide and certainly the metals do not break
down in the environment or do so only very surely.
If persistent chemicals are released continually to
the environment, the level tends to rise ever higher.
The chlorinate pesticides accumulate in the fat of
animals, with animals higher in the food chain
accumulating more and more of these pesticides.
Most species cannot metabolize or break down the
compounds: Lead (Pb) accumulates in bone and
methylmercury (CH3
Hg
) in muscle. Moreover,
finally, due to their persistent in the environment
and accumulation in various species, the persistent
toxicants spread around the world, even to places
that never used them. Animals at the top of the
food chain, such as polar bears and beluga whales,
routinely have fat polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
levels 6 ppm even though these animals live far
from where PCB was used or produced.[10]
The relevance of Burkutu to some inhabitants
of Hong, Song, Yola-North, Numan, and Ganye
Local Government Areas of Adamawa State
cannot be overemphasized, as such, there is
need for the awareness of the persistent pollutant
present in the locally brewed alcohols (Burkutu)
and health effects caused by these pollutants
when is consumed. Several studies have being
carried out to indicate the general taste and effect
of alcohol to the human system but it is scarcely
on Burkutu. On June 8 and 20, 2015, 8–35 people
were killed aftermath of taking alcohol in Cross
River State of Nigeria and India, respectively.
Some reports were traced down to the chemical
constituents present in the alcohol, for example,
methanol which are the simplest form of alcohol.
It is closely related to ethanol, the alcohol normally
found in beer, wine, and spirits - but much more
toxic. The potential for its presence in drinks
made from home - distilled spirits is a serious
health risk. Since the people of Adamawa State
are more or less inclined to the consumption of
locally brewed beer popularly called Burkutu, the
need to study the chemical pollutants present in
the beer cannot be overemphasized. The people of
the state are distinct for the consumption of locally
brewed alcohol (Burkutu) for a long time ago, the
major defense was on their culture and as a man in
those days, if you do not drink Burkutu, and you
are considered as a weakling or not man enough.
However, no conclusive research was carried out
to determine the concentration of the persistent
pollutant present in the Burkutu, most especially
when it is ready for consumption, some of the
guinea corn which is the raw material used for
processing Burkutu is stored using agrochemicals
to prevent it from pest and the containers such
as drums and calabash used changes color with
time and it serves as a breeding site for microbial
growth which dissolves into the beer and leads to
various diseases such as liver cirrhosis, cancer,
skeletal fluorosis, kidney effects, and heart
disease. Furthermore, the method of production of
the Burkutu is pollution itself. Therefore, in this
regard, an attempt to analyze the concentration
of persistent pollutants found in Burkutu of five
different Local Government Areas of Adamawa
State was carried out to identify and know the
concentration of the persistent pollutant present in
the locally brewed alcohol (Burkutu).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling
The main purpose of sampling was to collect the
sample of interest to represent the whole (bulk)
sample of Burkutu needed for analysis. The
Burkutu of interest was collected such that their
quality represents the overall quality of the samples
in question. Extra precaution was taken during
3. Oliver, et al.: Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in
Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
AJMS/Jan-Feb-2018/Vol 2/Issue 2 13
sampling to obtain samples representation of the
whole area studied. The container that was used to
collectthesampleswas10glassbottlesof1.7 Leach
for Burkutu. The sampling bottles were washed and
rinsed with distilled water and the Burkutu to free it
from impurities using sample handling techniques,
especially designed for the collection of sample for
the assessment of the persistent pollutants at trace
levels. The samples were preserved by the addition
of 5 ml of pretested 10% HNO3
/1.7 L of sample,
depending on the time between sample collection
and arrival at the laboratory.
Samples and sampling areas
Samples of guinea corn were selected and
obtained from the various Local Government
Areas taking into account the requirements for the
preparation of the brews. This information was
obtained from the people who process and sell the
brews. A sample raw material was obtained from
marketplaces nearest to the beverage sampling
stations. The sampling area was five Local
Government Areas within Adamawa State, that
is, Hong, Song, Jimeta-Yola, Numan, and Ganye,
respectively, where they produce and sell locally
brewed alcohol [Figure 1].
