Curriculum paper

An overview of curriculum development
EDCI 803 Curriculum Development
Silvia Cardenas
July 28th, 2014

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 2
Introduction
The importance of learning, knowing, and being part of the curriculum has been one of the
concerns of people that are learning to become teachers. Teachers’ knowledge about curriculum
is necessary because it is one of the most important elements in this profession. Teachers must be
able to understand and develop the curriculum according to the experts’ suggestions, students
and society needs, and their professional experience. Understanding the meaning, process, and
evaluation of the curriculum would be the first step to becoming part of a team to build
curriculum guidelines.
There are some definitions of curriculum but most of those definitions relate curriculum with
the teaching orientation. According to Wiles and Bondi (2002), curriculum is a terminology that
has existed since 1820. Curriculum was defined as course of study. While other traditional
teachers conceptualized curriculum as permanent studies with the use of huge books, knowledge
of discipline, or the study of areas such as mathematics, rhetoric, logic, history, and so on.
Through the years, curriculum concepts have spurred discussion among educators because
education became universal. There were more and more students attending schools and there was
the need to teach citizenship skills. By 1924, learners’ individual differences were more obvious
and specialist started to talk about kinds of curricula. Curriculum concepts continued changing.
By the 1950s curriculum was considered as learning experiences that could be structured or
simply learned in the social life. After that, education concerns continued appearing and the
concept of curriculum included aspects of accountability, teacher-student relationships, freedom
practices, and modernism (reference). Today, curriculum is known as “a desired goal or set of
values that can be activated through a development process culminating in experiences for

students” (Wiles & Bondi, 2002, p. 31). Also, Sowell (2000) defines curriculum as “what is
taught to students” (p. 3).
Sowell (2000) also refers to the levels of the curriculum. These levels are conceptualized as
“the degree of remoteness from the students for whom the curricula were planned” (p. 4). The
first level is the societal which is designed by the groups that are in the power or professional
specialists. They decide the goals and topics of the curriculum. Besides, they decide the period of
time and materials that are going to be used to develop the curriculum. The institutional curricula
is derived from the societal curricula. Some educators identify this curriculum as the explicit
form to guide schools or districts. This curriculum contains topics, standards, philosophies,
lesson plans guides, and themes to be taught. The instructional curriculum is developed in the
schools and teachers are able to plan according to the school’s needs and authorities’
suggestions. The teachers’ philosophy is going to help in this kind of curriculum development.
The last level is the experiential curriculum which students are able to experiment. Each student
will have the same instructional curriculum but what each one is able to feel and learn will define
the experiential curriculum (Sowell, 2000).
Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006) classify the curriculum in school as the, taught, null, and
hidden curriculum. The school curriculum is the whole content that students should learn and it
designed by the states or school boards. The authors state that “school curriculum is what is
supposed to be taught by teachers to achieve these learning outcomes” (p. 265). The taught
curriculum is known as the activities that should be developed according to the school needs or
situation. The null curriculum refers to what subjects should be taught but are not considered in
the curriculum. Finally, the hidden curriculum are the tasks that are implicit in the learning
process and students are aware and informed about it but it is not written. The authors argue that

“hidden curriculum involves the values, perceptions, and attitudes that educators have toward
topics, events, and people” (p. 266).
Theory suggests that when developing curriculum, planners and teachers must be aware of
the need for a philosophy. Knowing the reasons and having a vocation to be a teacher will be the
first elements to build a curriculum. Additionally, the vision of each institution is very important
in designing the curriculum, which is going to guide the learning process. The educational
community commitment must work for helping each student to succeed by having clear
objectives and knowing what to do and how to act in the schooling process. This paper presents
some background information regarding curriculum and analyzes the elements that are involved
in curriculum design. Moreover, an explanation of the elements will be provided as well as
possible suggestions for teachers beginning the process.
Social Forces that Impact Curriculum
Curriculum concepts and design have changed through the years. Added to that, the history
of the countries, education and curriculum has also changed. There have been concepts, theories,
and perceptions that have been modified or adapted according to the society needs. According to
Jacobs (2009), by the late 1800s in the United States, there was the need of a change in
education. More children were arriving in school because agriculture was being replaced by the
industrial revolution. Educational standards started to be a necessity. Moreover, by that time,
learning approaches and theories became even more important. Differing points of view about
education appeared, such as developing critical thinking versus providing concepts for
memorization. The schools were challenged with preparing students either to work in factories or
to go to the university.

