1. The document discusses crystallography and provides an introduction to key concepts such as crystal structure, unit cells, Bravais lattices, and crystal systems.
2. It defines the basic terms like space lattice, basis, and unit cell that are used to describe crystal structures which result from periodic arrangements of atoms.
3. The document outlines the seven different crystal systems and discusses properties of crystalline solids and their applications in areas like x-ray crystallography for determining molecular structures.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry and properties of solid surfaces. It discusses the following key points:
- Solids have definite shapes and volumes due to strong forces holding their atoms, molecules, or ions in fixed positions. This gives solids their rigidity and mechanical strength.
- There are two main types of solids - crystalline solids which have a regular repeating structure and amorphous solids which lack long-range order.
- Techniques for characterizing solid surfaces include low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) which can provide information about surface structure and composition.
- LEED specifically works by bombarding a crystalline surface
This document provides an overview of solid state structures. It discusses the two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous - and explains their distinguishing characteristics. Crystalline solids have a definite, orderly arrangement of atoms while amorphous solids do not. The document then covers various topics related to crystalline solids, including crystal structures, unit cells, Bravais lattices, and the structures of materials like NaCl, diamond, and graphite. It also discusses crystal imperfections and different types of defects that can occur in ionic crystals.
SOLID STATE -XII BY SULEKHA RANI R , PGT CHEMISTRYSulekha Nisanth
Here are the definitions and differences you asked for:
Short range order - Atoms are arranged in a disordered manner within a small region but this arrangement does not extend over long distances.
Anisotropic - A material whose physical properties vary with the direction of measurement.
Unit cell - The smallest repeating unit that constructs the entire crystal by translation.
Voids - Empty spaces between closely packed spheres in crystal structures. There are two types - octahedral and tetrahedral voids.
Impurity defect - Occurs when an atom of one element replaces an atom of the host element in its normal lattice position.
Monoclinic - Unit cell with two axes at 90 degrees and one axis not at 90 degrees
This document discusses the structure of metals and materials. It begins by covering basic concepts of crystal structures, including the types of crystal systems. It then describes the crystal structures of common metals like body centered cubic (BCC), face centered cubic (FCC), and hexagonal close packed (HCP) systems. It also discusses the molecular arrangement of ceramics and polymers. Miller indices are introduced as a mathematical notation to represent atomic planes and directions in crystals. Lattice parameters like coordination number, number of atoms per unit cell, atomic packing factor, and density are defined. Procedures for finding Miller indices of planes and directions are provided.
This document discusses solid state physics and crystal structures. It begins by defining solid state physics as explaining the properties of solid materials by analyzing the interactions between atomic nuclei and electrons. It then discusses different types of solids including single crystals, polycrystalline materials, and amorphous solids. Single crystals have long-range periodic atomic order, while polycrystalline materials are made of many small crystals joined together and amorphous solids lack long-range order. The document goes on to describe crystal structures including crystal lattices, unit cells, and common crystal systems such as cubic, hexagonal, and orthorhombic. It provides examples of crystal structures including sodium chloride and its cubic lattice structure.
This document discusses solid state physics and crystal structures. It begins by defining solid state physics as explaining the properties of solid materials by analyzing the interactions between atomic nuclei and electrons. It then discusses different types of solids including single crystals, polycrystalline materials, and amorphous solids. Single crystals have long-range periodic atomic order, while polycrystalline materials are made of many small crystals joined together and amorphous solids lack long-range order. The document goes on to describe crystal structures including crystal lattices, unit cells, and common crystal systems such as cubic, hexagonal, and orthorhombic. It provides examples of crystal structures including sodium chloride and its cubic lattice structure.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry. It discusses the different types of solids including crystalline and amorphous solids. Crystalline solids are further classified based on their crystal structures. The key crystal structures discussed are the cubic system including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic unit cells. Methods of packing particles in crystal lattices like close packing in one, two, and three dimensions are also summarized. The document concludes with discussing common crystal defects or imperfections.
The document discusses solid state physics and the properties of solid materials. It explains that solid state physics formulates laws governing the behavior of solids and explores why materials like carbon can exist in different states with varying electrical properties. The document also classifies solids as crystalline, polycrystalline, or amorphous and discusses crystal structure, lattice, and unit cells - the basic repeating units that make up crystalline solids. Understanding these atomic arrangements is important for explaining the behavior and properties of different materials.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry and properties of solid surfaces. It discusses the following key points:
- Solids have definite shapes and volumes due to strong forces holding their atoms, molecules, or ions in fixed positions. This gives solids their rigidity and mechanical strength.
