Cross-Cultural PsychologyChapter 2 Methodology of Cross-Cult.docx

Cross-Cultural Psychology
Chapter 2
Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research
A blind man who sees is better than a seeing man who is blind.
Persian Proverb
Never believe on faith, see for yourself! What you yourself
don’t learn, you don’t know.
Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956)—
Twentieth-Century German Playwright
Shiraev/Levy Cross-Cultural Psychology 5/e
1
Goals of Cross-Cultural Research
Imagine, a researcher wants to find similarities and differences
between arranged marriage practiced in India and nonarranged
marriages in the United States and how they affect marital
stability. What does the psychologist aim to pursue in this
particular project?
First, the researcher wants to describe the findings of this
research.
Then, when some differences between ethnic groups are found,
the researcher tries to explain whether these factors affect

stability.
The practical value of the study may be significant if it not only
explains but also predicts the factors that should determine
successful marital relationships in both studied groups.
2
Love marriages are like hot soup that cool overtime, arranged
marriages are like cold soup that warm up.
-Outsourced
“There is never a time or place for true love. It happens
accidentally, in a heartbeat, in a single flashing, throbbing
moment.”
― Sarah Dessen, The Truth About Forever
Different cultures and even people within these cultures have
different perspectives on love and marriage.
3
First, the researcher wants to describe the findings of this
research.
Then, when some differences between ethnic groups are found,
the researcher tries to explain whether these factors affect
stability.
The practical value of the study may be significant if it not only
explains but also predicts the factors that should determine
successful marital relationships in both studied groups.
Factors that Affect Marital Stability
What we aim to do as cultural psychologists is to describe,
explain, and predict behavior.

4
Two strategies in cross-cultural research
Application-Oriented
Strategy
Comparativist
Strategy
Application oriented attempts to establish research findings
obtained in one country to the culture of another. Comparativist
trys to find similarities and differences in sampling of cultures.
5
equivalence. Indicates that the evidence that the methods
selected for the study measure the same phenomenon across
other cultures chosen for the study.
Method A is used to study anxiety in France and Italy
Method B is used to study anxiety in India and Pakistan
The results will likely to be incompatible due to the equivalency
problem
!
Consider a study that measures anxiety using a self-report
survey in France but a study which uses observation of a
population and measures number of anxiety educing instances in
an Indian population. While they may attempt to measure the
same thing, they will not likely be equivalent.
6
A sample of a multi-step approach to cross-cultural research
design
Step 1. Describe a problem (an issue) you have to investigate.

Review the scholarly literature on the topic.
Step 2. Identify your research goal, i.e. explain what you want
to achieve as a result. Then introduce one or several hypotheses
for your study.
Step 3. Identify and describe the research sample of your study:
groups of people, newspaper reports, children’s drawings, texts,
etc.
Step 4. Choose or design a methodology for your project.
1. Review the scholarly literature on the topic. You may use
popular journals, magazines, and newspapers for additional
references. Check available sources in the language of the
country or countries you examine, if necessary.
2. Then introduce one or several hypotheses for your study. You
can use at least two strategies; (a) inductive: you collect data
first, and then make a conclusion about the studied samples; (b)
deductive: you select a hypothesis first; then you collect data to
demonstrate or reject the selected hypothesis
3.Determine who you ideally want to study. Who is your
targeted audience? Who are you most interested in? Which
cultures do you want to know about? Then, once you have
identified your ideal group of people, you then can start
figuring out who you actually can get to participate. What
sources of data are available to you? How would you go about
recruiting the people you want or obtaining the data you need?
4. Make sure that your method does not violate research ethics.
Refer to your local Human Subjects Review Board for approval.
Put together a schedule (time-table) for your project.

7
A sample of a multi-step approach to cross-cultural research
design
Step 5. Conduct a pilot study, a preliminary exploration of the
method to see how your methodology works and whether there
are any obstacles to data collection.
Step 6. Collect research data.
Step 7. Interpret you data using statistical procedures.
Step 8. Present the results and analyze them critically in a
report.
Step 9. In your report, suggest where and how your data should
be or could be used (i.e., in education, counseling,
advertisement, conflict-resolution, etc.)
5. Most studies have a pilot study. This is simply a smaller
version of your full study. It helps understand what is working
and what needs to be fixed. For example, you may find that your
scales do not work in Spanish as well as they do in English. A
pilot study allows you to get all of the kinks worked out before
the real thing and therefore helps your full study run more
smoothly.
9. Always discuss the implications of your study. Who can be
helped by your research? How can it be used? Are there
limitations?
8
Sample selection in cross-cultural research

