IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Nowadays the concept of Net ZEB is well-known
and widespread in the scientific community. The European
Union has set ambitious targets for 2020 and even more
ambitious for 2050. In order to reduce the domestic GHG
emissions by 80-95%, compared to 1990 levels- till 2050, the
building sector has to do its part and to pass through a deep
restructure. Therefore, it is grown the interest in design and
technical solutions for achieving a zero or nearly zero energy
building. This paper investigate several construction technologies
and system of energy production that can be adopted to build an
“enhanced saving” (parsimonious) building, which can strive for
the objective of NetZEB. Moreover the economic analysis of the
feasibility of the NZEB target has been developed.
Types of embodied energy· Initial embodied energy; and· Recurring embodied energy
The initial embodied energy in buildings represents the non-renewable energy consumed in the acquisition of raw materials, their processing, manufacturing, transportation to site, and construction. This initial embodied energy has two components:Direct energy the energy used to transport building products to the site, and then to construct the building; andIndirect energy the energy used to acquire, process, and manufacture the building materials, including any transportation related to these activities.
Influence of Glazed Façades on Energy Consumption for Air Conditioning of Off...IJERA Editor
The energy performance of buildings is defined by their electrical systems and thermal exchanges through the envelope, mainly by glazing systems. This study evaluates, through computer simulation, the influence of glazing façades in the energy consumption of the air conditioning system of an office building in five Brazilian cities with different climate conditions. A computer model was developed to analyze the influence of windowto-wall ratio, type of glass and façade configuration in the energy need for air conditioning. The results show that the energy performance of the building is highly influenced by the configurations of the façade, mainly by glazed elements. In cold climates, high thermal transmittance of the envelope helps the dissipation of internal heat gains, reducing energy consumption for air conditioning. In this case, the use of insulated glass unit can be unhelpful. Furthermore, the opening area causes energy consumption variation up to 27.5% depending on climate and type of glass. But the use of a high selective glazing system can decrease the energy need for cooling when the window area is increased.
Nowadays the concept of Net ZEB is well-known
and widespread in the scientific community. The European
Union has set ambitious targets for 2020 and even more
ambitious for 2050. In order to reduce the domestic GHG
emissions by 80-95%, compared to 1990 levels- till 2050, the
building sector has to do its part and to pass through a deep
restructure. Therefore, it is grown the interest in design and
technical solutions for achieving a zero or nearly zero energy
building. This paper investigate several construction technologies
and system of energy production that can be adopted to build an
“enhanced saving” (parsimonious) building, which can strive for
the objective of NetZEB. Moreover the economic analysis of the
feasibility of the NZEB target has been developed.
Types of embodied energy· Initial embodied energy; and· Recurring embodied energy
The initial embodied energy in buildings represents the non-renewable energy consumed in the acquisition of raw materials, their processing, manufacturing, transportation to site, and construction. This initial embodied energy has two components:Direct energy the energy used to transport building products to the site, and then to construct the building; andIndirect energy the energy used to acquire, process, and manufacture the building materials, including any transportation related to these activities.
Influence of Glazed Façades on Energy Consumption for Air Conditioning of Off...IJERA Editor
The energy performance of buildings is defined by their electrical systems and thermal exchanges through the envelope, mainly by glazing systems. This study evaluates, through computer simulation, the influence of glazing façades in the energy consumption of the air conditioning system of an office building in five Brazilian cities with different climate conditions. A computer model was developed to analyze the influence of windowto-wall ratio, type of glass and façade configuration in the energy need for air conditioning. The results show that the energy performance of the building is highly influenced by the configurations of the façade, mainly by glazed elements. In cold climates, high thermal transmittance of the envelope helps the dissipation of internal heat gains, reducing energy consumption for air conditioning. In this case, the use of insulated glass unit can be unhelpful. Furthermore, the opening area causes energy consumption variation up to 27.5% depending on climate and type of glass. But the use of a high selective glazing system can decrease the energy need for cooling when the window area is increased.
Proper ventilation in one of the primary requirements of any domestic or commercial buildings. The conventional method employs usage of air conditioning or air cooling systems which requires high power consumption. The solar driven ventilation systems can be used in buildings which doesn’t require any external power. The current research reviews various researches conducted in improving system of passive ventilation along use of phase change material as energy storage system. Passive design of buildings does not use the electrical and mechanical systems in providing comfortable indoor environment. Prem Shankar Sahu | Praveen Kumar | Ajay Singh Paikra "Review on Solar Chimney Ventilation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42427.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comengineering/mechanical-engineering/42427/review-on-solar-chimney-ventilation/prem-shankar-sahu
Since the 1970s, energy efficiency in buildings has primarily focused on reducing operational energy. However, as buildings become more efficient, embodied energy becomes increasingly significant. With the rise in green building programs, architects and engineers are giving more attention to ways that reduce embodied energy. This paper presents opportunities to address embodied energy in buildings.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system have recently drawn interest and have demonstrated high potential to assist building owners supply both thermal and electrical loads. In this paper, the BIPV technology has been reviewed, in terms of its performance, efficiency and power generation capacity. Specifically, the applications of the BIPV in tropical climate regions have been discussed, together with its prospects and challenges. For these schemes to be implemented in a tropical climatic region, the following issues must be considered: 1) Certain studies must be done relating to electrical load demand, predicted PV output, location of the buildings and its integration and constraints associated with roof design; 2) For the highest energy production from solar PV, the solar collectors need to be with the right tilt depending on the location; 3) Design criteria such as safety, efficiency, durability, flexibility and constructive issues need to be considered; 4) The government of such countries must train electricians and carpenters on PV installations; 5) The BIPV roofing must perform same function as normal roofing materials, such as noise protection, water tightness, insulation and climate protection, and 6) As practiced around the world, these countries must establish design standards for the BIPV.
For those in San Antonio, installing window film is top of the mind in spring, since the days of excessive cooling bills are right around the corner. Read more here:https://www.scottishwindowtinting.com/san-antonio-window-film/reduced-energy-cost-in-san-antonio/
Sustainable Energy Resource Buildings: Some Relevant Feautures for Built Envi...IJERA Editor
Energy has become a critical issue in national and global economic development. Its crucial importance to the nation’s building makes the development of energy resources one of the leading agenda of the present democratic government of Nigeria, towards lifting the nation to the comity of twenty (20) nations with the fastest growing economy in 2020. In achieving this, the building industry and in particular the architectural profession has a leading role to play in adopting education, designs, materials, and technology capable of reducing energy consumption in building within tropic region. This paper, therefore, appraises the important features of energy performance building through the use of sustainable innovative materials and technology that respond to climate condition while being environmentally friendly.