- There are two main types of solids - crystalline solids which have a regular repeating structure and amorphous solids which lack long-range order.
- Techniques for characterizing solid surfaces include low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) which can provide information about surface structure and composition.
- LEED specifically works by bombarding a crystalline surface
This document provides an overview of solid state structures. It discusses the two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous - and explains their distinguishing characteristics. Crystalline solids have a definite, orderly arrangement of atoms while amorphous solids do not. The document then covers various topics related to crystalline solids, including crystal structures, unit cells, Bravais lattices, and the structures of materials like NaCl, diamond, and graphite. It also discusses crystal imperfections and different types of defects that can occur in ionic crystals.
SOLID STATE -XII BY SULEKHA RANI R , PGT CHEMISTRYSulekha Nisanth
Here are the definitions and differences you asked for:
Short range order - Atoms are arranged in a disordered manner within a small region but this arrangement does not extend over long distances.
Anisotropic - A material whose physical properties vary with the direction of measurement.
Unit cell - The smallest repeating unit that constructs the entire crystal by translation.
Voids - Empty spaces between closely packed spheres in crystal structures. There are two types - octahedral and tetrahedral voids.
Impurity defect - Occurs when an atom of one element replaces an atom of the host element in its normal lattice position.
Monoclinic - Unit cell with two axes at 90 degrees and one axis not at 90 degrees
This document discusses the structure of metals and materials. It begins by covering basic concepts of crystal structures, including the types of crystal systems. It then describes the crystal structures of common metals like body centered cubic (BCC), face centered cubic (FCC), and hexagonal close packed (HCP) systems. It also discusses the molecular arrangement of ceramics and polymers. Miller indices are introduced as a mathematical notation to represent atomic planes and directions in crystals. Lattice parameters like coordination number, number of atoms per unit cell, atomic packing factor, and density are defined. Procedures for finding Miller indices of planes and directions are provided.
This document discusses solid state physics and crystal structures. It begins by defining solid state physics as explaining the properties of solid materials by analyzing the interactions between atomic nuclei and electrons. It then discusses different types of solids including single crystals, polycrystalline materials, and amorphous solids. Single crystals have long-range periodic atomic order, while polycrystalline materials are made of many small crystals joined together and amorphous solids lack long-range order. The document goes on to describe crystal structures including crystal lattices, unit cells, and common crystal systems such as cubic, hexagonal, and orthorhombic. It provides examples of crystal structures including sodium chloride and its cubic lattice structure.
This document discusses solid state physics and crystal structures. It begins by defining solid state physics as explaining the properties of solid materials by analyzing the interactions between atomic nuclei and electrons. It then discusses different types of solids including single crystals, polycrystalline materials, and amorphous solids. Single crystals have long-range periodic atomic order, while polycrystalline materials are made of many small crystals joined together and amorphous solids lack long-range order. The document goes on to describe crystal structures including crystal lattices, unit cells, and common crystal systems such as cubic, hexagonal, and orthorhombic. It provides examples of crystal structures including sodium chloride and its cubic lattice structure.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry. It discusses the different types of solids including crystalline and amorphous solids. Crystalline solids are further classified based on their crystal structures. The key crystal structures discussed are the cubic system including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic unit cells. Methods of packing particles in crystal lattices like close packing in one, two, and three dimensions are also summarized. The document concludes with discussing common crystal defects or imperfections.
The document discusses solid state physics and the properties of solid materials. It explains that solid state physics formulates laws governing the behavior of solids and explores why materials like carbon can exist in different states with varying electrical properties. The document also classifies solids as crystalline, polycrystalline, or amorphous and discusses crystal structure, lattice, and unit cells - the basic repeating units that make up crystalline solids. Understanding these atomic arrangements is important for explaining the behavior and properties of different materials.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile non-destructive analytical technique used to analyze physical properties such as phase composition, crystal structure and orientation of powder, solid and liquid samples. Many materials are made up of tiny crystallites. The chemical composition and structural type of these crystals is called their 'phase'. Materials can be single phase or multiphase mixtures and may contain crystalline and non-crystalline components. In an X-ray diffractometer, different crystalline phases give different diffraction patterns. Phase identification can be performed by comparing X-ray diffraction patterns obtained from unknown samples to patterns in reference databases.
principles:
X-Ray Diffraction is the result of constructive interference between X-rays and a crystalline sample. The wavelength of the X-rays used is of the same order of magnitude of the distance between the atoms in a crystalline lattice. This gives rise to a diffraction pattern that can be analysed in a number of ways, the most popular being applying the famous Bragg’s Law (nλ=2d sin θ) which is used in the measurement of crystals and their phases.