Convenience Sampling
Systematic
Sampling
Random Sampling
What are each of these types of sampling?
Convenience sampling comes from taking a sample population
that is readily available.
Systematic sampling is a mix between convenience and random.
Make sure to read up on this from your text book! This is a
common procedure for funded research projects.
Random sampling is the ideal. Everyone in the population has
an equal chance of being selected and individuals are chosen at
random to be included in the study.
What do you think is the most common sample population for
psychological studies? College students. Why? Because most
research takes place at universities and they are the largest and
most readily accessible population.
9
Sample selection in cross-cultural research
Are our theories UNIVERSAL or CULTURE-SPECIFIC?
SAT
ScoresReadingMathWriting25%75%25%75%25%75%Brown630
740650760640750Columbia690780700790690780West Virginia
Wesleyan College410520440550390520West Virginia
University Institute of Technology400520410570--Texas
A&M530650570670510UH480590520630

Example here we have a table with 6 schools. If we conducted a
study on the relationship of the American economic state,
willingness to travel, and perception of job prospects among
each of these schools individually do you think we would find
the same thing? What factors might alter our findings from one
sample to another? Do these scores mean more than they are
telling us (SES, parental guidance, support, drive, willingness
to leave home town).
Main point here: SAMPLING MAKES A BIG DIFFERENCE IN
THE RESULTS THAT YOU FIND!! Your results are based on
the people you selected. If that means that you only selected
middle/upper class white college females, then your data only
really applies to that specific group of people. Chances are, if
you have sampled a different set of people (e.g., lower class,
male, elderly) then you would have different results. The degree
that these results do not change across different groups is called
“generalizability”.
10
Universals are Etics
Culture Specifics are Emics
Are our theories UNIVERSAL or CULTURE-SPECIFIC?
Are there universal rules for all things? Most things?
For example, is killing in self defense ok? There are those who

believe so greatly in non-violence that even self defense is not
allowed among their sect (Jainism)
11
Sample’s Size
Estimates derived from large samples are more reliable than
estimates derived from small samples.
VS
An illustration: What do you think: does “7 out of 10” look like
better odds than “60 out of 100”? Yes, it looks like the first one
is better. However, which of these indicators is more reliable?
The more reliable indicator is the “60 out of 100” because it is
drawn from a larger, that is, more reliable sample.
Basic methods of cross-cultural research
Observation
Survey Methods
Content-Analysis
Experimental studies
Observation is observing behavior, making notes, field studies.
This typically does not involve any interaction or manipulation
on the part of the observer.
Survey Methods aim to understand behaviors by asking people
to rate their responses for attitudes, behaviors, emotions,
personality traits, etc. These are very convenient but since you

are not actually measuring the real behavior, it can be biased by
the participants willingness to please and perception biases.
Experimental Studies these are studies where you are actively
manipulating and controlling the environment to determine the
effect on a measureable outcome. Common examples include
drug trials or cognitive therapy. In these cases, your baseline
level is measured, then you are given the treatment, and then
they see if the treatment impacted your levels on depression or
whatever psychological construct they are measuring.
Content analysis or textual analysis is a methodology in
the social sciences for studying the content
of communication. Earl Babbie defines it as "the study of
recorded human communications, such
as books, websites, paintings and laws."
13
Scientific Observation
What are the differences between
scientific and non-scientific observation?
Most of the time, non-scientific observation is often
spontaneous and biased. The observer’s attitudes can have an
impact on the results of observation.
A scientific cross-cultural observation should use measurable
variables. For example, a study measures how fast the
individuals walked on the streets on New York, Tokyo, and
Teheran.
Surveys
Why Surveys?
Easy to Collect Data
Cheap
Common
Easy to Replicate
Easy to Analyze Data

15
Test Translation
Cultural Applicability
Cultural Bias
Obstacles in Cross-Cultural Research
Some of the problems with cross-cultural research are test
translation, cultural applicability, and cultural bias. Things may
not mean the same thing (translation) or be meaningful
(applicability) in other cultures. In addition, the cultural
perceptions can greatly bias the responses of participants. For
example, although there is homosexuality across the U.S.,
people may be more willing to discuss their sexual orientation
with researchers in a large city like San Francisco than in a
small traditional rural America town. The culture of the place
you live and the norms of that culture can bias the types of
responses you get as well as the way questions are interpreted.
16
Test Translation
“Sexual
harassment”
“Privacy”
“Shame and
Embarrassment”

