This document discusses techniques for defluoridation or removing excess fluoride from drinking water. It begins by explaining the health risks of both inadequate and excessive fluoride intake. The main techniques discussed are adsorption using materials like activated alumina or bone char, ion exchange using resins, precipitation using chemicals like those in the Nalgonda technique, and other methods like reverse osmosis or electrolysis. The Nalgonda technique, which involves adding alum, lime and bleach to precipitate fluoride, is highlighted as being effective, simple and economical for community water supplies in India. Maintenance and modifications to the techniques are also reviewed.

1. DEFLUORIDATION TECHNIQUES
BY: TAUFIQUE ANWER

2. Introduction
 Fluoride is often described as a „double-edged sword‟
 As inadequate ingestion is associated with dental caries.
 Where as excessive intake leads to dental, skeletal and soft
tissue fluorosis- which has no cure.

3.  The 1984 WHO guidelines suggested that in areas with a
warm climate the optimal fluoride concentration in
drinking water should remain below 1 mg/l (1ppm or part
per million), while in cooler climates it could go up to 1.2
mg/l.
 Optimum fluoride concentration in drinking water may be
defined as “the one that can arrest the prevalence of
dental caries sans causing a insignificant amount of
fluorosis”

4.  The concentration of fluoride in water is directly
proportional to the degree of fluorosis.
 Enamel mottling is widespread in area with water having
fluoride content of 3 ppm.
 Mottling with discrete pitting of enamel was noticed at
fluoride levels of 4 ppm.
 Mottling is less in case of fluoride levels of 2.5 ppm to 3
ppm with a dull, chalky, white appearance of teeth.
 No motteling or any enamel changes where observed in area
with water containing 1 ppm fluoride.

5. Fluoride level in geographical areas
 The total number of people affected is not known, but a
conservative estimate by UNICEF would number in the
tens of millions
 The highest fluoride concentration ever found in natural
water was 2800 mg/l, recorded in Lake Nakuru in the Rift
valley in Kenya
 15 of India's 32 states and union territories were
identified by UNICEF as endemic for fluorosis

6.  The main fluoride bearing areas are Gujrat,Rajasthan,Andrha
Pradesh where about 50 to 100% of districts are affected.

7. Methods of defluoridation
 Providing water, with optimal fluoride concentration is
the only way by which the generation yet to be born can
be totally protected against the disease
 It can be achieved by the following methods:
 Removal of fluoride from water (defluoridation), using
suitable techniques.
 Locating alternative sources of safe water.
 Bringing in water from a distant, safe source.

8. Defluoridation Techniques.
 Defluoridation was the conventional and widely tested method
for supplying safe water to the fluorosis affected communities.
 Defluoridation is defined as, „the downward adjustment of
level of fluoride in drinking water to the optimal level‟
 Defluoridation techniques can be broadly classified in to four
categories:
 Adsorption technique
 Ion-exchange technique
 Precipitation technique
 Other techniques, which include electro chemical
defluoridation and Reverse Osmosis.

9. Adsorption technique of defluoridation
 This technique functions on the adsorption of fluoride ions onto
the surface of an active agent.
 Activated alumina, activated carbon and bone char were
among the highly tested adsorbing agents.
 Activated Alumina
 Application of domestic defluoridation plant, based on
activated alumina, was launched by UNICEF in rural India
 The disadvantages with activated alumina are; Adsorption of
fluoride is possible only at specific pH range, needing pre-
and post- pH adjustment of water.
 Frequent activation of Alumina is needed, which make the
technique expensive.