As a result, significant changes came about. For example, the Committee of Ten
suggested the same curriculum to be used across the country (reference). Another suggestion was
that schooling would last 12 years. Students would attend 8 years in elementary grades and 4 for
high school. All these suggestions are still being using in the 21st century. The author also argues
that “although we have had a century of fascinating innovation, experimentation, and exciting
ideas since the committee issued its report, the artifacts speak” (Jacobs, 2009, p. 9). For instance,
subjects like English, history, civics, mathematics, biology, and physics still remain in today’s
curriculum.
Bondi (1998) argues that during the 1990s, society changed because some elements have
appeared or changed. Population had increased, economy was becoming more important, and
technology was being more useful for society. These changes encouraged people to change
education too. It was necessary to teach according to the society’s needs. It was an industrial
society. However, education has not changed at all and people who are in charge of planning and
presenting educational programs have not considered these social changes.
Curriculum and Technology
There have been many elements that have impacted the curriculum design. However, when
technology started to be more and more important in the society, curriculum goals started to
change. Wiles and Bondi (1998) stated that during the 1990s, communication was increasing and
it was necessary to change the educational goals. Television, radio, and computer were the most
important elements that appeared or improved in those years and they were influencing in the
society. Educators needed to think in the future because society characteristics were different and
children were in contact with technology, social problems appeared like drugs, and children’s

growth and development was different. The society has influenced in the curriculum decision
and curriculum developers have always been working to serve this society.
Educational Policy
In the United States, the curriculum decisions are given to each state. However, with the
implementation of the national Common Core Standards, there is more continuity and everybody
has to reach the same educational goals. According to Sowell (2000), curriculum design has
three levels of influence. The national level refers to the federal government influence in the
curriculum through different laws, legislations, or research. The state level means that each state
can influence and have more responsibility in the curriculum design and evaluation. Finally, in
the local level are the schools, district, or classrooms. However, the curriculum developed at this
level must be in concordance with the federal and state guidelines.
Armstrong (1989) argues that the curriculum is influenced direct and indirect by social
and cultural forces. The direct influences are those policies that come from the highest level and
must be considered in the federal, state, and local government curriculum designs. The indirect
forces are the pressure groups that are organized to help and design the curriculum.
The Ecuadorian context. In Ecuador, political movements have influenced curriculum
decisions in significant ways. For instance, curriculum guidelines and textbooks are chosen by
the central level of education, then they are distributed to the public schools. Teaches and
authorities in public schools are not allowed to ask for extra resources to students because the
government gives textbooks to students. Political influence can also be seen in relation to how
diversity is dealt with the curriculum.
Before, the education system was divided in Hispanic and bilingual education. It meant
that people who speak a native language and Spanish should study in bilingual schools. While

students who speak Spanish as their first language should attend Hispanic schools. This situation
was produced because indigenous people claimed their rights through strikes, and in the end their
petitions had to be addressed. During this time it was necessary to have two curriculum
guidelines one for each education system. However, the bilingual education lacked quality
because the curriculum developers were not formally trained. Moreover, instruction was done in
their native language and resources were not available for them. There was not a cohesive vision
as a result of dividing in this way. Therefore, problems started to appear after some years.
Today, there is just one type of education called Intercultural education in which students
can attend any school regardless of their cultural backgrounds. The curriculum design is the
same for all the public schools in the country, which includes the mandatory teaching of a native
language. It is clear to see how the system changed to an inclusive education. Everybody has the
same rights and nobody can be excluded in this new reform.
Another social force that has influenced Ecuadorian curriculum is religion. There are
some agreements between the government and the church. This means that religious groups can
have their own schools and promote education based on their beliefs. For instance, the schools
can work with the national curriculum guidelines and adapt to their religious believes. Besides,
there are schools whose teachers receive their salary from the government but they work for
religious schools. These schools are semiprivate and are called fiscomisionales. These schools
can ask for tuition from students in order to study in this kind of school. Their vision in the
curriculum design must be based on religion as much as possible.
Curriculum and Standards
It seems that standards are very important in today’s education. Most of the countries have
included in their education system international standards to reach at the end of the schooling.