Applictions:
Many researchers, in industrial as well as in scientific laboratories, rely on X-ray diffraction (XRD) as a tool to develop new materials or to improve production efficiency. Innovations in X-ray diffraction closely follow the research on new materials, such as in semiconductor technologies or pharmaceutical investigations. Industrial research is directed toward the ever-increasing speed and efficiency of production processes. Fully automated X-ray diffraction analyses in mining and building materials production sites result in more cost-effective solutions for production control.
The main uses of X-ray diffraction are:
Qualitative and quantitative phase analysis of pure substances and mixtures. The most common method for phase analysis is often called 'X-ray powder diffraction' (XRPD).
The crystal structure notes gives the basic understanding about the different structures crystalline materials and their properties and physics of crystals. It also throw light on the basics of crystal diffraction
The document discusses crystallography and provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in the field. It defines crystalline and amorphous materials, unit cells, Miller indices, Bravais lattices, coordination number, Bragg's law, and defects in solids. Examples are given to illustrate how to determine Miller indices of crystal planes and the structures of sodium chloride and common Bravais lattices like simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic.
The document discusses different types of solids and their properties. Crystalline solids have long-range ordered structures that repeat periodically, while amorphous solids only have short-range order. Crystalline solids can be anisotropic with properties varying in different directions, whereas amorphous solids are isotropic with uniform properties in all directions. Common examples of crystalline solids are sodium chloride and quartz, while glass and rubber are typically amorphous. The vast majority of solid substances are either crystalline or polycrystalline rather than purely amorphous. Crystalline solids can be further classified based on the type of bonding forces between their constituent particles as molecular, ionic, metallic, or covalent
Solid state physics by Dr. kamal Devlal.pdfUMAIRALI629912
This document provides an overview of the course "Solid State Physics" (PHY503). The course covers topics like crystal structure, types of lattices, crystal symmetry, and important crystal structures such as sodium chloride, diamond, and hexagonal close packed. It defines key terms used to describe crystal structure like lattice, basis, unit cell, primitive cell, and Miller indices. It also summarizes different crystal systems and lattice types as well as structural properties of common crystalline materials.
- The document discusses different crystal structures including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal closely packed.
- Key properties like number of atoms per unit cell, atomic radius, coordination number, and atomic packing factor are defined and calculated for each structure.
- There are seven basic crystal systems that materials can belong to depending on their lattice parameters and angles between axes. The most common systems are cubic, hexagonal, and tetragonal.
This document provides an overview of solid state physics and crystal structure. It discusses the basic components of crystal structure including the lattice, basis, and unit cell. It describes different types of crystal structures such as single crystals, polycrystals, and amorphous solids. It also examines specific crystal systems like cubic, hexagonal, and their bravais lattices. Key aspects of cubic crystal structures like simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic are defined. Finally, it outlines characteristics of unit cells and crystal packing efficiency.
This document discusses crystal structures and their importance in determining material properties. It defines key terms like crystal lattice, basis, unit cell and crystal systems. There are two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous - based on atomic arrangement. Common metallic crystal structures are face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic and hexagonal close-packed. Face-centered cubic structure is described in detail, where atoms are located at unit cell corners and centers, giving a coordination number of 12. Crystal structures are crucial for understanding the properties and behaviors of different materials.
Crystalline structures can be classified as crystalline, polycrystalline, or amorphous. Crystalline structures have repeating arrangements of atoms or molecules. There are seven crystal systems and fourteen Bravais lattices that describe how points in the unit cell are arranged in three-dimensional space. Common metal structures include body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and hexagonal close packed. Ceramic and semiconductor structures often involve ionic bonding between metals and nonmetals. Polymeric structures can be crystalline but typically have disordered regions as well.