Instruments
The samples of interest were determined for
pesticide residues in locally brewed alcohol
(Burkutu) using high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC). The method for the
collection, preservation, and analysis of the brews
was adopted according to William.[11]
The extraction of pesticide residues
WaterandacetonitrilewereHPLCgrade;analytical
grade dimethylformamide and anhydrous sodium
sulfate were obtained from Fischer-Scientific.
Acetic acid and sodium acetate from Merck
were used for sample preparation. Analytical
grade pesticide standards were obtained from
Sigma-Aldrich. A standard mix solution was
prepared from the individual stock solution to
yield 10 mg/ml. The acetate buffered sample
preparation method for pesticide was applied to all
samples. 50 mg samples were homogenize with
100 ml acetonitrile. Then, 10 g of sodium chloride
is added to it. Then, 6 g NaSO4
were added to
absorb moisture and shaken well. The extract
was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 6 min. Pesticide
was eluted with 20 ml acetonitrile. Sample was
concentrated using a rotary evaporator.
Experimental procedures
The brew samples bottle (acid washed 1.7 L)
was rinsed 3 times before sampling. It was filled
approximately 2
/3
full, tight cap and freeze cruise.
The sample bottles numbered were according to
their Local Government Area and data sheet. All
the brew sample bottles were rinsed first with the
alcohol for alcohol samples before the brew samples
were collected. 50 ml of the Burkutu sample was
poured into a kadjiel flask, HCL, and nitric acid in
1:3 ratios were added to the 50 ml of the Burkutu
sample. The mixture was wet digested at 100°C for
1 h. The mixture reduced and 5 ml of nitric acid was
added, boiled for 15 min; then, it was allowed to
cool and 5 ml of peroxide was added to the mixture
and a clear solution was obtained. The mixture was
transferred to 1000 cm volumetric flask and distilled
water was added to the mark. 50 ml of the clear
solution was transferred into a cuvette and labeled
according to the Local Government Area it was
obtained from afterwords taken for analysis. The
same procedure was repeated for all samples to be
analyzed for metals. Using the WinLab32 software
for atomic absorption spectrometer, the method
window was opened and a method was created,
these include feeding the information in relation
to the sample unit of measurement, replicate of
analysis, delay time, etc., the information was
Figure 1: Map of Adamawa state and the study area
4. Oliver, et al.: Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in
Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
AJMS/Jan-Feb-2018/Vol 2/Issue 2 14
saved. After measurement of the standard and the
blank samples were individually introduced to the
equipment through the nebulizer into the flame, the
measure icon was clicked, and after few seconds, the
result was displayed in mg/Lthrough result window.
HPLC condition
Analytical Technologies 3000 series HPLC having
UV/visible detector was used for identification
and quantification of pesticides. Separation was
performed on C18 (4.6 ID × 250 mm) column.
Samples were injected manually through Rheodyne
injector. Detector was connected to the computer
for data processing. The working condition of
HPLC was binary gradient, mobile phase was
acetonitrile: water(70:30),flowratewas0.8 ml/min,
injection volume was 20 µl, pressure was 6–7 MPa,
and the wavelength of the detector was fixed at
254 nm for the residual analysis of three pesticides
endosulfan, carbendazim, and chlorpyrifos.
Data analysis
The data collected were subjected to statistical
analysis using simple descriptive statistics and
one-way analysis of variance and t-test analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result for the determination of pesticide
residues analyzed using the instrument HPLC is
presentedinAppendixes1-5.Thepesticideresidues
analyzed are pp-DDT, op-DDT, endosulfan, and
lindane, respectively.
The result of pesticide residues analyzed in
Burkutu samples obtained in Hong Local
Government Area
From the result of the analysis, the Burkutu obtained
in Hong Local Government Area showed that pp-
DDT values were 2.678 ± 0.5825 mg/dm3
, op-DDT
values were 2.9588 ± 1.2024 mg/dm3
, endosulfan
values were 2.0010 ± 0.5299 mg/dm3
, and the values
for lindane were 0.4088 ± 0.2421 mg/dm3
. The
mean ± standard deviation (SD) is in mg/dm3
of the
pesticide residues which were analyzed. The order of
abundance of these pesticide residues in the Burkutu
samplesanalyzedshowedthatop-DDThasthehighest
concentration with the value of 2.9588 ± 1.2024 mg/
dm3
as shown in Figure 2. The values obtained
indicate the presence of organochlorine pesticides
as detected. This shows that pesticides such as DDT
and endosulfan are used in the environment, while
lindane is used less in this location.