However, curriculum and standards differ in meaning but they have to be articulated in order to
produce quality results . Jacobs (2009) asserts that when standards in education started to appear
seems to be the solution for a responsible education. However, teachers tended to teach students
to reach those standards, regardless of what each student really needed to learn. Additionally, the
standards may differ from one state to another and another problem appears. Students, who want
to move from one state to another state where the standards and learning approaches are different
from the first one, could feel frustrated.
Reform movements and change processes that impact curriculum
Curriculum design can be influenced by some factors and forces. These forces are going to
vary because of the organization of each country. According to Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006),
in the United States there are external and local influences on curriculum. The external
curriculum influences could be the national initiatives, state agencies, professional associations,
educational publishers, and social critics. National initiatives, like federal legislation, focus on
different educational areas of concern, such as children with disabilities. Additionally,
government reports have also influenced the curriculum. For instance, data from the National
Research Council recommended changes in the curriculum. For example, each state should have
an educational responsibility and this is going to let state government get involved in the
curriculum decisions.
Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006) assert that professional associations and educational
publishers could also make decisions related to curriculum design. The authors state that “states
that adopt a book title, as well as the professional educational associations that have supervised
their development, further influence the publication of textbooks” (p. 269). Individuals and book
authors are also important when curriculum developers are planning instruction. On the other

hand, the local curriculum influences may be “school culture, teaching and teacher histories,
evolving students characteristics, community traditions, and parental expectations” (Shambaugh
& Magliaro, 2006, p. 270).
The Ecuadorian context. In Ecuador, curriculum has passed through many changes and
adaptations that have not improved education at all. Before Ecuadorian education was not
organized. One of the most important reasons for this problem was political instability. Between
1996 and 2005, Ecuador had ten presidents despite that the Constitution demands that each
president must govern for four years. There were many social and political problems that lead to
this chaos in Ecuador. Each government had its own educational policy and the instability did
not allow schools to accomplish any educational objectives. However, in 1996 there was a
curricular reform. This reform was evaluated by representatives from the government and
organizations that represented teachers, churches, and other social forces (Ministerio de
Educación, 2012).
Notwithstanding, this reform was a state policy, it was not articulated well and the results
were not satisfactory. There were evaluations of this reform that showed that the objectives of
the curriculum from 1996 were not accomplished. Teachers argued that the levels were not
articulated, the topics and skills were not clear, and there was not a criteria by which to evaluate
outcomes. Afterwards, in 2006 the Ecuadorian president Alfredo Palacio called for referendum
in which citizens approved the eight educational policies (Ministerio de Educación, 2013).
The eight educational policies were developed after many consultations from different
sectors. For instance, the National Educators Union, the Confederation of Catholic Education
Schools, the Confederation of Private Lay Education Schools, the National Council of Higher

Education and the National Secretariat of Planning and Development formed the council to
define the guidelines for the Ten Year Plan (reference).
The actualization and strengthening of the General Basic Education curriculum was based on
1) classroom experience, 2) curriculum models from other countries, and 3) the judgment of
specialists and Ecuadorian teachers from the subject areas of language and literature,
mathematics, social studies, and natural science. Furthermore, this plan was analyzed and
debated in many parts of the country. Social, political, and economic sectors participated in the
debate. The international commitments like UNESCO, and national agreements were also
considered in this plan (reference).
These eight policies included: 1) making early education from 0 to 5 years of age universal,
2) making basic general education from first to tenth grades universal, 3) increasing registration
in the high school diploma until at least 75% of the population for that age group is reached, 4)
eradicating of illiteracy, 5) strengthening alternative, improvement of physical infrastructure and
equipment for educational institutions, 6) improving of quality and fairness in education and
implementation of the national evaluation system and social reporting of education system, 7)
reevaluating of the teaching profession, professional development, working conditions and
quality of life, and 8) increasing the 0.5% annual increase in education’s portion of the gross
domestic product (GDP) until it reaches at least 6%. (Ministerio de Educación, 2013, para. #)
As this plan is a state policy, the following presidents must continue and improve it. The new
reform contained some objectives to be accomplished in a period of time. As its name indicates,
it is a ten year plan. It started in 2006 and should finish around the 2015 year.
During these years, many activities and objectives have been accomplished. For instance, the
actualization of the curriculum reform from 1996 was done. Additionally, the macro and meso