Dear aspirants,
This presentation includes basic terms of crystallography, a brief note on unit cell and its type With derivation of its properties: APF, Coordination no., No. of atoms per unit cell and also its atomic radius. I also added 7 Crystal System, Bravais Lattice and finally Miller Indices concept.
Hope this presentation is helpful.
Any questions or clarifications are welcomed.
This document provides an overview of solid state physics. It discusses the structure of the course, including credit hours and references. It then defines the key topics in solid state physics, including crystals, lattice structures, unit cells, and coordination numbers. It examines the seven crystal systems and the 14 Bravais lattice types. It also discusses important concepts like translational vectors, primitive cells, crystal planes, directions, and Miller indices. In summary, the document serves as an introduction to solid state physics, outlining the basic structural concepts and classifications.
1) Solids have a definite shape and volume and their particles vibrate about fixed positions. In contrast, liquids and gases allow particle movement and flow.
2) Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous based on particle arrangement. Crystalline solids have orderly arrangements while amorphous solids do not.
3) The smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice is the unit cell, which is defined by its edges and angles. There are seven possible primitive unit cell types and 14 total unit cell types when including centered unit cells.
The document discusses different types of crystal structures including simple cubic (SC), body centered cubic (BCC), and face centered cubic (FCC). It defines key terms like unit cell, lattice points, coordination number, and atomic packing factor. SC has a coordination number of 6 and atomic packing factor of 52%. BCC has a coordination number of 8 and packing factor of 68%. FCC has a coordination number of 12 and packing factor of 74%.
Crystals are solid structures where molecules or atoms are arranged in a repeating pattern. They form through phase changes in fluids, usually liquids, through processes like freezing or crystallization from solution. Different substances form different types of crystal structures, which can be studied through crystallography. Crystals play important roles in applications like electronics and lasers due to their optical and electronic properties. Their structure is defined by a repeating unit cell, with particles arranged in specific positions and orientations within the cell. There are 14 possible arrangements of these unit cells in 3D crystal lattices.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry. It defines solids as matter with a definite shape and volume, where the constituent particles possess fixed positions and can only oscillate. Solids are classified as crystalline or amorphous based on the ordering of particles. Crystalline solids have long-range order while amorphous solids only have short-range order. Important properties of solids discussed include density, rigidity, melting points, and electrical conductivity. The document also describes different types of crystalline solids based on bonding - ionic, molecular, metallic, and covalent network solids. Unit cell structure, crystal systems, and packing efficiency of particles in cubic unit cells are also summarized.
1) The document discusses crystal symmetry and diffraction patterns. It defines key terms like crystal systems, unit cells, and centred unit cells.
2) There are seven crystal systems that crystals can belong to, depending on their symmetry properties. Each system has restrictions on the possible shapes and dimensions of the unit cell.
3) Diffraction patterns provide information about the crystal structure by revealing the symmetry and dimensions of the unit cell. Analyzing diffraction patterns is how crystal structures are solved.
Crystal physics deals with the study of crystalline solids and their physical properties. Single crystals are needed because they exhibit uniform physical properties and directional properties. There are two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids such as metals have a regular arrangement of atoms while amorphous solids like glass have an irregular arrangement. Crystalline solids can be single crystalline or polycrystalline. Important crystallographic concepts include the unit cell, lattice points, Miller indices, and Bravais lattices which describe the geometric arrangement of atoms in crystals. Common crystal structures are simple cubic, body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and hexagonal close packed.
The document discusses the crystal structures of materials. It begins by explaining that the properties of some materials are directly related to their crystal structures. For example, magnesium and beryllium have different properties than gold and silver due to differences in their crystal structures. It then lists the key learning objectives which include describing different crystal structures, computing densities, and distinguishing between single crystals and polycrystalline materials. The document goes on to explain common metallic crystal structures like body centered cubic and face centered cubic, as well as non-metallic structures like rock salt and cesium chloride. It also discusses factors that determine crystal structure such as the relative sizes of ions to maximize interactions and maintain charge neutrality.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile non-destructive analytical technique used to analyze physical properties such as phase composition, crystal structure and orientation of powder, solid and liquid samples. Many materials are made up of tiny crystallites. The chemical composition and structural type of these crystals is called their 'phase'. Materials can be single phase or multiphase mixtures and may contain crystalline and non-crystalline components. In an X-ray diffractometer, different crystalline phases give different diffraction patterns. Phase identification can be performed by comparing X-ray diffraction patterns obtained from unknown samples to patterns in reference databases.
principles:
X-Ray Diffraction is the result of constructive interference between X-rays and a crystalline sample. The wavelength of the X-rays used is of the same order of magnitude of the distance between the atoms in a crystalline lattice. This gives rise to a diffraction pattern that can be analysed in a number of ways, the most popular being applying the famous Bragg’s Law (nλ=2d sin θ) which is used in the measurement of crystals and their phases.