If you are bilingual, translate the following
words in another language. Next, translate
them back in English. What will you get?
Sometimes there can be issues with translation across
languages. The connotations of words can change and the
questions may not end up asking the exact same thing. This
presents a problem when you are trying to compare across
different cultures.
To help avoid this, we typically use a procedure called “back-
translating” where the translator translates it from the first
language to a second one and then another person translates the
second one back into the first language. Then, you can check if
the two words/questions in the first language are the same.
17
Cultural Applicability
My neighbor has just received some singular
visitors. He received one after the other a doctor, a lawyer, and

a priest. What is going on at my neighbor’s?
(Alfred Binet. From an IQ test, the early 1900s)
Could a child from a non-Western
culture understand this question?
The rituals, norms, jokes, and common sayings often included in
questions are not always applicable to other cultures. When
doing cross cultural research, you have to be careful that all
aspects of the question and the research methodology apply to
the cultures involved. For example, often child IQ or math tests
reference food items such as ice cream or hamburgers (e.g., if
Johnny orders three hamburgers at $3 each, how much did it
cost). However, not all children have had exposure to a
hamburger (e.g., children in Rural India). These questions then
can cause confusion and often result in lower scores that are not
truly representative of the child’s ability level.
18
Cultural Bias
In self-assessment surveys, three national groups consistently
mark themselves as “hardest working”:
Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.
Respondents from Chinese, Korean, and Japanese samples
evaluate themselves among least hard-working in the world!
The way you respond to a question often is how you feel in
relation to your peers or those around you. In cultures, such as

those in China, Korea, and Japan, where working hard is the
norm, applicants are likely to say they do not work that hard
(because they see their peers and the media representations of
others working really hard – so they may feel that they are not
working as hard as other people). The way people rate
themselves is very closely tied to their cultural norms and the
levels of these traits in other people – often these ratings are
more of a comparison rating than a true score (even if we ask
the question in regards to a true score).
19
Experiment
Independent Variable:
Conditions controlled by the experimenter
Dependent Variable:
Something you study
Other methods of cross-cultural research
Content-Analysis
Meta-Analysis
Focus-Group Methodology
Meta- Analysis takes the findings from many different studies
and statistically tests to see what the overall conclusions are.
Focus-Group methodology is where you have groups of people
who sit down and discuss the topics of interest. These are
usually guided by a mediator and are analyzed using content
analysis or qualitative methodology.
21
Comparing two Phenomena in Cross-Cultural Psychology

The ABSOLUTIST approach(universalist) will argue that
psychological phenomena are basically the same in all cultures:
honesty is honesty, sexual abuse is abuse, and depression is
depression. Within this approach, there is a tendency to use the
standards of one group as the norms for viewing other groups.
The RELATIVIST suggests that human behavior in its full
complexity can be understood only within the context of the
culture in which it occurs. Therefore, the scientist should study
an individual’s psychology from within his culture.
22
Beware of Cultural Dichotomies!
There could be fewer differences between two “dissimilar”
groups that you may think
Or, there could be more differences between two apparently
“similar” groups
Formal Analysis Paper Rubric
Art 114 - Art History Survey I
Writing (10 points)

The student communicated ideas clearly and avoided
significant spelling, punctuation,
and other errors. The paper is written in paragraph form.
Formality is maintained (no
contractions, abbreviations, slang terms, colloquialisms).
Observations and depth of analysis (30 points)
The student wrote an in-depth analysis of the work of art. The
observations are accurate
and demonstrate close observation. The student used
vocabulary terms as appropriate and
showed a strong understanding of the significance and process
of analyzing a work of art in
terms of the formal elements.
Basic guidelines met (10 points)
The student followed the basic guidelines for the assignment
(font size, length, etc.). The
student included an image of the work of art.
Total: 50 points

Reminder: You must write about a work of art from the Ackland
Art Museum or the NCMA
collections and from the appropriate time period. Papers that do
not follow these guidelines will
be accepted at half credit only (25 points).
Name
Formal Analysis of Haniwa Figure of a Warrior
The Haniwa Figure of a Warrior is from the sixth century
Kofun period (ca. 300-710) in
Japan. The statue is 22 7/8 inches high. The work is made from
earthenware, with incised and
applied decoration. The artwork was originally painted,
although most of the paint is no longer
visible. In this sculpture, composition, form, and line work
together to create a stylized depiction
of a strong and capable warrior.
The Haniwa Figure of a Warrior is a sculpture in the round.
The work is modeled from

clay (earthenware), and carved/incised to add detail such as the
armor. The helmet was added to
the work, and additional clay pieces were modeled and applied
at the neck area, perhaps to
represent jewelry or some other warrior-related equipment. The
sculpture is stylized, or
simplified, as viewers are able to identify the basic form of the
warrior but it is not realistic. The
head is complete with a moderate amount of detail, but the arms
are incomplete or perhaps
broken. The torso is covered in pattern, likely to represent
armor, and the legs are missing
altogether.
The composition of the work is mostly symmetrical giving a
sense of overall balance.
The nose appears to be directly in the center of the work, and
the eyes are set equidistant from
one another, while the mouth is centered directly below the
nose. The symmetry and rigidity of
the facial features conveys the strength of the warrior to the
audience.
The form of the work is composed of two pyramids, stacked on
top of each other forming

