The document discusses the use of inclusive technologies in education to support diverse learners and enhance academic success. It emphasizes selecting appropriate technological tools for various classroom environments and includes strategies for managing technology effectively. The text offers resources and features to aid educators in developing a technology toolkit that aligns with their teaching philosophy and fosters student engagement.

1. Copyright
Dave L. Edyburn
Inclusive Technologies: Tools for Helping Diverse Learners Ac
hieve Academic Success, Second Edition
Vice President, Learning Resources: Steve Wainwright
Associate Director, Sponsoring Editor: Greer Lleuad
Development Editors: Shannon LeMay-Finn, Dan Moneypenny
Assistant Editor: Taylor Holmes
Production Editor: Catherine Morris
Media Editor: Jaime LeClair
Copy Editor: LSF Editorial
Cover Design: Tara Mayberry
Printer: Lightning Source
Production Service: Lachina Creative
ePub Development: Lachina Creative
Permissions Editor: Kristle Maglunob
Cover Image: top: Sturti/E+/Getty Images
middle: Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty
Images
bottom: FatCamera/E+/Getty Images
ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-529-3
© 2019, 2013 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: The copyright owner of t
his material hereby grants the holder of this publication the righ
t to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this ma
terial may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any
print, reprint, reproduction or distribution of these materials for
commercial use without the express written consent of the copy
right owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17
U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.

2. About the Author
Dave L. Edyburn, PhD, is associate dean for research in the Col
lege of Community Innovation and Education and professor of e
xceptional education at the University of Central Florida, Orlan
do. Edyburn’s teaching and research interests focus on the use o
f technology to enhance teaching, learning, and performance. H
e has authored over 175 articles, book chapters, and several boo
ks on the use of technology in special education. He is a past pr
esident of the Special Education Technology Special Interest Gr
oup in the International Society for Technology in Education, p
ast president of the Technology and Media Division of the Coun
cil for Exceptional Children, and past chair of the Online Teachi
ng and Learning SIG in the American Education Research Assoc
iation. Edyburn has served as editor of several journals, includi
ng Teaching Exceptional Children, Special Education Technolog
y Practice, Remedial and Special Education, Learning Disability
Quarterly, and the Journal of Research on Technology in Educa
tion. He is a frequent conference presenter and national worksh
op leader.

3. Acknowledgments
The editorial team and author would like to thank the following
peer reviewers for their feedback and guidance:
Susan Cherup, Hope College
Carolina Cowan, Ashford University
Renee Gugel, Ashford University
Kimberly Hall, Ashford University
Kathy Hoover, Ashford University
Jacki Kryger, Ashford University
Stephanie Kurts, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Kelly Olson Stewart, Ashford University
Adriane Wheat, Ashford University
The editorial staff would also like to thank Shannon LeMay-
Finn for her assistance in developing resource guide material.
· Knowledge Check
· Notebook
Preface
The objective of Inclusive Technologies: Tools for Helping Div
erse Learners Achieve Academic Success is to provide you with
the opportunity to learn about selecting and using appropriate te
chnologies in your classroom. The emphasis is on the applicatio
n of technology that supports the inclusion, participation, and a

4. cademic success of all types of diverse learners.
As educators, our goal is to encourage the growth of learners w
ho are digitally literate, capable of thinking critically and creati
vely, and prepared to contribute meaningfully to society in the 2
1st century. This book provides you with the technology tools to
achieve that goal. Students come to our classrooms with variou
s backgrounds, skills, and motivations, and the tools provided in
this book are designed to help you value and respect those diffe
rences. As you read, you will be challenged to evaluate your ow
n beliefs and perspectives about technology and education. Upo
n completion of this book, you will have compiled a technology
tool kit that not only reflects your personal beliefs but engages
and promotes the success of all your learners.
Textbook Features
Inclusive Technologies includes a number of features to help yo
u understand key concepts, think critically, and apply technolog
y in a meaningful way:
Visual Aids: Images and figures help illustrate the concepts pres
ented, and tables provide information about valuable resources.
All visual aids in the text are organized in an easy-to-
read manner.
Study Resources: These resources are designed to help you orga
nize information and study the text; learning outcomes, bolded
key terms, and summaries of key ideas appear in each chapter.
Pause to Reflect Questions: Interspersed throughout the text, the
se questions are designed to help you monitor your own learning
and reflect on your personal beliefs about technology and educ
ation.
Critical-
Thinking Questions: Questions on intriguing topics are placed a
t the end of each chapter to promote deeper analysis and discuss
ion.
Pretests and Posttests: Each chapter contains multiple-
choice questions that you can answer to get real-
time feedback on how well you have mastered the content.
Relevant Web Links: Placed throughout each chapter, numerous