Applictions:
Many researchers, in industrial as well as in scientific laboratories, rely on X-ray diffraction (XRD) as a tool to develop new materials or to improve production efficiency. Innovations in X-ray diffraction closely follow the research on new materials, such as in semiconductor technologies or pharmaceutical investigations. Industrial research is directed toward the ever-increasing speed and efficiency of production processes. Fully automated X-ray diffraction analyses in mining and building materials production sites result in more cost-effective solutions for production control.
The main uses of X-ray diffraction are:
Qualitative and quantitative phase analysis of pure substances and mixtures. The most common method for phase analysis is often called 'X-ray powder diffraction' (XRPD).
The crystal structure notes gives the basic understanding about the different structures crystalline materials and their properties and physics of crystals. It also throw light on the basics of crystal diffraction
The document discusses crystallography and provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in the field. It defines crystalline and amorphous materials, unit cells, Miller indices, Bravais lattices, coordination number, Bragg's law, and defects in solids. Examples are given to illustrate how to determine Miller indices of crystal planes and the structures of sodium chloride and common Bravais lattices like simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic.
The document discusses different types of solids and their properties. Crystalline solids have long-range ordered structures that repeat periodically, while amorphous solids only have short-range order. Crystalline solids can be anisotropic with properties varying in different directions, whereas amorphous solids are isotropic with uniform properties in all directions. Common examples of crystalline solids are sodium chloride and quartz, while glass and rubber are typically amorphous. The vast majority of solid substances are either crystalline or polycrystalline rather than purely amorphous. Crystalline solids can be further classified based on the type of bonding forces between their constituent particles as molecular, ionic, metallic, or covalent
Solid state physics by Dr. kamal Devlal.pdfUMAIRALI629912
This document provides an overview of the course "Solid State Physics" (PHY503). The course covers topics like crystal structure, types of lattices, crystal symmetry, and important crystal structures such as sodium chloride, diamond, and hexagonal close packed. It defines key terms used to describe crystal structure like lattice, basis, unit cell, primitive cell, and Miller indices. It also summarizes different crystal systems and lattice types as well as structural properties of common crystalline materials.
- The document discusses different crystal structures including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal closely packed.
- Key properties like number of atoms per unit cell, atomic radius, coordination number, and atomic packing factor are defined and calculated for each structure.
- There are seven basic crystal systems that materials can belong to depending on their lattice parameters and angles between axes. The most common systems are cubic, hexagonal, and tetragonal.
This document provides an overview of solid state physics and crystal structure. It discusses the basic components of crystal structure including the lattice, basis, and unit cell. It describes different types of crystal structures such as single crystals, polycrystals, and amorphous solids. It also examines specific crystal systems like cubic, hexagonal, and their bravais lattices. Key aspects of cubic crystal structures like simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic are defined. Finally, it outlines characteristics of unit cells and crystal packing efficiency.
This document discusses crystal structures and their importance in determining material properties. It defines key terms like crystal lattice, basis, unit cell and crystal systems. There are two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous - based on atomic arrangement. Common metallic crystal structures are face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic and hexagonal close-packed. Face-centered cubic structure is described in detail, where atoms are located at unit cell corners and centers, giving a coordination number of 12. Crystal structures are crucial for understanding the properties and behaviors of different materials.
Crystalline structures can be classified as crystalline, polycrystalline, or amorphous. Crystalline structures have repeating arrangements of atoms or molecules. There are seven crystal systems and fourteen Bravais lattices that describe how points in the unit cell are arranged in three-dimensional space. Common metal structures include body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and hexagonal close packed. Ceramic and semiconductor structures often involve ionic bonding between metals and nonmetals. Polymeric structures can be crystalline but typically have disordered regions as well.