This also implies that pesticides used can lead the
contamination of the sorghum, water source, and
containers used for the production of the local
brews. Other reason may be due to uptake of these
pesticidesinsoil,plantroots,crops,andforstorageof
grains produced in this region. DDT, endosulfan, and
lindane pesticides are mostly used on crops, cereal
grains, stored products, and even animals (insects).
It is also used as an insecticide for slow release on
pest strips for pest control, in homes. No information
is available on the control for the local brews at the
time of research. However, the fact that the presence
of the organochlorine was dictated, their effect on the
humansystemcannotbeoveremphasizedduetotheir
widely use in controlling pests and microorganisms
on farms, animals, stored products, and even homes.
Therefore, the Burkutu obtained in Hong Local
Government Area is unfit for consumers due to the
presence of the pesticide residues which is toxic and
none recommended for consumption.
The result of pesticide residues analyzed in
Burkutu samples obtained in Song Local
Government Area
The result of the analysis for pesticides residue
in Burkutu samples obtained in Song Local
Government Area is presented in Figure 3.
The mean ± SD values are all in mg/dm3
of the
pesticide residues levels which are analyzed. The
abundance of the pesticide residues is as follows:
Figure 2: The level of pesticide residues from Burkutu
obtained in Hong sampled area
5. Oliver, et al.: Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in
Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
AJMS/Jan-Feb-2018/Vol 2/Issue 2 15
pp-DDT 4.1835 ± 06058 mg/dm3
, op-DDT 3.8320 ±
0.5115 mg/dm3
,endosulfan2.3070±0.3755 mg/dm3
,
and lindane 2.1510 ± 0.0750 mg/dm3
. Song sample
showedthepresenceofthepesticideresiduesanalyzed,
with pp-DDT having the highest concentration with
the values 4.18525 ± 0.6058 mg/dm3
. The result
of the Burkutu samples obtained in Song Local
GovernmentArea has the overall concentration of all
thepesticideresiduescomparedtotherestoftheother
Local Government Areas analyzed. This implies
that pesticides are highly in use in this environment.
The presence of this toxic substance in this locally
brewed alcohol is alarming and depicts a threat to
the public health. Other reason may be attributed to
the uptake of these pesticides in plants, water source,
and soil texture found in this environment.
Other reasons may be, due to the agricultural
activities done in Song, the inhabitant of this
location is distinct for their large-scale production
of farm produce, and to make farming easier for
them, the people of Song use pesticides on their
farms so as to enable they cultivate large farms.
Therefore, the presence of this toxic substance
in the Burkutu samples obtained in Song Local
GovernmentAreas makes it unfit for consumption.
The result of pesticide residues analyzed in
Burkutu samples obtained in Yola-North Local
Government Area
For Burkutu samples obtained in Yola-North Local
Government Area, the results of pesticide residues
are presented in Figure 4.These results also indicate
the presence of the pesticide residues in the locally
brewed alcohol (Burkutu). The mean ± SD is all in
mg/dm3
of the pesticides levels analyzed. For the
concentration of pp-DDT, the values were 0.5028
± 0.2661 mg/dm3
, op-DDT values were 0.9883 ±
0.4310 mg/dm3
, endosulfan values were 0.3963 ±
0.09407 mg/dm3
, and lindane values were 0.6100
± 0.5116 mg/dm3
. This implies that a trace of these
pesticides is present in the environment but not
much in use, this may be caused due to leaching or
erosion and air pollution since most of the pesticides
used are insecticides which are used on crops,
stored products, farm, and in household. Therefore,
the consumption of the Burkutu obtained in Yola-
North can lead to the accumulation of the pesticide
residues in the human system which can lead to
disruption of the endocrine system. Therefore, it
is not advisable to consume the Burkutu obtained
from Yola-North to avoid futuristic health effects.