5. web links offer you the opportunity to explore additional resour
ces, examples, and applications related to the text.
Accessible Anywhere. Anytime.
With Constellation, faculty and students have full access to eTe
xtbooks at their fingertips. The eTextbooks are instantly accessi
ble on web, mobile, and tablet.
iPhone
To download the Constellation iPhone or iPad app, go to the Ap
p Store on your device, search for "Constellation for Ashford U
niversity," and download the free application. You may log in to
the application with the same username and password used to a
ccess Constellation on the web.
Android Tablet and Phone
To download the Constellation Android app, go to the Google Pl
ay Store on your Android Device, search for "Constellation for
Ashford University," and download the free application. You m
ay log in to the Android application with the same username and
password used to access Constellation on the web.
Troubleshooting
While every effort has been made to ensure that the links remai
n viable, you may periodically encounter a broken link or an err
or message (404 Not Found). In these situations, it is advisable
to copy and paste the website name into Google as a new search
. Often this will solve the problem caused when an organization
reorganizes its website.
A specific web page may no longer be available when an organi
zation goes out of business. In this case, paste the URL into the
Wayback Machine (http://archive.org/web/web.php) to view an
archive version of the web page.

6. Chapter 5Managing Digital Technology in the Classroom
· 5.1 Technology Labs
· 5.2 Classrooms With Limited Technology
· 5.3 Ubiquitous Technology (One-to-One Classrooms)
· 5.4 Preparing Students to Use Technology Routinely
· 5.5 Digital Work Flow
AP Photo/Matt Rourke
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
·
Describe strategies for managing instruction when students use
computers in computer labs.
·
Describe strategies for managing instruction when students use
computers in the classroom.
·
Outline practical strategies for managing instruction when each
student routinely has access to a computer, tablet, or handheld d
evice.
·
Design a plan for the classroom that fosters the access and exch
ange of digital resources and assignments.
Introduction
With a few exceptions, most adults today have not experienced
classrooms in which technology is ubiquitous. As a result, the e
ducation profession has been slow to recognize the need to prep
are teachers to manage technology-

7. intensive learning environments.
Schools use many different approaches to provide technology. S
ome are legacy behaviors and systems from years past, when tec
hnology was expensive and had to be housed in a central locatio
n. The adoption of tablets and handheld devices offers increased
access to technology for learning while at the same time presen
ting new challenges for managing the learning environment. As
a result, we will explore a variety of management strategies that
you can use if you teach in a technology lab, a classroom with l
imited technology, or an environment in which technology is ub
iquitous. The purpose of this chapter is to help you develop plan
s for managing technology tools so that they effectively enhance
student learning.
Many teachers believe teaching in classrooms in which technolo
gy is ubiquitous is easier than in more traditional settings. Alth
ough it is true that some tasks are easier, effective use of techno
logy requires that teachers attend to a variety of classroom man
agement issues that they may not have encountered before. As a
result, you will be introduced to strategies that you may want to
adopt concerning digital work flow. That is, how does a teacher
’s work change when the curriculum and student learning activit
ies are all stored and managed online?Field Trip: Meet Eight Te
chnology-Using Educators
Visit this link to learn more about how and why teachers choose
to use technology in their classroom. Do any of these stories re
sonate with your goals?
“Teachers’ Views on Technology in the Classroom”
https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/
11/21/technology/20101121-brain-teachers.h
5.1 Technology Labs
When computer technology first appeared in schools in the 1980
s, computers were placed in converted classrooms that were desi
gnated as computer labs. There were several reasons for this arr
angement. First, courses on how to use computers were develop
ed, requiring that students come to a particular classroom to lear