an hourglass. The top pyramid is inverted to represent the
warrior’s broad shoulders at the top,
funneling down to the tip signifying a narrowed waist. The
bottom pyramid, which is upright,
connects to the waist and forms the lower half of the body.
There is an overall geometric
appearance to the form of this figure which suggests the
regularity and order of a soldier’s life.
Lines are another important element of this work. They run
mostly vertically, with a few
horizontally, creating a pattern which serves as the warrior’s
armor. Some of the lines are
incised, while others are modeled. There is texture to the work
with the incised lines, as well as
the eyes and mouth and the modeled nose, helmet and body. The
patterned body creates a sense
of movement and rhythm.
The artist’s use of symmetry, form, line, pattern, and
stylization combine to convey the
warrior’s strength, power and serious demeanor to the viewer.
Further, the lines and geometric

form reinforce the strength and vitality of the warrior. Overall,
the formal elements work
together harmoniously to strikingly express the warrior’s
imposing qualities to the audience.
Short Formal Analysis Paper Guidelines
A formal analysis reveals the ways in which an artist
manipulates formal devices (composition, line, shape,
color, etc.) to convey the subject and/or meaning of a work to
the viewer. The key to formal analysis is
critical and close observation of the work of art.
Assignment:
Write a formal analysis of ONE work of art in the collection of
the Ackland Art Museum (Chapel Hill) or the
North Carolina Museum of Art, West Building (Raleigh). You
may choose to write about any object in one
these two collections, but it must be a work of art created

during the time period we are studying in this
class (prehistory through 1400).
To write this paper, please visit one of these institutions and
select ONE object to analyze. Be sure to choose
an object that is easy to analyze (you don’t want to run out of
observations!). Both offer free admission. At
the NCMA please go to the West Building where the permanent
collection is located and admission is free.
Links to both museums will be provided. If you cannot visit
either museum, please search these collections
online to choose an object to write about for your paper.
Ackland Art Museum: http://ackland.org/collections/ (Click on
“Search the Ackland’s Collection Database
and select a department from the scroll down menu or search by
time period, culture, or medium).
North Carolina Museum of Art Collection:
http://ncartmuseum.org/art/collection/ (search the African,
Ancient American, Classical, or Egyptian collections)
*Be sure to follow the above guidelines. You must write about
a work of art from one of these collections

and from the appropriate time period. Papers that do not follow
these guidelines will be accepted at half
credit only.
Using our lecture on Formal Analysis as your guide (Week 1),
address the most important formal elements
of the work you chose. For instance, you might find that you
have a lot to write about line, color, and light,
but nothing to discuss regarding motion and texture. Since this
is a short paper, you should focus on the
key elements in the work. Please choose at least 2 to discuss.
List of formal elements/principles: composition, line, color,
depth of space, shape or form, light, texture,
time & motion, proportion or scale.
Length: 1 – 1 ½ pages (approx. 300-500 words). Your paper
should be double-spaced with 1” margins and
12-point font. Use Times New Roman, or a similar font.
Due: Thursday, June 15th at 11:59pm EST. Upload your paper
as ONE word document to Sakai (in

Assignments). You must also include an image of your chosen
work of art at the end of your word
document. If you have questions about how to include an
image, please let me know.
http://ackland.org/collections/
http://ncartmuseum.org/art/collection/
As stated in the Syllabus, papers will be downgraded 10% of the
total for every day they are late (for this
assignment your paper will be downgraded 5 points each day).
Papers will only be accepted up to one week
late (papers submitted after 1 week will receive “0” points).
Points: 50
Things to keep in mind:
1. A formal analysis is not a personal response to a work of art
but an attempt to understand how the formal
elements shape a viewer’s response to the work. In other
words, remain objective. What you like or do not
like about the work of art is not important here.

2. The main questions to consider when doing your analysis:
Why did the artist choose certain formal
elements? How are they used?
3. Be sure to ANALYZE the work of art – do not just describe
it. Think about what effect the colors, lines,
etc. have on the work and the viewer.
4. Look closely at your work of art (in person, if possible).
5. Do not try to interpret the work of art – I’m not looking for
you to decipher meaning. This would require
research.
6. Do not discuss the formal elements like a list. Instead, your
paper should be written in essay form and it
should flow logically as you move from a discussion of one
formal element to the next.
7. This is an exercise in looking and your paper should include
your own observations only. DO NOT
RESEARCH your work of art. However, if you draw on
information that you have acquired outside of
lectures and assigned readings, please be sure to cite these

outside sources! Please choose a consistent
citation style—MLA, APA, Chicago.
8. Proofread your paper after you have written it. Be sure to
avoid common mistakes and make sure you
are communicating your ideas clearly. Also, do not use
contractions in formal writing and avoid using
personal pronouns (I, we, my).
9. Plagiarism results in a zero for the assignment and the
offense will be reported to the Office of the Chief
Instructional Officer.
Your paper should consist of:
• Name at the top (give yourself credit!)
• Brief Introduction: description of the work (What is it? When
was it created? Other basic
information) and tell the reader which elements you plan to
analyze.
• Analysis of at least 2 formal elements (2 solid paragraphs)
• Brief conclusion
• Image
• No Research, Just Close Looking!