Dear aspirants,
This presentation includes basic terms of crystallography, a brief note on unit cell and its type With derivation of its properties: APF, Coordination no., No. of atoms per unit cell and also its atomic radius. I also added 7 Crystal System, Bravais Lattice and finally Miller Indices concept.
Hope this presentation is helpful.
Any questions or clarifications are welcomed.
This document provides an overview of solid state physics. It discusses the structure of the course, including credit hours and references. It then defines the key topics in solid state physics, including crystals, lattice structures, unit cells, and coordination numbers. It examines the seven crystal systems and the 14 Bravais lattice types. It also discusses important concepts like translational vectors, primitive cells, crystal planes, directions, and Miller indices. In summary, the document serves as an introduction to solid state physics, outlining the basic structural concepts and classifications.
1) Solids have a definite shape and volume and their particles vibrate about fixed positions. In contrast, liquids and gases allow particle movement and flow.
2) Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous based on particle arrangement. Crystalline solids have orderly arrangements while amorphous solids do not.
3) The smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice is the unit cell, which is defined by its edges and angles. There are seven possible primitive unit cell types and 14 total unit cell types when including centered unit cells.
The document discusses different types of crystal structures including simple cubic (SC), body centered cubic (BCC), and face centered cubic (FCC). It defines key terms like unit cell, lattice points, coordination number, and atomic packing factor. SC has a coordination number of 6 and atomic packing factor of 52%. BCC has a coordination number of 8 and packing factor of 68%. FCC has a coordination number of 12 and packing factor of 74%.
Crystals are solid structures where molecules or atoms are arranged in a repeating pattern. They form through phase changes in fluids, usually liquids, through processes like freezing or crystallization from solution. Different substances form different types of crystal structures, which can be studied through crystallography. Crystals play important roles in applications like electronics and lasers due to their optical and electronic properties. Their structure is defined by a repeating unit cell, with particles arranged in specific positions and orientations within the cell. There are 14 possible arrangements of these unit cells in 3D crystal lattices.
This document provides an overview of solid state chemistry. It defines solids as matter with a definite shape and volume, where the constituent particles possess fixed positions and can only oscillate. Solids are classified as crystalline or amorphous based on the ordering of particles. Crystalline solids have long-range order while amorphous solids only have short-range order. Important properties of solids discussed include density, rigidity, melting points, and electrical conductivity. The document also describes different types of crystalline solids based on bonding - ionic, molecular, metallic, and covalent network solids. Unit cell structure, crystal systems, and packing efficiency of particles in cubic unit cells are also summarized.
1) The document discusses crystal symmetry and diffraction patterns. It defines key terms like crystal systems, unit cells, and centred unit cells.
2) There are seven crystal systems that crystals can belong to, depending on their symmetry properties. Each system has restrictions on the possible shapes and dimensions of the unit cell.
3) Diffraction patterns provide information about the crystal structure by revealing the symmetry and dimensions of the unit cell. Analyzing diffraction patterns is how crystal structures are solved.
Crystal physics deals with the study of crystalline solids and their physical properties. Single crystals are needed because they exhibit uniform physical properties and directional properties. There are two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids such as metals have a regular arrangement of atoms while amorphous solids like glass have an irregular arrangement. Crystalline solids can be single crystalline or polycrystalline. Important crystallographic concepts include the unit cell, lattice points, Miller indices, and Bravais lattices which describe the geometric arrangement of atoms in crystals. Common crystal structures are simple cubic, body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and hexagonal close packed.
The document discusses the crystal structures of materials. It begins by explaining that the properties of some materials are directly related to their crystal structures. For example, magnesium and beryllium have different properties than gold and silver due to differences in their crystal structures. It then lists the key learning objectives which include describing different crystal structures, computing densities, and distinguishing between single crystals and polycrystalline materials. The document goes on to explain common metallic crystal structures like body centered cubic and face centered cubic, as well as non-metallic structures like rock salt and cesium chloride. It also discusses factors that determine crystal structure such as the relative sizes of ions to maximize interactions and maintain charge neutrality.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
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1. DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER
UNIT 2
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY & ULTRASONICS
INSTITUTE :UIE
DEPARTMENT: ALL ACADEMIC UNITS
Bachelor of Engineering (All Sections)
Subject Name and Code:
Engineering Physics 23SPH-141
Prepared by: Arminder Kaur, Assistant Prof. Physics
2. 2
COURSE OBJECTIVES
1. The course is designed to make the students industry ready to contribute in the
growing demand of the industry at local, national and international level.