Proper ventilation in one of the primary requirements of any domestic or commercial buildings. The conventional method employs usage of air conditioning or air cooling systems which requires high power consumption. The solar driven ventilation systems can be used in buildings which doesn’t require any external power. The current research reviews various researches conducted in improving system of passive ventilation along use of phase change material as energy storage system. Passive design of buildings does not use the electrical and mechanical systems in providing comfortable indoor environment. Prem Shankar Sahu | Praveen Kumar | Ajay Singh Paikra "Review on Solar Chimney Ventilation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42427.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comengineering/mechanical-engineering/42427/review-on-solar-chimney-ventilation/prem-shankar-sahu
Since the 1970s, energy efficiency in buildings has primarily focused on reducing operational energy. However, as buildings become more efficient, embodied energy becomes increasingly significant. With the rise in green building programs, architects and engineers are giving more attention to ways that reduce embodied energy. This paper presents opportunities to address embodied energy in buildings.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system have recently drawn interest and have demonstrated high potential to assist building owners supply both thermal and electrical loads. In this paper, the BIPV technology has been reviewed, in terms of its performance, efficiency and power generation capacity. Specifically, the applications of the BIPV in tropical climate regions have been discussed, together with its prospects and challenges. For these schemes to be implemented in a tropical climatic region, the following issues must be considered: 1) Certain studies must be done relating to electrical load demand, predicted PV output, location of the buildings and its integration and constraints associated with roof design; 2) For the highest energy production from solar PV, the solar collectors need to be with the right tilt depending on the location; 3) Design criteria such as safety, efficiency, durability, flexibility and constructive issues need to be considered; 4) The government of such countries must train electricians and carpenters on PV installations; 5) The BIPV roofing must perform same function as normal roofing materials, such as noise protection, water tightness, insulation and climate protection, and 6) As practiced around the world, these countries must establish design standards for the BIPV.
For those in San Antonio, installing window film is top of the mind in spring, since the days of excessive cooling bills are right around the corner. Read more here:https://www.scottishwindowtinting.com/san-antonio-window-film/reduced-energy-cost-in-san-antonio/
Sustainable Energy Resource Buildings: Some Relevant Feautures for Built Envi...IJERA Editor
Energy has become a critical issue in national and global economic development. Its crucial importance to the nation’s building makes the development of energy resources one of the leading agenda of the present democratic government of Nigeria, towards lifting the nation to the comity of twenty (20) nations with the fastest growing economy in 2020. In achieving this, the building industry and in particular the architectural profession has a leading role to play in adopting education, designs, materials, and technology capable of reducing energy consumption in building within tropic region. This paper, therefore, appraises the important features of energy performance building through the use of sustainable innovative materials and technology that respond to climate condition while being environmentally friendly.
Reducing the Operational Energy Consumption in Buildings by Passive Cooling T...Saurabh Gupta
This presentation is part of the completion of my minor project in the final year of my B.Tech Civil Engineering course.
This shows the process of BIM (Building Information Modelling) for reducing operational energy consumption in Buildings by creating 3D model in Autodesk Revit and performing energy analysis in Autodesk Insight in terms of EUI (Energy Use Intensity).
Abstract:
Enormous increases in energy consumption, its costs, and significant challenges posed by climate change have inevitably drawn the world’s attention towards the upgradation of energy efficiency and sustainability of buildings. Building Information Modelling (BIM) has been identified as an effective tool used for energy performance analysis of buildings virtually in the design stage. Applying passive techniques provides a promising and cost-efficient solution to reducing the operational energy demand and decreasing environmental impacts during the lifecycle of the building. This study aims to reduce operational energy consumption in buildings by optimizing different passive parameters. For this purpose, 3D modelling of a residential building and a commercial building is performed using Autodesk Revit and energy analysis is performed using Autodesk Insight. In this paper, various passive techniques like Building orientation, Window-Wall Ratio (WWR), Window Shades and Glass types, Wall and Roof construction, with BIM are assessed to investigate the efficient passive cooling measures on residential and commercial buildings according to climatic conditions of New Delhi, India. The results indicate that the annual operational energy consumption can be reduced to 17.4% in residential building and 16% in commercial building by incorporating passive techniques. The findings will be helpful in passive building design and development in India and contribute to further energy reduction and optimization to realize both energy efficiency and favourable building environments and thermal comfort of the occupants.
Energy simulation & analysis of two residential buildingschirag aggarwal
-> Analysed and compared the energy consumption of a residential building modelled using common building materials and specifications used in Delhi for decades to that of modelled by altering the building envelope and the AC system specifications.
-> Used eQUEST software.
Multidisciplinary Journal Supported by TETFund. The journals would publish papers covering a wide range of subjects in journal science, management science, educational, agricultural, architectural, accounting and finance, business administration, entrepreneurship, business education, all journals
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
A Life-cycle Cost-benefit Analysis for Rooftop Photovoltaic Systems in Lightw...IEREK Press
There is a widespread consensus that energy efficiency of buildings is an essential component of sustainable developmentand several kinds of renewable energy technologies have been widely used to achieve this sustainable goal. As a rapidly developing country, China’s manufacturing industry still occupies a prominent position, with a large number of industrial buildingsthat are also a crucial part of urban planning. Compared with multi-story and high-rise commercial buildings, large industrial sheds have a much more usable roof area, where rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems are increasingly used. However, due to the small structural margins of the lightweight steel-structured (LSS) industrial buildings and the large initial investment of the thin-film PV system, few case studies are available for this kind of industrial buildings. In this research, three representative cities in China, with varying levels of solar radiation availability, are selected as typical external design factors. Taking a typical LSS industrial building with an added thin-film rooftop PV system as an example, a life-cycle cost-benefit analysis is conducted from environmental and economic aspects. The results of the analysis demonstrate the effectiveness of the rooftop thin-film PV system as a means to increase the energy efficiency of the LSS industrial buildings.