specifications of the curriculum, skills, and content were formulated and applied. The new
reform has been applied in schools since 2010. Additionally, the methodological orientations and
the essential evaluation indicators were established and applied. Inclusive education and an
intercultural education is also being promoted (Ministerio de Educación, 2012).
Educational Forces that [Should] Impact Curriculum
Making decisions about developing a curriculum are difficult and require special attention in
each process. Sowell (2000) argues that deciding what to teach is difficult because there are
many topics or content to cover within the learning process. However, when making those
decisions, it is important to consider the problems and who has those problems or who gives the
solution.
According to Jacobs (2009), in the United States there are some interests from groups
like the Council of Chief State School Officers or workgroups to create global competencies that
could influence education in the next years. As each state has the power to select, change, or
adapt their curriculum, there are some considerations to keep in mind in the 21st century. Sowell
(2000) asserts that there are curriculum levels because there is not an agreement when making a
decision in what to teach. Everybody is interested in giving suggestions and providing solutions;
however, experts or authorities would be the ones who design the curriculum. Unfortunately,
most of the time, teachers refuse those decisions. The author also argues that any change or
decision must be done according to the needs of the students in this century. Jacobs (2009) states
that “for change to occur in a classroom, educators (particularly teachers) must be involved in the
curriculum processes because the locus of change is in individuals rather than in curricula per se”
(p. 19).

Similarly, Tenson (2004) states that “allowing textbooks to be the sole determine rs of
curricula is unwise” (p. 60). People who write those books do not know the reality of students
where the books are going to be used. Despite this fact, teachers often try to complete all the
book regardless of students’ needs. Others have to teach all the textbook without considering if
students have understood or not, because the time is also important. In this case, often there is
not a combination between the use of textbooks and other resources.
Additionally, Tenson (2004) asserts that first, teachers stated their objectives based on
educational aims and goals. They have selected objectives based on major concepts and activities
that students need to learn. After that, instruction could be applied. Today teachers have to plan a
unified curriculum. The author also argues that “parents should be considered when deciding
whom to involve in curriculum planning” (p.61).
Education philosophy will also help in planning a curriculum. According to Wiles and
Bondi (1998), an educational philosophy is useful to develop a curriculum. The authors state that
“if curriculum specialists are aware of their own beliefs about education and learning, they will
make better everyday decisions” (p. 35). In the United States, there is not a centralized public
planning and policy to help schools with a guidelines to develop curriculum. Therefore, it is
important to have clear objectives and curriculum leadership at each level. However, people who
are in charge of doing this great activity must keep in mind many questions related to students’
progress. It means that all the planning process must be student-centered. From the leader’s
philosophy, major problems and inconsistences of the schooling can be inferred. Then they could
find similar interest from those who are guiding education and the collaboration among the
curriculum developers will have better results. Leaders’ attitude counts in each aspect of the
curriculum development (Wiles & Bondi, 2002).