The result of pesticide residues analyzed in
Burkutu samples obtained in Numan Local
Government Area
The result of the analysis for the determination of
pesticides levels in the Burkutu sample obtained
in Numan Local Government Area is presented in
Figure 5. The presence of the pesticides analyzed
is in mean ± SD all in mg/dm3
. The abundance
of these pesticide residues in Burkutu obtained
in Numan town showed the following values:
pp-DDT values were 0.1750 ± 0.1069 mg/dm3
,
op-DDT values were 0.5832 ± 0.4073 mg/dm3
,
endosulfan values were 1.8745 ± 0.8951 mg/dm3
,
and lindane values were 0.2058 ± 0.1378 mg/
dm3
. The analysis reveals that endosulfan with
the concentration of 1.8745 ± 0.8951 mg/dm3
has the highest concentration compared to the
other pesticide residues analyzed. These indicate
that endosulfan is the pesticide mostly used in
this location. This may also be attributed to the
uptake of these pesticides in water sources, soil,
vegetables, crops, and stored products.
However, the fact that the presence of these
pesticides levels was dictated, the levels of their
Figure 3: Levels of pesticide residues in Burkutu obtained
from Song sampled area
Figure 4: Levels of pesticide residues in Burkutu obtained
from Yola-North sampled area
6. Oliver, et al.: Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in
Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
AJMS/Jan-Feb-2018/Vol 2/Issue 2 16
effectcannotbeoveremphasizedasorganochlorines
are widely used to control pest and microorganisms
in household, stored products, and farm produce
and have been shown to have toxic effects in
humans. Therefore, the Burkutu samples obtained
in this location is not safe for consumption since no
persistent pollutant is allowed for consumption by
the environmental protection agency.
The result of pesticide residues analyzed in
Burkutu samples obtained in Ganye Local
Government Area
The result of pesticide residues for Burkutu
obtained in Ganye Local Government Area is
presented in Figure 6. The mean ± SD values are
all in mg/dm3
of the pesticide residues levels which
are analyzed. The results are as follows: pp-DDT
values were 3.1110 ± 0.7080 mg/dm3
, op-DDT
values were 2.8335 ± 0.9792 mg/dm3
, endosulfan
values were 0.5888 mg/dm3
, and lindane values
were 1.1650 ± 0.6676 mg/dm3
.
From the result of the analysis, it showed that pp-
DDT with 3.1110 ± 0.7080 mg/dm3
has the highest
concentration of pesticide residues in the Burkutu
samplesofGanyeLocalGovernmentAreacompared
to the rest of the pesticides analyzed as seen from
the chart. This shows that organochlorine is used as
pesticide in this area studied. Other factors may be
attributed to the uptake of these pesticides in soil,
plants, plant roots, and stored products. The result
of endosulfan 0.5888 ± 0.7688 mg/dm3
showed the
trace of the pesticide indicating the less use of the
pollutantinthisenvironment.Therefore,thepresence
of this pesticide level in the Burkutu obtained in
Ganye Local Government Area makes the alcoholic
drink unfit for consumers since no amount or dose of
pesticides is recommended for consumption.
Comparison of pesticide residues
concentrations in Burkutu samples analyzed,
among all the Local Government Areas studied
The values obtained show the presence of pesticide
residues in the Burkutu samples obtained for all
the five different Local Government Areas studied.
The results obtained showed that the pesticides, pp-
DDT and op-DDT, have the highest concentration
of all the samples analyzed. This implies that
DDT is much in use as an insecticide to control
pest, which is also very toxic to human system,
if consumed. Endosulfan is the second common
pesticides dictated in these areas studied, though not
much in concentration, its presence in the locally
brewed alcohol is a threat to the consumers. The
level of concentration for lindane seems to be at the
trace levels in all the Burkutu, produced in these
locations. Hence, there is need for orientation and
awareness to the consumers as to reduce the level
of accumulation in the human system. As at the
time of this study there was no sufficient available
literatures or for the control of pesticides residues
in Burkutu, therefore a persistent environmental
pollutants; quick fact provides us with information
about whether the substance should be consumed
or not.As at the time of this study there was no
sufficient available literatures or for the control of
pesticides residues in Burkutu, therefore a persistent
environmental pollutants. These factors mentioned
couldleadtothepresenceofthepesticidesanalyzed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author gladly appreciates the contribution of
each and every scientist, leading to the success of
this work.