Comparison of Zero Energy Building from Different Climatespaperpublications3
Abstract: A Zero Energy Building (ZEB) is a residential or commercial building that consumes its required energy from sources that are renewable with less energy consumption through the use of efficient technologies such that the balance of energy needed can be supplied with renewable technologies. In this paper four samples of existing building in two different climates (temperate and tropic) will be examined to explore the strategic differences of zero energy buildings in these climates.
The paper will analyze the zero energy buildings in terms of climatic differences, the strategies used in each of these climates. Four well documented cases studies from two different regions of the world are studied, in terms of their floor types, window systems, façade design and Passive design orientation. The findings from these case studies will be used to identify the large difference between these buildings.
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Le nuove frontiere dell'AI nell'RPA con UiPath Autopilot™UiPathCommunity
In questo evento online gratuito, organizzato dalla Community Italiana di UiPath, potrai esplorare le nuove funzionalità di Autopilot, il tool che integra l'Intelligenza Artificiale nei processi di sviluppo e utilizzo delle Automazioni.
📕 Vedremo insieme alcuni esempi dell'utilizzo di Autopilot in diversi tool della Suite UiPath:
Autopilot per Studio Web
Autopilot per Studio
Autopilot per Apps
Clipboard AI
GenAI applicata alla Document Understanding
👨🏫👨💻 Speakers:
Stefano Negro, UiPath MVPx3, RPA Tech Lead @ BSP Consultant
Flavio Martinelli, UiPath MVP 2023, Technical Account Manager @UiPath
Andrei Tasca, RPA Solutions Team Lead @NTT Data
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
All these questions and more will be explored as we talk about matching clients’ needs with what your agency offers without pulling teeth or pulling your hair out. Practical tips, and strategies for successful relationship building that leads to closing the deal.
Welocme to ViralQR, your best QR code generator.ViralQR
Welcome to ViralQR, your best QR code generator available on the market!
At ViralQR, we design static and dynamic QR codes. Our mission is to make business operations easier and customer engagement more powerful through the use of QR technology. Be it a small-scale business or a huge enterprise, our easy-to-use platform provides multiple choices that can be tailored according to your company's branding and marketing strategies.
Our Vision
We are here to make the process of creating QR codes easy and smooth, thus enhancing customer interaction and making business more fluid. We very strongly believe in the ability of QR codes to change the world for businesses in their interaction with customers and are set on making that technology accessible and usable far and wide.
Our Achievements
Ever since its inception, we have successfully served many clients by offering QR codes in their marketing, service delivery, and collection of feedback across various industries. Our platform has been recognized for its ease of use and amazing features, which helped a business to make QR codes.
Our Services
At ViralQR, here is a comprehensive suite of services that caters to your very needs:
Static QR Codes: Create free static QR codes. These QR codes are able to store significant information such as URLs, vCards, plain text, emails and SMS, Wi-Fi credentials, and Bitcoin addresses.
Dynamic QR codes: These also have all the advanced features but are subscription-based. They can directly link to PDF files, images, micro-landing pages, social accounts, review forms, business pages, and applications. In addition, they can be branded with CTAs, frames, patterns, colors, and logos to enhance your branding.
Pricing and Packages
Additionally, there is a 14-day free offer to ViralQR, which is an exceptional opportunity for new users to take a feel of this platform. One can easily subscribe from there and experience the full dynamic of using QR codes. The subscription plans are not only meant for business; they are priced very flexibly so that literally every business could afford to benefit from our service.
Why choose us?
ViralQR will provide services for marketing, advertising, catering, retail, and the like. The QR codes can be posted on fliers, packaging, merchandise, and banners, as well as to substitute for cash and cards in a restaurant or coffee shop. With QR codes integrated into your business, improve customer engagement and streamline operations.
Comprehensive Analytics
Subscribers of ViralQR receive detailed analytics and tracking tools in light of having a view of the core values of QR code performance. Our analytics dashboard shows aggregate views and unique views, as well as detailed information about each impression, including time, device, browser, and estimated location by city and country.
So, thank you for choosing ViralQR; we have an offer of nothing but the best in terms of QR code services to meet business diversity!
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
SAP Sapphire 2024 - ASUG301 building better apps with SAP Fiori.pdfPeter Spielvogel
Building better applications for business users with SAP Fiori.
• What is SAP Fiori and why it matters to you
• How a better user experience drives measurable business benefits
• How to get started with SAP Fiori today
• How SAP Fiori elements accelerates application development
• How SAP Build Code includes SAP Fiori tools and other generative artificial intelligence capabilities
• How SAP Fiori paves the way for using AI in SAP apps
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Secstrike : Reverse Engineering & Pwnable tools for CTF.pptx
De32662675
1. Sunil Kumar Sharma / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 2, March -April 2013, pp.662-675
Zero Energy Building Envelope Components: A Review
Sunil Kumar Sharma
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Shri Ram Swaroop Memorial University Lucknow (U.P), India
Abstract
With some recent developments, the zero traditional insulation materials in ever increasing
energy building and near zero energy building thicknesses in the building envelopes (Bjorn ,2011).
has gained a worldwide attention and now it is
seen as the future building concept. Since such Building energy efficiency can be
buildings are now the center of attraction, improved by implementing either active or passive
various advancements in this area are being energy efficient strategies. Improvements to heating,
reported. This paper is a detailed review of the ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems,
literature on the zero (or near zero) energy electrical lighting, etc. can be categorized as active
building (ZEB) envelope components. The paper strategies, whereas, improvements to building
provides a detailed overview of the zero energy envelope elements can be classified under passive
building envelope components along with the strategies. Recent years have seen a renewed interest
possible developments in the future for the in environmental-friendly passive building energy
benefit of the building designers and efficiency strategies. They are being envisioned as a
constructors. It strives to provide the state of the viable solution to the problems of energy crisis and
art on the various building envelope components environmental pollution. A building envelope is
such as insulation materials, future insulation what separates the indoor and outdoor environments
materials, walls, roofs, windows, doors and of a building.
glazing from the prospects of energy efficiency.