2. It will make the students competent to understand basic concepts and applications of
advanced engineering physics and apply its principles in their respective fields at
global platform.
3. It will enhance the skill level of the students and shall make them preferred choice for
getting employment in industry and research labs.
4. It will give thorough knowledge of the discipline to enable students to disseminate
knowledge in pursuing excellence in academic areas.
3. 3
Course
Outcomes
CO
Number
Title
On completion of this course, the students are expected
to learn
Level
CO1 Quote the basic fundamental concepts of lasers, optical
fibres, crystallography, ultrasonic oscillations, semiconductor
physics, quantum mechanics and nanotechnology.
Remember,
Understand
CO2 Demonstrate the working of various lasers, fibre
components, semiconductor devices; explain the behaviour
of crystalline solids, quantum and nano-scale systems.
Understand
CO3 Solve problems by applying principles related to lasers,
fibres, semiconductors, oscillations, quantum and
nanoscience.
Applying
CO4 Compare various lasers and fibres, semiconducting devices,
crystalline materials, structures at quantum and nanoscale
on the basis of their properties for industrial applications.
Analyze
CO5 Develop various systems using lasers, fibres, semiconductors
and nanomaterials for futuristic applications.
Design
Figure 1.1 Manufacturing of semiconductor [1]
5. LECTURE OBJECTIVE
5
Students will learn about
crystallography branch and
its importance.
Students will understand
how arrangements effect
the properties of materials.
Students will learn basic
terms related to
crystallography
7. TYPES OF MATTER
TYPES OF PHYSICAL STATES
Figure 1.2 Types of matter and their basic properties [2]
Solids
In the solid state
the vibrating particles form a regular
pattern. This explains the fixed shape
of a solid.
Liquids
In a liquid the particles still touch their
neighbors but they move around,
sliding over each other.
Gases
In the gas state, widely-spaced
particles move around randomly. This
explains why you can compress
gases.
8. TYPES OF SOLIDS
Figure 1.3 describing crystal and amorphous solid structure [3]
A crystal or crystalline solid
is a solid material whose
constituents are arranged in a
highly ordered microscopic
structure, forming a crystal
lattice that extends in all
directions. For e.g. metals
An amorphous or non-
crystalline solid is a solid that
lacks the long-range order that
is characteristic of a crystal for
e.g. Glass-Ceramics.
9. PROPERTIES
Geometry:
Crystalline Solids – Particles are arranged in a repeating pattern. They have a
regular and ordered arrangement resulting in a definite shape.
Amorphous Solids – Particles are arranged randomly. They do not have an
ordered arrangement resulting in irregular shapes.
Melting Points
Crystalline Solids – They have a sharp melting points.
Amorphous Solids – They do not have sharp melting points. The solid tends to
soften gradually over a temperature range.
Isotopism:
Crystalline Solids – Anisotropic in nature. i.e., the magnitude of physical
properties (such as refractive index, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity
etc.) is different along with different directions of the crystal.
Amorphous Solids – Isotropic in nature. i.e., the magnitude of the physical
properties is the same along with all directions of the solid.
10. PROPERTIES
Cleavage Property
Crystalline Solids – When cutting with a sharp edge, the two new halves will
have smooth surfaces.
Amorphous Solids – When cutting with a sharp edge, the two resulting
halves will have irregular surfaces.
Rigidity:
Crystalline Solids – They are rigid solids and applying mild forces will not
distort its shape.
Amorphous Solids – They are not rigid, so mild effects may change the
shape.
10
11. FORMATION OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Figure 1.4 crystal structure consisting basis and space lattice [4]
Space lattice +
basis = crystal
structure
Space lattice
Basis
12. Space lattice
Figure 1.5 space lattice and basis [5]
SPACE LATTICE- a regular,
indefinitely repeated array of
points in three dimensions
in which the points lie at the
intersections of three sets of
parallel equidistant planes.
BASIS-The crystal basis is
defined by the type, number,
and arrangement of atoms
inside the unit cell.
14. UNIT CELL
Figure 1.7 unit cell [7]
The smallest group
of atoms which has
the overall
symmetry of a
crystal, and from
which the entire
lattice can be built
up by repetition in
three dimensions.