CONCLUSIONS
This research work is limited only to the
determination of the concentration of persistent
pollutant in the locally brewed alcohol which is
the final product, ready for consumption obtained
from brewing sorghum. Therefore, the results
of this research work reveals the presence of
persistent pollutants in all the Burkutu obtained
from all the selected areas considered for this
study for the production of the local brews could
Figure 5: Levels of pesticide residues in Burkutu obtained
from Numan sampled area
7. Oliver, et al.: Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in
Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
AJMS/Jan-Feb-2018/Vol 2/Issue 2 17
be as a result of the source of water used for the
local brews; and the containers, drums, calabash
used for the local brews which change color
with time serves as a breeding site for microbial
activities and later dissolves into the beer, most
have relatively accumulate and been the cause of
this persistent pollutants which is present in the
local brews. Furthermore, some may be attributed
to the agricultural activities, the soil texture,
agrochemicals used on farms, pesticides used
on farm produce during storage, mineralogical
content of the study areas, and environmental
factors. The potential for its presence in the
Burkutu is a serious health risk, which is alarming
and depicts a threat to the public health.
Therefore, based on the findings of the study, the
following conclusions were made:
i. The result of the analysis showed the
presence of all the pesticide residues and
their concentrations which make the Burkutu
obtained from the five locations studied unfit
for consumption because none of the pesticide
residues is recommended for consumption.
ii. The result for pesticide residues showed
that pp-DDT and op- DDT were abundant in
Song Local Government Area compared to
the samples obtained in the other four Local
Government Areas studied.
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Figure 6: Levels of pesticide residues from Burkutu obtained in Ganye sampled area
8. Oliver, et al.: Determination of the Concentrations of Some Persistent Pollutants in Locally Brewed Alcohol (Burkutu) in
Some Selected Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
AJMS/Jan-Feb-2018/Vol 2/Issue 2 18
Appendix 2: Results of t‑test for pesticide residues in
Song L.G.A
Pesticides Mean±SD Significant difference
pp‑DDT 4.1825±0.60582 0.001
op‑DDT 3.8320±0.51153 0.001
Endosulfan 2.3070±0.37555 0.001
Lindane 2.1510±0.07508 0.000
DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan, SD: Standard deviation
Appendix 3: Result of t‑test for pesticide residues in
Yola‑North L.G.A
Pesticides Mean±SD Significant difference
pp‑DDT 0.5028±0.26611 0.032
op‑DDT 0.9883±0.43104 0.019
Endosulfan 0.3963±0.09407 0.004
Lindane 0.6100±0.51166 0.097
DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan, SD: Standard deviation
Appendix 1: Results of t‑test for pesticide residues in
Hong L.G.A
Pesticides Mean ± SD Significant difference
pp‑DDT 2.6783±0.58259 0.003
op‑DDT 2.9588±1.20248 0.016
Endosulfan 2.0010±0.52996 0.005
Lindane 0.4088±0.24216 0.043
DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan, SD: Standard deviation
Appendix 4: Results of t‑test for pesticide residues in
Numan L.G.A
Pesticides Mean±SD Significant difference
pp‑DDT 0.1750±0.10696 0.047
op‑DDT 0.5832±0.40735 0.064
Endosulfan 1.8745±0.89517 0.025
Lindane 0.2058±0.13788 0.058
DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan, SD: Standard deviation
Appendix 5: Results of t‑test for pesticide residues in
Ganye L.G.A.
Pesticides Mean±SD Significant difference
pp‑DDT 3.1110±0.70801 0.003
op‑DDT 2.8335±0.97927 0.010
Endosulfan 0.5888±0.76888 0.223
Lindane 1.1650±0.66766 0.040
DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan, SD: Standard deviation
Appendixes