Photovoltaic integration with the building It is the key factor that determines the
envelope is also discussed for on-site power quality and controls the indoor conditions
generation to meet the operational energy irrespective of transient outdoor conditions. Various
demand so as to achieve the goal of Zero Energy components such as walls, fenestration, roof,
Building. foundation, thermal insulation, thermal mass,
external shading devices etc. make up this important
Keywords: Zero energy building, Net zero energy part of any building. Several researchers around the
building, Insulation materials, Building envelope. world carried out studies on improvements in the
building envelope and their impact on building
energy usage. Energy savings of 31.4% and peak
1. Introduction
load savings of 36.8% from the base case were
The building industry and scientific
recorded for high-rise apartments in the hot and
communities across the world have identified the
humid climate of Hong Kong by implementing
importance and need for energy efficiency in the
passive energy efficient strategies. The strategies
buildings, and initiated significant efforts in this
include adding extruded polystyrene (EPS) thermal
direction. So far, the WGBC (World Green Building
insulation in walls, white washing external walls,
Council) has involved 82 nations all across the
reflective coated glass window glazing, 1.5 m
globe in taking up green building initiatives to some
overhangs and wing wall to all windows (Cheung et
degree. LEED (Leadership in Energy and
al., 2005). In a different study, the thermal and heat
Environmental Design), an internationally
transfer performance of a building envelope in sub-
recognized green building certification system, also
tropical climatic conditions of Hong Kong was
identifies energy efficiency as an important attribute
studied using the DOE-2 building energy simulation
of green buildings (Suresh et al., 2011).As the
tool. An energy effective building envelope design
energy use in the building sector accounts for a
saved as much as 35% and 47% of total and peak
significant part of the world’s total energy use and
cooling demands respectively (Chan & Chow,
greenhouse gas emissions, there is a demand to
1998). In Greece, thermal insulation (in walls, roof
improve the energy efficiency of buildings. In order
and floor) and low infiltration strategies reduced
to meet the demands of improved energy efficiency,
energy consumption by 20–40% and 20%
the thermal insulation of buildings plays an
respectively. According to the same study, external
important role. To achieve the highest possible
shadings (e.g. awnings) and light-colored roof and
thermal insulation resistance, new insulation
external walls reduced the space cooling load by
materials and solutions with low thermal
30% and 2–4%, respectively (Balaras et al., 2000).
conductivity values have been and are being
Several numerical studies were also carried out on
developed, in addition to using the current
662 | P a g e
2. Sunil Kumar Sharma / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 2, March -April 2013, pp.662-675
building envelopes and individual building envelope Zerkem& Bilgen., 1986; Ji et al., 2009; Zerkem&
components. A detailed model of transient heat Bilgen., 1986; Jie et al., 2007). This design
transfer through a typical building envelope improved the operating efficiency of the classical
developed by Price et al. (Price & Smith, 1995) Trombe wall by 56% (Ji et al., 2009).
takes into account the convection and thermal
radiation heat exchange at the interior and exterior
surfaces of the building.
Today, buildings worldwide account for up
to 40% of total end-use energy. There is over 50%
saving potential in the building sector and thus it is
considered as a potential sector to meet the
challenges of global energy and climate change. The
building sector is a driver of the world economy.
According to a report by McGraw-Hill
Construction, the green building market in both the
residential and non-residential sectors was predicted Fig 1: Passive Solar Walls
to increase from $36 bn in 2009 to $60 bn in 2010
and in a range of $96-$140 bn by 2013. There is a Phase change material (PCM) based Trombe walls
significant opportunity for those entering this have been reviewed (Tyagi & Buddhi, 2007). A
market (McGraw-Hill Construction, 2008; Zhang & Transwall (as shown in Fig. 2) is a transparent
Cooke, 2010). Hence it is very important for the modular wall that provides both heating and
zero energy, net zero energy, passive housings and illumination of the dwelling space. Fig. 6 A cross-
eco friendly building concepts to be implemented. sectional view of Transwall system with part detail
This paper has presented a detail review on the zero (Nayak, 1987).
energy building envelope components. Apart from
the previously used envelope future building
envelope components are also reviewed.
2. Walls
Walls are a predominant fraction of a
building envelope and are expected to provide
thermal and acoustic comfort within a building,
without compromising the aesthetics of the building.
The thermal resistance (R-value) of the wall is
crucial as it influences the building energy Fig 2: Trombe Wall
consumption heavily, especially, in high rise
buildings where the ratio between wall and total
envelope area is high. The market available center- 2.2 Walls with latent heat storage
of-cavity R-values and clear wall R-values consider The phase change material (PCM) is
the effect of thermal insulation. However, the incorporated in light weight wall structures to
influence of framing factor and interface enhance the thermal storage capacity. PCM material
connections is not taken into consideration is impregnated commonly in gypsum or concrete
(Christian &Konsy, 2006). Walls with thermal walls. Porous material such as plasterboard has
insulation have a higher chance of surface (Aelenei better PCM impregnation potential than pumice
& Henriques, 2008). Conventionally, based on the concrete blocks. The microencapsulation of PCM
materials used in construction, walls can be material in wall construction material has allowed
classified as wood-based walls, metal-based walls this PCM weight ratio to about 30% in gypsum.
and masonry-based walls (Sadineni et al., 2011). Recent years have seen the advent of composite
materials that can encapsulate PCM up to 60% by
2.1 Passive solar walls weight. Athienitis et al. (Athienitis et al., 1997)
Typically used in cold climates, the walls compared PCM based and non-PCM based gypsum
that trap and transmit the solar energy efficiently board for inside wall lining and concluded that the
into the building are called passive solar walls (as PCM based wall lining lowered the maximum room
shown in fig.1). A glazing is used as an outer temperature by 4 ◦C and reduces the heating demand
covering of the wall to provide the greenhouse during night (Kuznik &Virgone ,2009).