10.  Bone char
 the process of Defluoridation by bone char as the ion
exchange and adsorption between fluoride in the
solution.
 The efficacy of the plant depends upon temperature
and pH of raw water; duration for which the bone-char
is in contact with raw water.
 It is a highly economic technique with a defluoridation
percentage of 62 to 66

11.  Disadvantage :
 The bone char harbors bacteria and hence
unhygienic.
 It is a technique sensitive procedure,
 he use of bone-char may invite cultural and religious
objections

12.  Brick pieces column
 The basic principle of functioning of Brick piece column is
the same as that of activated alumina.
 The soil used for brick manufacturing contains Aluminium
oxide.
 Mud pot
 The fluoride removal capacity will vary with respect to
the alumina content
 The major advantages of mud pots are they are economic
and readily acceptable for the rural communities .

13.  Natural adsorbents
 Many natural adsorbents from various trees were tried
as defluoridation agents.
 Seeds of the Drumstick tree, roots of Vetiver grass and
Tamarind seeds were few among them.
 Researchers at “M. S. Swaminathan Research
Foundation‟ (MSSRF) had shown drumstick seeds to
have remarkable defluoridation efficiency, which was
higher than that of activated alumina.

14. Defluoridation by Ion-Exchange
technique
 Synthetic chemicals, namely, anion and cation exchange
resins have been used for fluoride removal.
 These are commercially produced resins which are expensive
and uneconomical in most circumstances
a) Carbion :it is a cation exchange resin of good durability and can be
used on sodium and hydrogen cycle.

15. b) defluoron 1:a sulphonated saw dust impregnated with 2% alum
solution.
c) Defluoron 2: this was developed in 1968 to over come the
problem of defluoron 1. it is a sulphonated coal using aluminium
solution at regenerant.

16. Defluoridation by Precipitation
technique
 The two major drawbacks of Ion-exchange and
adsorption techniques are:
 The necessary flow through system is often difficult
to arrange where there is no piped water supply
 gradual exhaustion of the active agent is not easily
detected.

17.  Precipitation methods are based on the addition of
chemicals (coagulants and coagulant aids) and the
subsequent precipitation of a sparingly soluble fluoride
salt as insoluble fluorapatite
 The best example for this technique is the famous
Nalgonda technique of defluoridation.

18. Nalgonda technique
 National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
(NEERI), Nagpur has evolved an economical and simple
method for removal of fluoride which is referred to as
„Nalgonda Technique‟ (Nawlakhe et al 1974).
 The process comprises addition in sequence of sodium
aluminate (filter alum), lime and bleaching powder to the
fluoride water followed by flocculation, sedimentation and
filtration.
 This technique is extremely useful for both domestic as
well as for community water supply.

20. Mechanism
 The unit holds 22 litres of water, which is filled into the
upper chamber.
 Rapid mix:
 Rapid mixing is an operation by which the coagulant is
rapidly and uniformly dispersed through out a single or
multiple phase system.
 It is rapidly mixed for a period of 30 to 60 sec with speed of
10 to 20 rpm so that the coagulant is rapidly and uniformly
dispersed.
 This help in the formation of micro flocs and result in proper
utilization of chemical coagulant.

21.  Flocculation :
 It is the 2nd stage of the formation of suitable
particles(flocs) from destabilized colloidal size
particles.
 It is achieved by gentle and prolonged mixing for a
period of 10 to 15 min with the speed of 2 to 4 rpm.

22.  Sedimentation :
 It is the separation from the water by gravitational
setting of suspended particles that are heavier than
water.
 Factors that affect sedimentation are:
a) Size,shape,density and nature of particles
b) Viscosity,density and temperature of water.
c) Surface over flow rate.
d) Velocity of flow.
e) Effective depth of settling zone.

23.  Filtration:
 It is the process of separating suspended and colloidal
impurities from water by passes through a porous
media.
 The flocculated water is allowed to settle and filter
through fullers earth candle overnight.
 Treated water will be available for drinking and
cooking with desire level of fluoride.

24. Maintenance of Nalgonda filters
 The package plant installed on hand pump scheme costing
Rs 1.6 lakh to serve 250 population.
 To serve population of 250, 50 stainless steel filters are
required and the cost of 50 filters is approx. Rs 35000.
 The main advantage will be its low cost of investment and
low cost of maintainence.