15. PRIMITIVE UNIT CELL
15
A primitive cell is a unit cell that contains
exactly one lattice point. It is the smallest
possible cell. If there is a lattice point at the
edge of a cell and thus shared with another
cell, it is only counted half. Accordingly,
a point located on the corner of a cube is
shared by 8 cubes.
Figure 1.8 primitive unit cell [7]
16. NON-PRIMITIVE CELL
16
Non-primitive cells are of three kinds:
end-centered : an extra lattice point is
centered in each of two opposing faces of the
cell
face-centered : an extra lattice point is
centered in every face of the cell
body-centered : an extra lattice point is
centered in the exact middle of the cell
They have larger volume than primitive unit
cell.
18. LATTICE PARAMETERS
Figure 1.12 parameters of unit cell [9]
6 parameters
Length of axis along x, y,
z axis written as a, b, c
Angle between y and z
axis is α
Angle between x and z
axis is β
Angle between x and y
axis is γ
20. APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING
X-ray crystallography is a powerful
non-destructive technique for
determining the molecular structure
of a crystal.
It was primarily used in fundamental
science applications for determining
the size of atoms, the lengths and
different types of chemical bonds,
the atomic arrangement of materials.
20
Figure 1.14 x-ray experiment set up [10]
21. APPLICATIONS
The difference between materials at the
atomic level, and for determining the
crystalline integrity, grain orientation,
grain size, film thickness and interface
roughness of alloys and minerals.
It is now often used to identify the
structure of various biological materials,
vitamins, pharmaceutical drugs, thin-film
materials and multi-layered materials. It
has become one of the standard ways of
analyzing a material.
21
Figure 1.15 bacteria image [11]
22. LIMITATIONS OF X-Ray DIFFRACTION
As the crystal's repeating unit, its unit cell, becomes larger and more complex, the atomic-
level picture provided by X-ray crystallography becomes less well-resolved for a given
number of observed reflections.
If the diffraction pattern is not clear, then the sample may not be pure and will be purified
at this point. But other factors can prevent a diffraction pattern from being generated
including a too-small sample (needs to be at 0.1 nm in each dimension), an irregular
crystal structure, and the presence of any internal imperfections—such as cracks—in the
crystal.
22
23. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
1. Justify use of X-Ray to study crystal structure.
2. Is there any term like polycrystalline?
3. Differentiate between crystalline and amorphous materials.
4. Explain non primitive unit cell
5. Define unit cell, space lattice, basis.
6. How many crystal systems are there and describe them.
7. Predict the unit cell for NaCl
23
24. SUMMARY
Crystallography is a field of science that deals with arrangements of
atoms.
There are three types of matter of state.
Crystalline materials are those have periodic arrangements of atoms.
Space lattice and basis form complete crystal.
Unit cell is smallest repeating unit in crystals.
There are 6 parameters of one unit cell.
There are 7 crystal systems and 14 Bravais lattice. 24
Solids
In the solid state the vibrating particles form a regular pattern. This explains the fixed shape of a solid and why it can’t be compressed or poured.
Liquids
In a liquid the particles still touch their neighbours but they move around, sliding over each other. This is why you can pour, but not compress, a liquid.
Gases
In the gas state, widely-spaced particles move around randomly. This explains why you can compress gases and why they flow.
Plasma
like a gas, plasma has no defined shape or volume. It can expand to fill a container. However, the particles in plasma are ionized (carry an electric charge) and very widely separated from each other. Examples of plasma include:
Lightning
Neon sign
Earth’s ionosphere
Sun’s corona
Aurora
Static electricity
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. For e.g metals -many ceramics -some polymers
an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal for e.g. Glass-Ceramics
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. For e.g metals -many ceramics -some polymers
an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal for e.g. Glass-Ceramics
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. For e.g metals -many ceramics -some polymers
an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal for e.g. Glass-Ceramics
Space lattice-a regular, indefinitely repeated array of points in three dimensions in which the points lie at the intersections of three sets of parallel equidistant planes.
Basis- every lattice point with an assembly of atoms or molecules or ions, which are identical in composition, arrangement and orientation, is called as the basis
UNIT cell- The simplest repeating unit in a crystal is called a unit cell
Primitive unit cell – The cell which is having minimum volume. For e.g Simple cubic
Non primitive unit cell- The cell is having relatively larger volume. For e.g FCC, BCC