effect. Several developments resulted from the basic
designs of classical Trombe wall and composite
Trombe–Michell wall (Zalewski et al., 1997; sharma
et al., 1989; zalewski et al., 2002; Ji et al., 2009;
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2.3 T-MASS Walls:
Thermal mass walls consist of 4 inches of
concrete facing the interior, 2 inches of concrete on
the exterior and 2 inches of Styrofoam extruded
polystyrene board insulation sandwiched in
between. Fiber composite connectors, spaced 16
inches on center, hold the assembly together. These
plastic connectors are one of the keys to the energy
efficiency of the T-Mass walls, says John Gajda of Panel Type Mini planter Cage SystemBox
Construction Technologies Laboratory. "Others Fig 5: Various Green Wall Structures
systems use steel connectors, which readily conduct
heat. Steel connectors greatly reduce the R-value 1. Roofs
and reduce the energy efficiency of the walls." Roofs are a critical part of the building
Thermal mass walls come in two forms: precast and envelopes that are highly susceptible to solar
poured. Precast panels are manufactured at a plant radiation and other environmental changes, thereby,
and delivered to the job site (Foss Asa 2005). influencing the indoor comfort conditions for the
occupants. Roofs account for large amounts of heat
2.4 Riverdale NetZero Deep Wall System gain/loss, especially, in buildings with large roof
The Riverdale NetZero DWS is a double- area such as sports complexes, auditoriums,
stud wall system forming a 406 mm (16 in.) cavity exhibition halls etc. In accordance with the UK
that is filled with blown-in cellulose insulation to building regulations, the upper limits of U-value for
achieve an impressive insulation value of RSI-9.9 flat roofs in 1965, 1976 and 1985 were 1.42 W/m2
(R-56). The wall has the following composition, as K, 0.6 W/m2 K and 0.35 W/m2 K, respectively.
detailed in (fig.4) (Equilibrium TM housing in sight Currently, 0.25 W/m2 K or less is required for all
2010). new buildings in the UK (Grffin et al., 2005)]. This
reduction in the U-value over the years emphasizes
the significance of thermal performance of roofs in
the effort to increase the overall thermal
performance of buildings. This section provides a
number of highly efficient roofs for zero energy
building design:
3.1 Lightweight roofs
Lightweight aluminum standing seam
roofing systems (LASRS) are popularly used on
commercial and government buildings as they are
Fig 4: Cross-Section of Riverdale NetZero Deep economical. Two easy ways to improve thermal
Wall System characteristics of these roofs are by adding thermal
insulation and using light colored roof paint. It was
2.5 Green Walls: determined that the lighter colored surfaces such as
Greenery helps to reduce heat white, off-white, brown and green yielded 9.3%,
transmittance into a building through direct shading 8.8%, 2.5% and 1.3% reduction in cooling loads
and evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration refers to compared to an black-painted LASRS surface . (Han
the movement of water to the air (evaporation) and et al 2009) Recent investigations have revealed that
the movement of water within a plant and the the LASRS with glass fiber insulation does not suit
subsequent loss of water as vapour through its well for hot and humid climates due to the
leaves (transpiration). The intent of installing interstitial condensation in the glass fiber layer.
vertical greenery is to study the effectiveness of Alternative thermal insulation materials such as
these systems on reducing the heat transfer through polyurethane, polystyrene or a combination of these
building walls into the interior building space and have been evaluated (Han et al 2009).
the possible energy savings. The three types of
vertical system being tested in ZEB are (Greenest 3.2 Solar-reflective/cool roofs
Building Singapore, 2012) as shown in the fig. 5 Solar-reflective roofs or cool roofs are high
1. Panel type solar reflectance and high infrared emittanceroofs(
2. Mini planter box Fig 6). They maintain lower roof surface
3. Cage system. temperature and inhibit the heat conduction into the
building. Two surface properties that affect the
thermal performance of these roof surfaces are solar
reflectance (SR) (reflectivity or albedo) and infrared
emittance (or emissivity). Special roof coatings can
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raise the infrared emittance of bare metal roofs (Liu green roofs in UK have been evaluated (Balararas,
,2006).To find the influence of highly reflective 1996).
roofs on cooling and peak load variations, six
different types of buildings were retrofitted with 3.4 Photovoltaic roofs
high reflectance white coatings or white PVC There have been significant efforts in
single-ply membrane at three different geographical recent years in integrating photovoltaic’s (PV) into
sites in California (USA) (Akbari et al .,2005). building envelope. PV roof tiles replace roofing
material and are installed directly on to the roof
structure (Fig 8). Ceramic tiles or fiber-cement roof
slates have crystalline silicon solar cells glued
directly on them. Another type of roof-integrated
system has a PV element (glass-glass laminate)
positioned in a plastic supporting tray anchored to
the roof (Bahaj, 2003).
Fig 6: Working of Solar reflective roofs
3.3 Green roofs
A building roof that is either fully or partly
covered with a layer of vegetation is called a green
roof. It is a layered composite system consisting of a
waterproofing membrane, growing medium and the
vegetation layer itself. Often, green roofs also
include a root barrier layer, drainage layer and,
where the climate demands, an irrigation system. Fig 8: Photovoltaic Roof System
There are two types of green roofs: intensive and
extensive, the former has a deeper substrate layer 3.5 Roof Vents
and allows to cultivate deep rooting plants such as When assessing a desired roof type one has
shrubs and trees; while the latter with thinner to keep in mind underlying requirements such as
substrate layer allows to grow low level planting roof vents (fig.10). The selection of a roof vent will
such as lawn or sedum (Fig.7) (Castleton et al., depend on its intended function and the type of
(2010). ventilation system it is paired with. Roof vents help
prevent the build-up of moisture and heat. Extra heat
in the attic will cause an increase in cooling costs.
Residential vent types can include the Ridge vent,
Dormer vent, Roof Louver vent, and the Passive
vent (Roof types ,2012).
Fig 7: Green roof
A green roof system incurs higher annual
savings when installed on a poorly insulated roof Fig 10: Roof Vents
rather than a well-insulated roof. The moisture
content in growing media of the green roof 3.6 Rubber Roofs
influences its insulating properties. A 100 mm Rubber roofing is something that has
increase in the thickness of dry clay soil led to an gained popularity in the modern era with the
increase in resistance by 0.4 m2K/W, whereas for development of a variety of rubber materials.