25. Advantages of Nalgonda technique
 Regeneration of media is not required.
 No handling of caustic acids and alkalies.
 The chemicals required are readily available and are used
in conventional municipal water treatment.
 Adaptable to domestic use.
 Economical
 Simplicity of design ,construction,operation and
maintainence.

26.  Can be used to treat water in large quantities for community
usage.
 Highly efficient removal of fluorides from high levels to
desirable levels.
 Little wastage of water and least disposal problem.
 Needs mimimum of mechanical and electrical equipment.
 No energy except muscles power for domestic equipment.
 Local semi-skilled workers can be readily employed.
 Simplicity of design, construction, operation and
maintenance.

27.  Simultaneous removal of color, odor, turbidity, bacteria
and organic contaminants.
 Normally, associated alkalinity ensures fluoride removal
efficiency.
 Provides de-fluoridated water of uniform acceptable
quality.

28. Disadvantages of Nalgonda technique
 Desalination may be necessary when the total dissolved
solids exceed 1500 mg/l.
 Hardness of the raw water in the range of 200 mg/l to 600
mg/l requires precipitation softening and beyond 600 mg/l
becomes a cause for rejection or adoption of desalination.
 Generation of higher quantity of sludge compared to
electrochemical defluoridation

29.  The large amount of alum needed to remove fluoride.
 Careful pH control of treated water is required.
 High residual aluminium is reported in treated water by
some authors.

30. Indications of Nalgonda technique
 Absence of acceptable, alternate low fluoride source
within transportable distance.
 Total dissolved solids below 1500 mg/l.
 Total hardness is below 600 mg/l.
 Raw water fluorides ranging from 1.5 - 20 mgF/l.

31. Modifications for Nalgonda technique.
 Poly Aluminium Chloride:
 It is evident that for higher concentrations of fluoride,
the removal efficiency of fluoride is higher with Poly
Aluminium Chloride (PAC) when compared with Alum.
 Poly Aluminium Hydroxy Sulphate(PAHS):
 A polymeric aluminum compound, poly-aluminium-
hydroxy-sulphate(PAHS) is found to require less
flocculation time and settling time.

32. Other techniques of defluoridation
 Reverse osmosis, electrolysis and electro dialysis are
physical methods that are tested for defluoridation of
water.
 Though they are effective in removing fluoride salts from
water, there are certain disadvantages that limit their
usage on a large scale.

33.  Reverse Osmosis and Electro dialysis:
 In reverse osmosis, the hydraulic pressure is exerted on
one side of the semi permeable membrane which forces
the water across the membrane leaving the salts behind.
 In electro dialysis, the membranes allow the ions to pass
but not the water. The driving force is an electric current
which carries the ions through the membranes
 Electro dialysis is highly energy intensive and expensive.
Both processes are very complicated

34.  Defluoridation by electrolysis:
 The basic principle of the process is the adsorption of
fluoride with freshly precipitated aluminum hydroxide,
which is generated by the anodic dissolution of
aluminum or its alloys in an electro chemical cell.
 Advantages :
 Does not require addition of chemicals.
 No need to pre & post-treatments .
 Low volume of sludge.

35.  Units can be designed for any capacity.
 Units are designed for specific locations & fluoride content of
water. But can be operated with varying fluoride
concentrations by slightly altering the operating parameters.
 The electrochemical reactor occupies less floor space.
 Operator friendly
 Requires less electric energy (0.3 to 0.6kwh/1000 lts)

36. Conclusion:
 Fluorosis is an important public health problem in India.
 Drinking water is the main source of ingestion of fluoride.
 There is no cure to the disease and prevention is the only
solution.
 Nalgonda technique is the most suitable technique for
Indian rural communities.

37.  Communities should be educated and encouraged to
actively participate in the procedure.
 Suitable technique for the community should be
identified.
 Priority should be given to techniques, which utilize
locally available materials as defluoridation agents.

38. Thank You