Formal Analysis Guide
1. Brief Introduction: describe your work of art:
• Artist (if known), title, date, country, culture
• Size (in general terms: life-size, colossal, miniature, etc.)
• Materials and methods used (e.g. textile, wood, bronze, oil,
etc.)
• Subject matter
2. Begin your analysis
The questions listed below are intended to help you look at and
analyze art. They are not a checklist
of questions that must be answered in your analysis. Some will
be pertinent to your topic; some will
not. Part of the assignment is for you to figure out which are
the most relevant to your analysis. It is helpful,
however, to begin by noting the type of sculpture, painting, etc.
and the choice of materials before beginning

your analysis. Also try to think in terms of cause and effect.
For example, “The relief is deeply carved. Its
surface is highly polished. The sculpture reflects light and
captures shadow causing the bright figures to
stand out boldly against the dark background. This sharp
contrast between light and dark imparts drama to
the scene...”
Helpful Questions for Three-dimensional works
A. Type: Is it low or high relief, a freestanding figure, a group
of figures, a group of figures, a combination
of these?
B. Methods and Materials: How was the work made? Was it
carved out of wood or stone (subtractive
method)? Is it modeled from clay or wax, then cast in bronze
(additive method)? How does the choice of
method and material affect the shape, scale, or design of the
work?
C. Style: Are the forms portrayed naturalistically, are they
idealized, or is the work abstract or non-
representational?

D. Composition: Is the arrangement of forms symmetrical or
asymmetrical? Is the basic form open or
closed? That is, does it have a simple, contained silhouette, or
do parts thrust out in various directions? If the
sculpture is composed of a number of different figures or forms,
how are these arranged in relation to each
other?
E. Form: What kind of volumetric forms are basic to the work?
Are the forms regular and geometric, such as
cones, cubes, or pyramids? Or are they irregular?
F. Space: How do form and space interact? Is the work a relief
that creates the illusion of space within it? Is
the figure meant to be seen in space from a particular view? Is it
frontal? Does it turn in space? Can its
composition be understood from one view only, or from many
views?
G. Line: Is there decorative linear emphasis on the surface of
the sculpture? Are the dominant linear

elements seen in the forms themselves or are they incised in the
surface of the forms? Describe the character
of the lines: Primarily horizontal, vertical, diagonal, smooth and
flowing? Do lines direct the way in which
one “reads” the work?
H. Light: How does light affect the work? Are the forms and
surfaces arranged so that a particular effect of
light and shade will be attained? Does light enhance or play
against contour? Does light affect the spatial
qualities of the work?
I. Color and Texture: Consider the surface texture. Is it polished
or unpolished? How does this affect the play
of light and the expressive qualities of the work? Consider the
color of the material, if visible. Is color
added?
J. Movement: Do the above factors add a sense of movement or
stillness? Does the work have a sense of
rhythm?
Helpful Questions for Three-dimensional works

A. Type of work: Is it a single canvas, panel, or frame? Is it a
diptych or triptych? Is it one of a pair or
series? Is the project finished or in progress?
B. Methods and Materials: How was the object made? What is
the relationship between the choice and use
of material and the support? Is it permanent or ephemeral?
How do the medium and technique affect the
overall appearance of the work?
C. Style: Are the forms portrayed naturalistically, are they
idealized, or is the work abstract or non-
representational?
D. Composition (Surface Organization): How are the forms
arranged on the surface of the canvas, picture
plane or photograph? Is the composition symmetrical or
asymmetrical? Balanced or unbalanced? Simple or
complex? Are rhythms created by the repetition of shapes or
colors, or by the relationship of lines and forms
to each other? Why are things placed where they are?
E. Shapes: What types of shapes are used in the composition?
Do they tend to be geometric, or free and

irregular? Are certain shapes used more than others are? Do
patterns emerge in the use of particular shapes?
F. Line: How do lines organize the composition? Are lines
important as silhouettes, as edges or forms, as
modeling lines (e.g., cross-hatching)? Do particular types of
lines dominate the composition (long, quiet
horizontals, soft flowing curves, or short, choppy strokes)? Do
lines create rhythm or sense of motion? Do
they communicate ideas or emotions: strong verticals, calming
horizontals, dynamic diagonals?
G. Color: What is the organization and intensity of colors?
Consider hue, value, and intensity. How do colors
relate to each other: in bold contrast or gradual transition? Is
color used to focus your attention on certain
areas of the composition? How does color help create an
illusion of light or depth?
H. Space: Is an illusion of space created or denied? Is the
depicted space shallow or deep? How are forms
arranged within the depicted space? Are they pressed close to
the picture plane? Are they set back into the
background or into the middle or foreground? What devices are
used to create an illusion of space (if there is