40% moisture clay soil the increase was only 0.063 Rubber roofing is usually made of EPDM (ethylene
m2K/W (Wong et al., 2003). The wetter the propylenediene Monomer) rubber (fig.11). It can be
medium, the poorer the insulating behavior applied as roofing in large sheets or as rubber
compared to the dry growing media (Gaffin et al., shingles advantages of rubber roofing include very
2005). Therefore, green roofs reflect solar radiation good resistance to weathering, abrasion, heat and
more efficiently than most conventional roofs. The ozone. It also has flexibility with large temperature
building energy savings and the retrofit potential of
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changes. The energy efficiencies associated with indices and how to specify the parameters of
rubber roofing coupled with its highly recyclable interest. The parameters in (Table 1) are of interest
nature make it a leading environmentally friendly in window performance. They are quantifiable, and
roofing material. It does not pollute run off they can be specified in accordance with existing
rainwater making the water usable if collected with standard procedures ( McGowaon Alex).
a suitable rainwater harvesting system (Roof types,
2012).
Table 1 Windows Performance Parameters
U-Factor Colour /
Esthetics
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient Visible
Light Transmission
Air Leakage Sound
Transmission
Water Tightness Impact
Fig 11: Rubber Roof Structure Resistance
Wind Loading Fire
2. Windows and Doors: Resistance
Fenestration refers to openings in a Condensation
building envelope that are primarily windows and
doors. The fenestration plays a vital role in
providing thermal comfort and optimum
illumination levels in a building. They are also
important from an architectural standpoint in adding
aesthetics to the building design. In recent years,
there have been significant advances in glazing Fig 12: Windows Performance Parameters
technologies. These technologies include solar
control glasses, insulating glass units, low 4.1.2 Types of Glazing Materials:
emissivity (low-e) coatings, evacuated glazing, 4.1.2.1 Aerogel glazing
aerogels and gas cavity fills along with Aerogels are a category of open celled
improvements in frame and spacer designs mesoporous solids with a volume porosity of greater
(Robinson &Hutchins, 1994) insulation level, floor than 50%. They have a density in the range of 1–150
area, etc. For passive solar heating applications, kg/m3, and are typically 90–99.8% air by volume.
windows with low U-value and high total solar They can be formed from a variety of materials,
energy transmittance (Г) are preferred. A tradeoff including silica, alumina, lanthanide and transition
should be made between U-value and solar metal oxides, metal chalcogenides, organic and
transmission as most likely the measures to lower inorganic polymers and carbon. Aero-gel glazing
U-value shall lower the solar transmission entered the contemporary glazing market in the year
(Robinson & Hutchins, 1994). 2006 and is, essentially, a granular aerogel
. encapsulated between polycarbonate construction
4.1 Windows: panels that weigh less than 20% of the equivalent
Many building designers are aware of the glass unit and have 200 times more impact strength.
key role that windows play in the performance of Light transmission and U-value of aerogel panels
the built environment. Heat loss and heat gain are a function of panel thickness. Their high
through windows occurs at 20–30 times the rate performance, low density and outstanding light
they occur through walls. Proper window diffusing properties make them an appropriate
performance can ensure that the heating and cooling choice for roof-light applications (Bahaj et al.,
equipment can maintain a reasonable level of 2008).
comfort without excessive operating costs. This
section deals with the windows performance 4.1.2.2 Vacuum glazing
parameters, types of windows, glazing’s etc( Vacuum space is created between two glass
McGowaon Alex). panes to eliminate the conductive and convective
heat transfers between the glass panes reducing the
4.1.1 Windows Performance Parameters center-of-glass U-value to as low as 1 W/m2 K.
To determine the desired performance of a Most often, low-e coating is applied on one or both
window, the designer must be able to Specify the of the glass panes to reduce the re-radiation into the
appropriate performance indices (fig.12). Apart indoor space (Sullivan et al., 1996). An exhaustive
from understanding what the various performance study is presented on the processes and the costs
indices are intended to measure, the designer should involved in the fabrication of vacuum glazing
understand how to quantify and measure these (Garrison & Collins, 1995). Also a comparison
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between the vacuum and argon filled double glazing 4.1.3 Three Generations of Advanced Window
is discussed. Heat transfer through evacuated triple Glazing:
glazing, a prospective glazing technology, was 4.1.3.1 High Thermal Performance Glazing
investigated by using analytical thermal network Fenestration systems with low u-factors
modeling and numerical finite element modeling reduce the heat flux (both into and out of) the
(Manz et al., 2006). The findings suggested that a building. Improving on common dual pane systems,
triple vacuum glazing with a center-of-glazing low-e with a typical full frame performance of a u-
thermal transmittance of less than 0.2 W/m2 K is factor of 0.50 to 0.254 will achieve u from-factors of
achievable (Suresh et al., 2011). 0.20 to ≥ 0.10. There are multiple, well established
methods to achieve these benchmarks (fig.13,
4.1.2.3 Switchable reflective glazing fig.14), with the greatest success found in three or
Switchable reflective glazing is essentially more separated coated panes (with internal panes of
a variable tint glazing and is typically suitable for either glass or suspended coated films) having the
cooling load dominant buildings with large solar greatest commercial success (Tinianov
gain (Sullivan et al., 1996). In some types of Brandon,2010).
switchable reflective glazing, the optical properties
change as a function of the incident solar radiation,
either by applying a low DC voltage
(electrochromics (EC)) or by using hydrogen
(gasochromics) to change from bleached to colored
state. In others, light guiding elements such as
switch-able reflective light shelves reflect solar
radiation (Bahaj et al., 2008). A life cycle energy Fig 13: Cutaway of triple- pane insulated glass unit.
analysis performed on EC windows, operating in
Greece, have shown an energy reduction of 54%
which corresponding to 6388 MJ, compared to a
standard window during a life of 25 years
(Papaefthimios et al., 2006) . The payback period
was found to be about 9 years and the total energy
cost savings ranged from 228 to 569 D /m2 for 10
and 25 years of EC window operation respectively
(Suresh et al., 2011).
Fig 14: Cutaway of a quad pane window including
the frame.
4.1.2.4 Suspended particle devices (SPD) film
An SPD film is laminated between two
glass panes. The SPD film has light absorbing 4.1.3.2 Dynamic Glazing
particles that are randomly aligned in their normal Dynamic glazing can admit solar heat when
it is needed to offset heating energy needs, reject
state forming an opaque barrier. When voltage is
applied, the particles align perpendicular to the solar gain to reduce cooling loads, possibly reduce a
plane of the glazing creating a transparent glass. The building’s peak electricity demand, and offset much
switching time (~1 s) is faster than EC glazing. This of a building’s lighting needs during daylight hours.
technology suffers from drawbacks such as radiant To do so, the solar heat gain coefficient (SGHC) of
temperature, glare, color rendering, clearness and the window may vary from approximately 0.50 to
lifetime (Bahaj et al., 2008). 0.05. The trigger for this performance switching can
be controlled either actively (user) or passively
(environment) (Tinianov Brandon,2010).