8. n how to use these new tools. Second, computers were expensiv
e. Therefore, it was not unreasonable to expect that students wo
uld come to a special classroom, much the same way that they c
hanged classrooms for physical education, art, home economics,
or industrial arts. Third, the electrical demands of operating mu
ltiple computers meant that the classroom housing the computer
lab often had to be rewired to provide sufficient electrical capab
ilities. Sometimes this also meant adding air-
conditioning to help reduce the heat buildup in the room that wa
s common when many computers were running. During the 1980
s it simply did not seem viable to place computers in each classr
oom. If you teach in a technology lab today, it is likely that it w
as the first computer lab space developed by your school.
The Evolving Use of Technology Labs
Computer labs support whole-
class instruction. Much of the curriculum in early computer clas
ses focused on computer literacy; that is, learning how to operat
e a computer; identifying the components, such as the keyboard,
screen, and disk drive; and learning to write simple programs u
sing languages such as BASIC and Logo (Lock & Carlson, 2000
). During this time, technology integration meant acquiring eno
ugh computers so that computer literacy classes could be taught
—
first as an elective course and subsequently as a required course
. However, as schools expanded their computer labs, the comput
er literacy curriculum began to evolve beyond word processing.
This change in the curriculum was related to changes in the mar
ketplace that merged word processors with other productivity so
ftware—
most notably, databases and spreadsheets. Software programs th
at integrate several productivity programs are known as product
ivity suites or integrated software packages. One example is Mi
crosoft Office.
Today many schools maintain computer labs to support required
computer course work. Typically, in such courses, students are

9. required to master a suite of productivity tools such as Office 3
65 or Google Classroom. In much the same way that a lab of typ
ewriters was required to teach typing in high school in years pas
t, technology labs are viewed as necessary infrastructure for hel
ping students master the tools of the 21st century. In many scho
ols the term computer lab has been updated with the term techno
logy lab to reflect the addition of other technological resources.
As a result of such innovations, today’s technology labs are als
o home to elective classes in digital art, digital photography, di
gital music, and web design. Sometimes large departments have
their own specialized technology lab (e.g., a digital design lab,
a geographic information system lab, or makerspace) where they
provide specialized software like Photoshop or Google Earth th
at requires more computing power than may be available on lapt
ops or tablet computers or that requires interfaces with specializ
ed peripherals (e.g., MIDI controllers).
Table 5.1 summarizes software applications commonly found in
K–
12 technology labs. Over time collections of instructional softw
are have diminished as more schools use web-
based apps and resources. Increasingly, desktop productivity sui
tes, such as Google Classroom and Office 365, are housed in the
cloud such that users can access their information from anywhe
re and across their devices (i.e., from their phone, tablet, or com
puter).
Teachers who take their students to a technology lab do so for s
everal reasons. One is to teach them how to use a new software
program or app. These types of large-
group training sessions are more effective than show-and-
tell presentations in the classroom because each student can foll
ow along to learn the mechanics of using a new software progra
m. A second reason that teachers reserve technology labs is to p
rovide students with time to conduct web research or write a rep
ort. Whereas some educators frown on using class time for this t
ype of work, it is important to remember that the digital divide
still exists and that all students do not have routine access to hi

10. gh-
speed Internet or a computer to write their papers. Finally, teach
ers may schedule a technology lab for their class to gain access
to software that has a limited number of licenses for use or to ta
ke advantage of other technology resources not easily accessible
outside of the lab (e.g., a scanner with optical character recogni
tion software).
The Decline of Technology Labs
In the early 21st century, some schools have closed their techno
logy labs. The decisions are often justified by any one of severa
l reasons.
AP Photo/The Messenger-Inquirer/Jenny Sevcik
If every student had their own laptop or mobile device to use in
class, what measures would you need to take to ensure your stud
ents remained on task?
First, changing demographics have put pressure on some school
s to add classrooms to reduce class size. Under such circumstan
ces, the space allocated to a technology lab is viewed as a luxur
y that can no longer be afforded. Second, in keeping with the e
mphasis on integrating technology into the curriculum, some ad
ministrators have justified closing technology labs based on the
increased number of computers available in classrooms. The dec
ision is justified by arguing that it is important to place technol
ogy in the classroom where it can be used more routinely becaus
e it will have greater impact than is possible with only periodic
visits to a computer lab. Finally, the ubiquitous nature of wirele
ss Internet and mobile computing has changed how we think abo
ut technology usage. Although computers were special when the
y first entered schools in the 1980s, it now seems quaint to thin
k that we have to go to a special room to use technology.
Whether your school has a technology lab or not may be the res
ult of any of the reasons mentioned earlier. Looking ahead, ther
e will continue to be a need for specialized technology labs in t
he short term if the curriculum involves software applications th