Additionally, Bondi and Wiles (2002) present five educational philosophies to help curriculum
developers to identify thoughts and beliefs about education and design. Perennialism suggests
that education cannot change. Students are passive and they have to learn things that are true and
will never change. Idealism consists of considering the teacher as a model for behavior and the
teaching of subjects of the mind. Realism expresses that students have to learn about things that
are real and factual information. Experimentalism is based in experiences that students will be
able to learn by problem-solving activities. The teacher is a guide in the learning process.
Finally, existentialism is when students learn in their own way because they are consider like
individuals that are free to decide what they want to learn.
What about Progressivism??
What about Reconstructionism??
The Ecuadorian Context
In Ecuador development has been done by a group of specialists. The members of this
group were people from other countries, representatives from the church and political groups,
and a group of educators. After a deep analysis, they prepared the new curriculum reform that is
being implemented at this moment in the country (reference). However, these curriculum
guidelines are very general. Each school has the power to do the adaptations according to
students’ needs and backgrounds. According to the Ministry of Education (year), the central
level provides the macro and meso curriculum guidelines. It is the school’s reasonability to
develop their curriculum based on students’ needs. There is a national curriculum director who is
in charge of improving, evaluating, and ruling the educative model and the curriculum
(Ministerio de Edcuación, 2014, p. 6). However, as Ecuador is a multicultural country, the
curriculum decisions should be done by each district considering students’ backgrounds and

needs. A school from the highland region will not have the same learning experience as a student
from the coast region for example. Each student has a different environment and their interests
will be different too.
One aspect very important in Ecuadorian education is its philosophy. This has changed
compared to the last reform of curriculum and now there are other considerations of learning and
students. According to the Ministry of Education (2012), the educational objectives guide the
development of human condition and prepare students for a life with values. Students must be
prepared to act with respect, responsibility, honesty, and solidarity according to the principles of
the Good Living.
Additionally, the students must be able to develop their critical thinking skills, creativity,
and use real life situations to solve problems. Critical pedagogy is also one element of the
learning process in Ecuador. Students are the center of the learning process and they must be
able to solve problems, develop metacognition, and be active in the society. The use of
information and communication technologies is another aspect of the education. Students must
use technology tools to look for information, adapt to their situation, and participate in the
assessment process (reference). Finally, the evaluation process must be integral (reference).
Students must be assessed in knowledge and human values.
Needs of the Curriculum
Curriculum theory can guide schools to decide their plan and purpose of curriculum.
Ornsten and Hunkins (1988) stated that there are not clear examples of curriculum models or
theories. Besides, it is necessary to know the meaning of theory to differentiate it from practice.
The authors define theory as “a set of related propositions that sheds light on why events occur in
the manner that they do” (p. 279). Two theories can be considered in the curriculum process.

Scientific theory refers to the approach where one looks for problems, relates and explains, and
finally gives solutions. Philosophic and humanistic theory explains the nature of the problems
and human values are important. Based on these concepts, people who design curricula could
identify a curriculum theory and select a model.
Curriculum Models
Eisner (2013) argues that with the scientific movement in education, things have changed
and many concerns related with curriculum design resulted. There was the need of specificity
and giving clear directions to formulate objectives of a curriculum. Before, the intellectual
faculties were considered as something to be exercised with repetition to use in human activities.
The school was in charge of this activity. When the scientific movement appeared, curriculum
development was becoming more important and formulating objectives for each subject started
to appear, too. Some investigators wrote about philosophic, cognitive, and affective domains;
others wrote about taxonomies and rationales for objectives (references for these above
mentioned aspects).
Oliva (2005) analyzes some curriculum models that could be used while developing a
curriculum. Tyler’s Model is based on general objectives. These objectives are designed
according to the sources gained from the students, society, and subject matter. Once created,
these objectives must pass through a philosophy of education and a psychology of learning
screen (reference). After that, the selection and organization of learning experiences are
important because they are the instructional design of the curriculum. Finally, the direction and
evaluation of learning experiences are going to help to apply what is stated in the curriculum and
evaluate the activities to know if the objectives have been accomplished. This final stage can
help to do adaptations or change what has been wrong.