4.1.2.5 Holographic optical elements
Holographic optical elements (HOE) are
light guiding elements comprising a holographic 4.1.3.3 Building integrated photovoltaic glazing
film sandwiched between two glass panes. The The last generation of energy efficient
incident solar radiation is redirected, at a predefined fenestration is one that generates its own renewable
energy, effectively reducing the total building
angle through diffraction at the holographic film
layer, usually onto the ceiling of the building consumption. Generation 3 fenestration products are
interior. This can be used as a possible day lighting commonly known as building integrated
application. It suffers from some setbacks such as photovoltaics (BIPV) (fig.15). Third generation
glare effects, light dispersion, milky clearness, BIPV will come in two main forms: partially
limited exposure range of azimuth and zenith opaque/light transmitting; and transparent. As
angles, etc. This technology is not yet implemented today, light transmitting BIPV consists
commercialized (Bahaj et al., 2008) . of solar cells made from thick crystalline silicon
either as single or poly-crystalline wafers (Figure
16). These deliver about 10 to 12 Watts per ft² of PV
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array (under full sun). Such technology is best suited 4.3.1 Traditional Building Insulations:
for areas with no light transmission requirements 4.3.1.1 Mineral Wool
(e.g. spandrels) or shading areas such as overhangs Mineral wool covers glass wool (fiber
and sunshades (Tinianov Brandon,2010). glass) and rock wool, which normally is produced as
mats and boards, but occasionally also as filling
material. Light and soft mineral wool products are
applied in frame houses and other structures with
cavities. Mineral wool may also be used as a filler
material to fill various cavities and spaces. Glass
wool is produced from borosilicate glass at a
temperature around 1400 ◦C, where the heated mass
is pulled through rotating nozzles thus creating
fibres. In both glass wool and rock wool dust
abatement oil and phenolic resin is added to bind the
fibres together and improve the product properties.
Fig 15: Image of a commercially available ―light Typical thermal conductivity values for mineral
thru‖ BIPV Product. wool are between 30 and 40 mW/ (mK). The
thermal conductivity of mineral wool varies with
temperature, moisture content and mass density.
4.3.1.2 Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is made from
small spheres of polystyrene (from crude oil)
containing an expansion agent, e.g. pentane C6H12,
which expand by heating with water vapour. The
expanding spheres are bond together at their contact
areas. Typical thermal conductivity values for EPS
are between 30 and 40 mW/(mK). The thermal
Fig 16: Image of a commercially available ―see conductivity of EPS varies with temperature,
thru‖ moisture content and mass density. As an example,
the thermal conductivity of EPS may increase from
4.2 Frames 36mW/(mK) to 54mW/(mK) with increasing
The edge components (frame and spacer) moisture content from 0 vol% to 10 vol%,
of advanced fenestrations should minimize thermal
respectively.
bridging and infiltration losses. The effect of various
combinations of frames and spacers on the U-value
4.3.1.3 Extruded polystyrene (XPS)
of different types of windows is described by Extruded polystyrene (XPS) is produced
Robinson and Hutchins (Robinson & Hutchins,
from melted polystyrene (from crude oil) by adding
1994). Also, these edge effects are more pronounced an expansion gas, e.g. HFC, CO2 or C6H12, where
in case of smaller size windows. The emphasis of the polystyrene mass is extruded through a nozzle
low conductance frames was reiterated by with pressure release causing the mass to expand.
Gustavsen et al. (Gustavsen et al., 2008) in their The insulation material is produced in continuous
review on low conductance window frames. lengths which are cut after cooling. XPS has a
closed pore structure. Typical thermal conductivity
4.3 Types of Insulations: values for XPS are between 30 and 40 mW/(mK).
As the energy use in the building sector
accounts for a significant part of the world’s total
4.3.1.4 Cellulose
energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, there is a Cellulose (polysaccharide, (C6H10O5)n)
demand to improve the energy efficiency of comprises thermal insulation made from recycled
buildings. To achieve the highest possible thermal paper or wood fibre mass. The production process
insulation resistance, new insulation materials and
gives the insulation material a consistence
solutions with low thermal conductivity values have somewhat similar to that of wool. Boric acid
been and are being developed, in addition to using (H3BO3) and borax (sodium borates,
the current traditional insulation materials in ever Na2B4O7·10H2O or Na2 [B4O5(OH)4]·8H2O) are
increasing thicknesses in the building envelopes added to improve the product properties. Cellulose
(McKinsey, 2009).This section deals with the insulation is used as a filler material to fill various
emergent, recent and future building insulation cavities and spaces, but cellulose insulation boards
materials. A brief literature is represented here. A and mats are also produced. Typical thermal
detailed description can be found out from (Al-
conductivity values for cellulose insulation are
homoud, 2005; Papadopoulos, 2005).
between 40 and 50 mW/(mK).