one)? Consider overlapping, foreshortening, diminishing scale,
etc.
I. Light: Can a light source be localized? In what direction does
light fall in the picture? What is its intensity
and character: evenly distributed, flickering out of shadows, or
no depicted illumination at all? Is light used
to direct your attention to certain parts of the composition? How
does it affect the illusion of space? What
kinds of contrast do you see between the lights and the darks in
your image? Are there specific areas that are
highlighted in the work?
J. Brushwork: Is it visible? Does it produce tight forms and
contours, or free, irregular shapes? How is it
related to light, color, form, and rhythm? What kind of surface
texture is created smooth, matte, glossy,
patchy, open? Does brushwork have an impact on the overall
work?
K. Texture: How is it presented (only actual or illusionistic
too?) and what effect does it have on the work?

Why is it important to the effect the artist is trying to create?
L. Focus: Which areas appear sharpest? Are there areas that
are deliberately unfocused or unclear?
M. Movement: Do the above factors play a role in providing a
sense of movement or stillness? Do you sense
an overall rhythm in the work?
3. Conclusion
Review your key observations about the work of art.
Title
Short Formal Analysis Paper
Due
Jun 12, 2017 11:00 am
Status
In progress
Modified by instructor
May 25, 2017 9:49 am
Instructions
Your paper for this course is the Short Formal Analysis Paper.

Please click the attachment to read the guidelines for this
assignment. The other attachments consist of a helpful guide,
an example of a successful formal analysis paper (that moves
beyond description to engage in a full analysis), and the rubric
for this assignment.
For your visit to the museums, you can follow these links for
directions and hours
http://ncartmuseum.org/
http://ackland.org/
*** any art work can be viewed online ***
Welcome to
Cross-Cultural Psychology !!
Candice Thomas
Welcome to class!
1
Chapter 1
Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology
Remember that all things are only opinions and that it is in your
power to think as you please.
Marcus Aurelius (112–180 c.e.)—
Roman Emperor And Stoic Philosopher
The West can teach the East how to get a living, but the East
must eventually be asked to show the West how to live.
Tehyi Hsieh (Twentieth Century)—
Chinese Educator and Diplomat
Please make sure to read the textbook for each assigned chapter.

The text book is intended to serve as a guide to supplement the
lectures – the lectures alone will not be enough to master the
material.
2
Thought activity: What are these men doing?
Think about this image silently. What can you tell me about
their posture? What is the event suggested by their posture?
Who thinks that these men are dancing? Who thinks they are
fighting?
Some cultures don’t allow men to dance with men. Some
cultures don’t allow dancing at all.
Across cultures identifying objects is uniform, where people
differed was in interpretation. Ambiguous pictures such as
these bring out cultural differences due to background. Culture
predisposes toward one interpretation over another. Our culture
predisposes us to perceive the world and others in a certain
way, and this perception can leads to differences in thinking,
feeling, and finally acting.
3
CULTURE
a set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large
group of people and usually communicated from one generation
to the next.
Key Definitions

4
Cross-Cultural Psychology:
The critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human
psychology
Key Definitions
Because cross-cultural psychology is about comparisons, and
the act of comparison requires a particular set of critical skills,
this study is inseparable from critical thinking.
This is a comparative field. Any study in cross-cultural
psychology draws its conclusions from at least two samples that
represent at least two cultural groups.
Key Definitions
This is really the main theme of the course. Everyone one comes
here (myself included) with an established set of experiences,
beliefs, and expectations. If you leave this class with nothing
else, the ability to think critically about your experiences and
beliefs as well as those of others then this class is a general
success. Throughout the semester you should be prepared to
have your own views of the world challenged and be able to
support these views not only with opinion but with both logical
discussion as well as empirical evidence from the readings.
6
Cross-Cultural
Claims that human behavior is meaningful only when viewed in
the sociocultural context in which it occurs.