Hilda Taba (year) designed a model that is inductive, because it starts with the production
of pilot units. At this stage, there are some steps to follow to create the unit. First, a diagnostic of
students’ needs, the objectives are stated. When the objectives are written, the content is selected
and organized. The selection and organization of the learning experiences comes after in which
planning is necessary to select strategies and methodologies. Evaluation strategies and giving
sequence and balance is necessary before testing the pilot units. Then the units are reviewed and
there is a framework to create the new units.
Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (year) created a model that contains goals, objectives, and
domains; instructional modes; and an evaluation process. The goals are divided into four
domains such as “personal development, social competence, continued learning skills, and
specialization” (p. 136). In the instructional modes, teachers select how the curriculum is going
to be developed in the classroom. In the evaluation, the techniques and strategies are going to
help curriculum developers understand if the goals and educational program have been
accomplished (Oliva, 2005).
Similarly, Oliva (2005) present a comprehensive blended model. There are twelve
components of curriculum development described in this model. This model suggests a
deductive method to plan the curriculum. This model is functional and organized. It is a
guideline to develop the curriculum and at the same time includes the selection of strategies and
evaluation techniques for instruction. Additionally, this model allows one to evaluate curriculum
and instruction. Instruction and curriculum development are integrated. One of the most
important characteristics of this model is that it is necessary to establish a philosophy of
education. This will help to understand and plan according to students’ needs. Finally, this model

is useful when the community in which it is going to be applied is considered before stating the
goals.
Curriculum Developers
Levels of Control of the Curriculum
The Development of a curriculum is carried out at various levels. These levels are going
to vary according to the setting where curriculum is going to be applied. For instance, in the
United States, there is a system of curriculum control and in Ecuador there could be another form
of controlling the curriculum. According to Armstrong (1989), in the United States there are 5
levels of curriculum development. First, the national setting in which curriculum developers
design a general guidelines that can be adapted in a state. These guidelines are developed by
experts in academic areas and experts in curriculum development.
Then at the state or regional level, there are educational agencies that are in charge of
implementing the policies stablished by the legislators. People who are in these departments can
adapt or implement policies that were not considered in the national curriculum guidelines.
Besides, at this level there are more specifications and there could be influence in some elements
of content. The local level often provides the guidelines to develop instructional programs.
Curriculum leaders must work on programs for their school or classroom. They have the
responsibility of supervising and ensuring that curriculum developed in individual settings are
consistent with the school-district level expectations. The individual setting is developed in a
specific school where the plan and instruction is going to be applied. The guidelines must be
more specific to guide teachers in the classroom. Finally, the individual classroom level where
teachers and instructors plan instructional units. There is specific information of content,

strategies, assessment process, materials or sources, and other elements according to the
students’ needs (Armstrong, 1989; Walker, 2003)
The Ecuadorian Context. On the other hand, in Ecuador there is a National Curriculum
Department where the curriculum is developed for the whole country. However, they develop the
curriculum in a macro and meso level. The curriculum director is in charge of the design and
selection of materials. Besides, experts in content areas, specialist in curriculum must also be
part of this team. These guidelines are adopted by the public schools and they are allowed to do
adaptations according to the schools settings. Ecuadorian curriculum is flexible but there are
standards that students have to reach at the end of each level. The guidelines are adapted
according to the region’s needs (economic, cultural and social). If institutions need to use other
resources in their curriculum, the national curriculum director must approve those materials. The
general guidelines are for the whole country but each institution has the responsibility to adapt
those guidelines and improve according to the vision of the schools (Ministerio de Edcuación,
2014).
Roles of Curriculum Developers
People who develop a curriculum at the different levels have some tasks. According to
Armstrong (1989), people who are going to design a curriculum must be trained ad capable
people. There are seven categories in which people have to work on curriculum development.
The first one is the curriculum specialist that guide the curriculum project. The curriculum
specialists must be experts and leaders because they are going to assign, organize, and check the
progress of the activities. When the team work does not know how to build a curriculum,
curriculum specialist must provide training on the major curriculum elements. Teachers and
instructors are also part of the curriculum developers and they should be the principal members