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4.3.1.5 Cork different types of foil with the same name are used
Cork thermal insulation is primarily made in the literature
from the cork oak, and can be produced as both a
filler material or as boards. Typical thermal Condition to typically 8mW/ (mK) after 25
conductivity values for cork are between 40 and 50 years ageing due to water vapour and air diffusion
mW/(mK). Cork insulation products may be through the VIP envelope and into the VIP core
perforated, and also cut and adjusted at the building material which has an open pore structure. Several
site, without any loss of thermal resistance. authors have been studying various aspects of VIPs,
ranging from analytical models, thermal bridges and
4.3.1.6 Polyurethane (PUR) conductivity, air and moisture penetration, ageing
Polyurethane (PUR) is formed by a and service life, quality control and integration of
reaction between isocyanates and polyols (alcohols VIPs in building construction, e.g. (Beck et al.,
containing multiple hydroxyl groups). During the 2007;brunner et al., 2006;Brunner &simmler,
expansion process the closed pores are filled with an 2007;Brunner &Simmler, 2008;Caps & Fricke
expansion gass, HFC, CO2 or C6H12. The ,2000;Caps, 2005;Caps et al., 2008;Fricke,
insulation material is produced as boards or 2005;Fricke et al., 2006;grynning et al.,
continuously on a production line. PUR may also be 2011;Schwab et al., 2005;Schwab et al.,
used as an expanding foam at the building site, e.g. 2005;schwab et al., 2005;Schwab et al.,
to seal around windows and doors and to fill various 2005;schwab et al., 2005;Simmler &
cavities. Typical thermal conductivity values for brunner,2005;Simmler &brunner ,2005;Simmler
PUR are between 20 and 30 mW/(mK), i.e. &brunner ,2005;Sveipe et al., in press;tenpierik et
considerably lower than mineral wool, polystyrene al., 2007;Tenpierik et al., 2007;Tenpierik et al.,
and cellulose products. 2007;tenpierik et al., 2008;Wegger et al., in press;
Zwerger& Klein, 2005), where comprehensive
4.3.2 Recently Developed Building Insulations reviews on VIPs for building applications have been
4.3.2.1 Vacuum insulation panels (VIP) made recently by (Tenpierik, 2009) and (Baetens et
Vacuum insulation panels (VIP) consist of al., 2010).
an open porous core of fumed silica enveloped of
several metallized polymer laminate layers, see Fig.
17 (left) and (right). The VIPs represent today’s
thermal insulation with thermal conductivities
ranging from between 3 and 4mW/(mK) in fresh
Fig. 19: Centre-of-panel thermal conductivity for
VIPs with a fumed silica core as function of elapsed
time. For two different panel sizes 50cm×50cm×1
cm and 100cm×100cm×2 cm, and for three different
foil types AF, MF1 and MF2.
Fig171: (Left) typical VIP structure showing the
main component and (right) a comparison of
4.3.2.3 Aerogels
equivalent thermal resistance thickness of traditional
Aerogels (Fig.21) represent a state-of-the-
thermal insulatioand VIP.
art thermal insulation solution, and may be the most
promising with the highest potential of them all at
the moment, studied by (Baetens et al., 2010
;Hostler et al., 2008;Schultz et al., 2005;Schultz et
al., 2008) among several others. Using carbon black
to suppress the radiative transfer, thermal
conductivities as low as 4mW/(mK) may be reached
at a pressure of 50 mbar. However, commercially
available state-of-the art aerogels have been
Fig18. Cross-sections of typical envelope materials reported to have thermal conductivities between 13
for VIPs: (a) metal film, (b) single layer metalized and 14mW/(mK) at ambient pressure (Aspen
film and (c and d) three layer metalized films. The Aerogels,2008; Aspen Aerogels,2008)
four foil types are commonly named (a) AF, (b) .
MF1, (c) MF2 and (d) MF3 in literature. Note that
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4.4.3 Dynamic insulation materials (DIM)
A dynamic insulation material (DIM) is a
material where the thermal conductivity can be
controlled within a desirable range. The thermal
conductivity control may be achieved by being able
to change in a controlled manner:
Fig. 21.:(Left) Peter Tsou from NASA with a 1 The inner pore gas content or concentration
translucent aerogel sample developed for space including the mean free path of the gas
missions (ciampi et.al 2005), (middle) matches on molecules and the gas-surface interaction.
top of aerogel are protected from the flame 2 The emissivity of the inner surfaces of the
underneath (ciampi et.al 2005) and (right) an pores.
example of aerogel as a high performance thermal 3 The solid state thermal conductivity of the
insulation material. lattice.
4.4 Future Building Insulations The thermal insulation regulating abilities
This section provides a brief description of the of DIMs give these conceptual materials a great
building insulations that might be used in the near potential. However, first it has to be demonstrated
future: that such robust and practical DIMs can be
manufactured. It is referred to (Aspen Aerogels,
4.4.1 Vacuum insulation materials (VIM) 2008) for further details and elaborations concerning
A vacuum insulation material (VIM) is DIMs.
basically a homogeneous material with a closed
small pore structure filled with vacuum with an 4.4.4 NanoCon
overall thermal conductivity of less than 4mW/(mK) NanoCon is basically a homogeneous
in pristine condition (Fig. 22). The VIM can be cut material with a closed or open small nano pore
and adapted at the building site with no loss of low structure with an overall thermal conductivity of less
thermal conductivity. Perforating the VIM with a than 4W/(mK) (or another low value to be
nail or similar would only result in a local heat determined) and exhibits the crucial construction
bridge, i.e. no loss of low thermal conductivity. For properties that are as good as or better than concrete
further details on VIMs it is referred to (Jelle at al., (Fig. 24). The term ―Con‖ in NanoCon is meant to
2010). illustrate the construction properties and abilities of
this material, with historical homage to concrete
(Bjørn et al., 2011).
Fig. 22: The development from VIPs to VIMs
4.4.2 Nano insulation materials
The development from VIPs to nano
insulation materials (NIM) is depicted in (Fig. 23). Fig. 24:.NanoCon is essentially a NIM with
In the NIM the pore size within the material is construction properties matching or surpassing those
decreased below a certain level, i.e. 40nm or below of concrete (Bjorn et al., 2011).
for air, in order to achieve an overall thermal
conductivity of less than 4mW/(mK) in the pristine CONCLUSIONS
condition. That is, a NIM is basically a This paper has provided a detailed review
homogeneous material with a closed or open small on building envelope components in order to
nano pore structure with an overall thermal achieve the goal of Zero Energy Buildings. A
conductivity of less than 4mW/(mK) in the pristine number of traditional approaches and future
condition. components are investigated along with their
advantages and disadvantages. Currently, while
some of these advances in envelope component
technologies are easy and cost effective to adopt,
others still remain in the research and development
phase for future applicability. Several studies have
been performed to find the economic feasibility of
various building energy efficiency strategies. Cost-
Fig. 23: The development from VIPs to NIMs benefit analysis of some of these energy efficiency
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Vol. 3, Issue 2, March -April 2013, pp.662-675
strategies for a cooling dominated desert climate is thermal performance of a passive solar test-
presented by Sadineni et al (Suresh et al., 2011). room with wall latent heat storage‖,
Energy efficiency approaches sometimes might not Building and Environment, Volume 32
require additional capital investment. For example, a Issue 5, pp.405–10.
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