Key Definitions
Cultural psychology
Seeks to discover meaningful links between a culture and the
psychology of individuals living in this culture
7
Within Group Variance
Within a cultural group, there can be Within Group Varaince.
This is the differences between people within a group. Even if
you look at only a signgle cultural group, differences between
people will still exist (e.g. politics, preferences…)
Between Group Variance
This refers to differences that exist between groups. For
example, the difference between Eastern and Western ideologies
would be considered between group variance.
Key Definitions
When we are talking about differences between people, we
commonly specify if these differences are “within group” or
“between group”. Within group differences are the individual
differences that you find within a cultural group. For example,
if you are looking at a group of Western ideology based people
living within the United States, you would still find differences
in these people’s experiences, personalities, and preferences.
These differences are called within group variance/variability.
Conversely, if you are comparing multiple cultural groups to
each other, the differences between people in different cultural
groups is called between group variance. Distinguishing
between these two types of variance helps to understand if you
are comparing cross-culturally or if you are looking only at a

single culture.
8
Race - A large group of people distinguished by certain similar
and genetically transmitted physical characteristics.
Ethnicity - A cultural heritage shared by a category of people
who also share a common ancestral origin, language, and
religion.
Nation - A large group of people who constitute a legitimate,
independent state, and share a common geographical origin,
history, and frequently language.
Key Definitions
Racial Categories in the United States
White
Native American
Asian
Hispanic
Black
Pacific Islander
In the U.S. there are a variety of different racial categories.
These are the 6 most commonly identified with races here in the
U.S.
10
US Population in 2010 and 2050 (estimates)
The U.S. Bureau of the Census

According to some estimates by 2050 white/non Hispanic will
be half or even less than half of the US population. What does
this mean for the united states? How will our basic
understanding of cultures change between now and then? What
are the benefits of cultural psychology and cross cultural
psychology when provided with this information?
11
Knowledge in Cross-Cultural Psychology
Scientific knowledge: accumulated through research,
systematic empirical observation, and evaluation of
psychological phenomena.
Popular beliefs. Everyday assumptions about psychological
phenomena; such assumptions are often expressed in the form of
beliefs, evaluations, or prescriptions.
Ideological or Value-based knowledge. A consistent set of
beliefs about the world, right and wrong, and the purpose of
central idea.
Legal knowledge. Dictated by law and detailed in rules and
principles related to psychological functioning of individuals.
These rules are established by legal authorities.
There are many different types of knowledge. It is important to
understand were the information you are getting from books,
online, television, news… comes from. Each of these types of
knowledge is associated with different types of assumptions and
standards. Critically thinking about where your knowledge
comes from and what type of knowledge it is key to being a
cultural psychologist!
12

Why did the tribal leaders deny that there was a party?
While some cultures may have interpreted the last picture as
dancing and some as fighting what cues from our own culture
would lead us to our own conclusion?
Recently in the news there were reports that a group of 17 were
murdered (15 beheaded) for a mixed gender party. The mixed
gender party has since been ruled out as a possibility for why
these people were killed and it is instead now said that it was
because of a feud. When leaders in the area were asked about
the party they denied it before the truth of the feud was
discovered.
If this occurred here in the US why would it likely be denied
that there is no way a beheading occurred because of a mixed
gender party?
Why do you think the leaders denied any possibility of a party
in Afghanistan?
The reason was that they claimed that dancing, and singing were
so taboo in the region that the idea of men and women dancing
together is simply not even a possibility.
Our own culture and cultural experiences are a critical part of
our understanding and interpretation of the world and events.
Because our cultural environment influences our perceptions
and view points, cultural psychology argues that the study of
psychology MUST be done taking culture into account.
Why

13
Knowledge
Ideology
Scientific
Legal
Culture
Individual Behavior
Popular
The Impact of Knowledge on Culture and Behavior
The different types of knowledge combine to influence a
group’s culture. This culture then in turn influences individual
behavior. The study of cultural psychology looks at how culture
influences individual behavior and how behavior is difference
across different cultures.
14
predominantly in the past
confined in local or regional boundaries
restricting
mostly intolerant to social innovations
Traditional culture: The term used to describe cultures based
largely on beliefs, rules, symbols, and principles established:

Key Definitions
What is an example of a more restricting culture here in the US?
Traditional religious groups, such as the Amish or some native
American groups?
15
relatively open to other cultures
absorbing and dynamic
science-based and technology-driven
relatively tolerant to social innovations
Non-Traditional culture: The term used to describe cultures
based largely on modern beliefs, rules, symbols, and principles:
Key Definitions
What are some examples of some non-traditional cultures? Does
the united states contain more traditional or non-traditional
cultures? What are some examples of clashes between non-
traditional and traditional cultures
16
Uncertainty Orientation: Common ways in which people handle
uncertainty in their daily situations and lives in general.
Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree to which the members of a
society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
Key Definitions
One important cultural dimension is regarding the culture’s
feelings towards uncertainty. This is called uncertainty
orientation. The degree to which cultures get uncomfortable

with uncertainty or ambiguity is called uncertainty avoidance.
How people interact with each other and new situations is often
governed by their cultural uncertainty orientation and
avoidance.
17
Collectivism: The steak that sticks up gets hammered down
Individualism: Remember always that you not only have the
right to be an individual you have an obligation to be one.
― Eleanor Roosevelt
Key Definitions
One of the primary ways in which we describe a culture is
whether they tend towards collectivism or individualism
ideologies. Collectivism is characterized by the group and the
group goals having priority over the individual. Individualism
on the other hand, focuses on the goals of the individual as top
priority. American’s typically have an individualistic mindset
whereas countries such as China are often characterized by a
collectivist mindset. The degree to which a culture aligns with
either individual or collectivistic values plays a big role in how
people interact, the goals of the people, and the priorities given
to different behaviors.
18