of the curriculum developers’ team. Curriculum is designed to use in classrooms and teachers are
in contact with students. Teachers who are going to design a curriculum must be chosen
according to their relationship with principals and must be well respected by all their colleges.
Additionally, students can give their contributions to the curriculum development. Their
opinion about resources and programs can help to build the curriculum. However, it is important
to consider that students are not mature and they could not have enough time to be part of the
team. Even though principals have other activities to manage, they could be able to contribute to
the curriculum development by making some suggestions to integrate in the program.
The central office administrators can be represented by superintendents or their assistants.
They will work directly, but they will supervise that the curriculum design must be aligned with
the school philosophy. Special experts are people who have knowledge in specific areas and they
are required to work with the team when implementing new content that others are not expertise.
Finally, the citizen representatives who are selected from the local community will help specially
in controversial subjects that community could not agree (Armstrong, 1989).
Additionally, Walker (2003) asserts that curriculum leaders must have knowledge in four
foundations of curriculum. First, they should know history and traditions of curriculum
development to make comparisons and propose changes. Then they have to value other people’s
knowledge and culture. Knowing curriculum reforms and movements is also necessary for
guiding a curriculum design. Finally, curriculum developers must know about current research to
make decisions based on studies.
The Ecuadorian context.
In Ecuador, people who design the curriculum are at the central level. There is a
curriculum director who works with a team of specialists and analysts. Those designs are adapted

in the schools where the principals must work with other authorities and present it to the
teachers. Teachers are allowed to do adaptations if necessary to plan instruction (Ministerio de
Edcuación, 2014).
The Curriculum Planning Process
According to Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (1981) the curriculum is developed based on
society’s needs and structures. The authors suggest five steps to design a curriculum
Data for Curriculum Planning
First, data must be collected form learners, society, and about knowledge. As curriculum
is planned to work with certain students from a society, it is necessary to know all the
characteristics of children, youth, or adult learners. Among these characteristics are the
psychological needs, personal traits, and social, intellectual, physical, and emotional
development. Data from society is divided into two elements. Society and learners where people
should be observed in the social context like family, groups, community, and mass
communication. Then society and functions of education refers to the characteristics of the
students and the nature of society where the schools are. These social groups involve culture,
socialization, preparation for adulthood, and personal development inside the society. Data about
knowledge refers to the content of the curriculum. Technology must be kept in mind because
there are new ways to access to information. Selection of content and methods help to identify a
general education base.
Defining Goals and Objectives
Then to identify goals and objectives, it is important to know the educational institutions
and their purposes first. The schools have to establish their philosophy to know the desired
outcomes. Teachers and students must also present their purposes. These purposes are going to

lead students to develop certain behaviors and personal traits. The general goals are written
based on the educational purposes. They will help to build the curriculum. However, citizen must
agree with these goals because they have the responsibility of help in the schooling of students.
Additionally, the curriculum domains are going to help to group the general goals. These
domains can be personal development, social competence, continued leanings skills, and
specialization. Then subgoals and instructional objectives are going to help to design the
curriculum plan and the experiences for learners. The subgoals are in concordance with the
general goals and the domains. They are more specific. On the other hand, the instructional
objectives are the outcomes that students are going to reach when developing specific activities.
Selecting Aappropriate Curriculum Design
Curriculum developers have to keep in mind some elements when selecting a curriculum
design. These elements are: curriculum purpose, goals, and objectives, learners’ characteristics,
society desires, and nature of learning process and knowledge (reference). Also, curriculum
planners must know the different curriculum designs deeply. Subject-matter design refers to
subjects thought in grade levels like mathematics. Specific competencies technology is a design
that focus on competencies. Human traits or processes design is not common applied. It pretends
to develop specific human traits and implement processes. The social focused design is develop
based on society needs and social problems. Curriculum design developed in individua l needs
and interest or activities is flexible and focuses on students’ needs, interests, and promotes an
individualized instruction.
Planning Curriculum Implementation
The implementation of the curriculum planning means instructional planning. Instruction
refers to all the specifications of the activities that are going to be developed based on the