Vertical Collectivism:
Power, subordination, achievement
Horizontal Collectivism:
Relationships, harmony, equality
Collectivism and individualism can be studied in “vertical”
social structures such as: formal contacts between a supervisor
and an employee, a religious authority and a believer.
Collectivism and individualism can also be studied in
“horizontal” social structures including love, partnership,
friendship, family communications, and so forth.
Vertical collectivism includes perceiving the self as a part (or
an aspect) of a collective and accepting inequalities within the
collective (E.g., cast systems). Horizontal collectivism includes
perceiving the self as a part of the collective, but seeing all
members of the collective as the same (e.g., Buddhists); thus
equality is stressed.
Vertical individualism includes the conception of an
autonomous individual and acceptance of inequality(capitalism).
Horizontal individualism includes the conception of an
autonomous individual and emphasis on equality(socialism).
19
“Cultural syndrome” is the pattern, or combination, of shared
attitudes, beliefs, categorizations, definitions, norms, and
values that is organized around a theme and shared by people in
a particular culture. Examples of such syndromes include:
Tightness Cultural complexity Honor

Cultural Syndromes
Would you suggest other syndromes?
Tightness—particular rules and norms applied to social
situations and sanctions applied to those who violate these
norms.
Cultural complexity—a number of different cultural elements;
activity and passivity (for instance, action versus thought).
Honor—attitudes and practices that support aggressive actions
in the name of self-protection. (according to the book however
honor can also relate to lack of aggressive actions, for example
in some cultures any form of violence is dishonorable and is a
sign of lack of self control or discipline.)
20
Cross-Cultural Psychology: Approaches
Evolutionary
Cultural Mixtures
Sociological
Ecocultural
There are different approaches to study cross-cultural
psychology. These include evolutionary, eco cultural,
sociological, and cultural mixtures.
Evolutionary: model that explores the ways in which
evolutionary end factors affect human behavior and thus lay a
natural foundation for human culture. This theoretical paradigm

claims that general biological laws of behavior are perfectly
suited as a fundamental explanation of human behavior. Culture
is just a form of existence that provides for fundamental human
needs and subsequent goals.
Sociological Approach - is a general view of human behavior
that focuses on broad social structures that influence society as
a whole, and subsequently its individuals.
Ecocultural: a cross-disciplinary and comprehensive approach
according to which people constantly exchange messages with
the environment, thus transforming it and themselves. These
interactions are reciprocal. This means that we not only have a
relationship with our surroundings but it interacts with and
changes to us.
21
The Integrative Approach
Resources and access to them
Culture
Activity: the individual’s goal-directed interaction with the
environment
Psychological Phenomena studied in Cross-Cultural Psychology
Key Definitions

Culture and resources have a fairly obvious relationship to
people’s activities. However as educators, students, and
researchers we have to remember that our own views and
therefore our work is always altered by our cultural views and
our access to resources. We may ask the wrong questions or ask
questions in the wrong ways
22
So, what is culture?
This is the iceberg model of culture. Although culture is
comprised of many different things, typically only a few things
are easily visible without “diving deeper” and getting to know
people in these cultures. It is important to remember that culture
is much more than just the easily visible pieces!
23
The Cultural Metaphor
Despite the large amount of information cross-cultural
researchers have gathered, it is often difficult to convey to
others exactly what a specific culture is like.
Kashima (1994) explains that metaphors allow us to more easily
grasp a new concept by framing it in terms of something
familiar.
e.g., the melting pot for immigrant cultures
Martin J. Gannon (2002) proposes the use of cultural metaphors
as a way to easily express a cultural mindset and compare it to
that of other cultures.
Allows us to more easily grasp a new concept by framing it in
terms of something familiar.
These metaphors involve identifying an activity or phenomenon
that most members of a culture would view as important, and
then using it as a metaphor for describing key features of the

cultural group.
24
Example Metaphor: Hair Salon
Reinforces gender roles
Barbers for men, hair dresser or stylist for women
Many times gender specific (men go to barber shops; women go
to salons)
Place for gender specific socialization
Women reinforce relational norms or valuing relationships
Men reinforce a boys club or “locker room” vibe
25
Race/Origin
2010
2050
All people
308, 936,000
420,000,000
White, non- Hispanic
201,112,000
210,283,000
Black
40,454,000
61,361,000
Hispanic-Latino
47,760,000
102,560,000
Asian
14,941,000

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