curriculum objectives. These specifications may be activities and resources to use in the learning
process.
Knowing about teaching models is essential for implementing instruction. For instances,
for subject-matter design, lectures, discussion, questioning, or viewing- listening strategies could
be used to teach. However, there are some guidelines for selecting teaching models. The purpose
of instruction must be attained with the general curriculum goals. Each activity must be an
opportunity to achieve the goals. Students must be engaged and motivated to reflect that the
teaching model was selected correctly. Theories of learning also helps to select the teaching
model.
Evaluating the Curriculum
All the process must be evaluated. Evaluation allows planners to assess achievements and
diagnose individuals’ improvement by comparing results. Evaluation also helps to determine if
the curriculum was valuable. Then the administration of the curriculum is evaluated to know if
the management and practices were successful. The curriculum can be evaluated in a summative
or formative way. Summative assessment will help to review curriculum plans, choose new
content or add new instructional models, and check goals and objectives. This type of assessment
is measurable. While, formative assessment helps to make decisions based on attitudes and
views.
There are evaluation models that can help to develop and show results of the curriculum
implementation. The behavioral objectives model is done by professionals and uses achievement
tests to know the productivity and accountability of the curriculum. The decision making model
is conducted by program planers and the tools to evaluate are surveys, questionnaires’,
interviews, or observation. The goal free evaluation model is done by and unbiased observers

who must be critic in their observations. The accreditation model is developed by people who
have had experience and understand about educational programs. Another model is the
responsive which is based on observation from others who have to write their impressions and
the evaluator has to select the most valuable.
The curriculum evaluation must apply to all the elements. The general goals are evaluated to
know if the expected changes in society and culture awareness are occurring. Evaluating the
subgoals and objectives will allow to know if they are helping to reach the main goals. All the
educational program can be evaluated to know if they have satisfied the society needs. This
evaluation can be done in two levels. The macroeducational level evaluates the educational
environment of the learner. On the other hand, the institutional level evaluates the school
offerings, adaptations for students with disabilities, programs developed outside the program and
self-study programs.
Additionally, evaluating specific aspects of the curriculum is important. First, the evaluation
of the subgoals can help to determine to what extend are the goals being accomplished. The
students and teachers characteristics, school organization, society values and needs have to be
evaluated too. Evaluation can help to determine standards and check the organization of the
curriculum is suitable. Finally, curriculum designers are also evaluated to understand strengthens
and weakness of the curriculum.
Instruction evaluation is considered as the most important part of curriculum evaluation. The
elements that are evaluated in instruction are the teachers, teaching methods, and assessment
techniques. Moreover, there should be an evaluation for the evaluation plan. There could be
some questions to be answered when the evaluation plan is being reviewed. These questions

have to see with the selection of models and designs, whole and specific evaluation of the
program, and the changes in the future based on the evaluation.
Conclusion
Designing a curriculum requires special attention to all the elements included before,
while, and after developing the curriculum. A curriculum must be created according to the
society’s needs and desires. All the suggestions and models presented by the above mentioned
authors can guide curriculum planning. However, the actual process will depend on the setting
where the curriculum is going to be applied. Each country or state have created their own
guidelines based on studies and experiences from others. These curriculum designs are aligned
with the national guidelines. Furthermore, school and teachers’ philosophy is important while
developing a curriculum. This element can guide curriculum developers to design a framework
based on leaners-centered.
There have been some social forces that are involved in the curriculum design; however,
these social forces are guided by political or economic influences. This issue could not allow
teachers, who are the principal elements in a curriculum design, make decisions according their
experiences. The leaders of the curriculum design must keep in mind all the elements and
theories about curriculum to design instruction. There are some models and suggestions that can
help curriculum developers as a guide. However, Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model seems to
be the most appropriate and understandable. It does not mean that others models are not going to
work well because the model can depend on the philosophy of who are going to design the
curriculum.
Curriculum is the principal element in educational settings because curriculum will guide
teachers, principals, and authorities to make changes, adaptations, or improvements when

necessary. Furthermore, curriculum developers must be a team who are well-prepared and aware
of the reality of the society. Cooperative work among professionals can help to design a good
guidelines for curriculum and prepare students according the society needs. Each activity
requires accountability and cooperation. Curriculum must always be reviewed, adapted, and
changed. Finally, the most important part of curriculum design is when it is evaluated to continue
with the process or start again from the beginning. Curriculum design will never be finished. It
will always require changes because philosophies change, too.

References
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