11. at require significant computing power (e.g., iMovie, Photoshop
) or the technology requirements are such that all students must
complete one or more technology courses. However, as we grow
more accustomed to mobile computing, we will likely see the n
eed for technology labs diminish as we seek to use technology c
loser to routine teaching and learning contexts.Pause to Reflect
As you think about your experience learning about technology,
have the majority of your formal learning experiences occurred
in computer labs? Or have you ever attended a professional deve
lopment workshop in which you were expected to bring your ow
n device so that you could interact with resources as the present
er demonstrated them?
5.2 Classrooms With Limited Technology
In the 1990s educational leaders began to recognize the value of
technology in education. That is, they saw that the computer lit
eracy curriculum was based on the notion that the computer was
the object of instruction, whereas the more interesting applicati
ons of technology involved what you could do with technology.
This led to language suggesting that the technology should be tr
ansparent (Siegel & Davis, 1986).
The change in focus from computer literacy, in which the comp
uter was deemed to be the important topic of study, to technolog
y integration, in which the computer was a transparent tool for e
xploring important educational outcomes, was a profound philos
ophical shift that contributed to the deployment of computers in
classrooms.
The One-Computer Classroom
Much like the historical nostalgia for one-
room schoolhouses, some teachers fondly recall the days of the
one-
computer classroom. Initial efforts to place computers in the cla
ssroom typically began with providing a single computer, often
on the teacher’s desk. This action was justified by the prevailin
g thought that the teacher was the most valuable resource in the
classroom, based on the argument that a scarce resource like a s

12. ingle computer would not make significant contributions to stud
ent learning as a result of each student touching the keys for a f
ew minutes each week (Dockterman, 1991). However, because e
fforts to provide more computers were often advanced through f
und-raising by parent–
teacher organizations, in many schools it was expected that com
puters were being placed in the classroom for student use and n
ot teacher productivity. You may observe similar arguments in s
chools today that have been trying to move beyond initiatives th
at sought to provide iPads to teachers but are still struggling to
find the funding to provide tablet computers to each student.
One of the benefits of the one-
computer classroom era was that it helped educators think about
the creative uses of technology in the classroom (Gimotty, 200
4). In one of the most popular books on early technology use in
education, Great Teaching in the One-
Computer Classroom, Dockterman (1991) suggested five possibl
e management approaches for the one-computer classroom:
· with large group instruction,
· with small collaborative groups,
· as a lecture/presentation tool,
· within a learning center, and
· as a tool to support teacher productivity.
AP Photo/Franka Bruns
This student is working on an interactive whiteboard. Do you th
ink the use of this kind of technology is beneficial to student lea
rning? Why or why not?
Although teachers were comfortable with large-
group (i.e., whole class) instruction, the major obstacle was the
lack of a projection system so that the entire class could see wh
at was on the computer screen. As a result, many teachers chose
not to use technology in the classroom because their preferred f
orm of instruction involved managing whole groups. Even today
you may see teachers who only use technology when providing
whole-

13. group instruction by using an interactive whiteboard. Despite th
is obvious infrastructure requirement, it was not until the late 1
990s and early 2000s that a majority of classrooms were equipp
ed with a computer and projection system.
Using technology in small collaborative groups involves project
-
based learning, in which students work in groups, both on and o
ff the computer. Each student has a role (e.g., project manager,
secretary, researcher), which allows the teacher to break up an a
ssignment into multiple parts as students act in their different ro
les within a project or across projects. These roles also serve to
distinguish who does what when the team works at the computer
.
An important insight about this approach is that it recognized th
at learning did not necessarily occur by touching the keys. Impl
ementing this approach in the classroom meant that the teacher
had to organize a group project, divide the students into groups,
and schedule each group for an adequate amount of time at the
computer to work on the project. Today we might think of a sim
ilar project that involves asking a group of students to make a p
oster using Glogster or produce a movie for YouTube.
Amornme/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
More schools are moving to use of the smart projector rather tha
n the traditional classroom projector. How will these tools impa
ct learning for all students?
Use of the computer as a lecture/presentation tool became possi
ble when projection systems and interactive whiteboards were a
dded to the classroom. In many situations this was justified as a
n upgrade of the overhead projector typically found in each clas
sroom. In fact, this often resulted from the computer being insta
lled in the front center of the classroom and the projection syste
m in the center of the room to display on the front wall. In other
cases projection systems were equipped to work with both the c
omputer and a VCR (and later a DVD player) to connect them to
a television/monitor. In these situations, the setup was often m

14. ounted in a front corner of the classroom. Depending on the eco
nomic status of your school district, you may find that these typ
es of infrastructures still exist.
Building a learning center around one to three computers is also
a common tactic in many schools. This approach lends itself to
thinking of the computer as simply another learning center withi
n the classroom. This type of setup is easy for teachers to mana
ge because it is a supplement to instruction. Unfortunately, in m
any cases it has led to the view that the computer is a place whe
re students can play games as a reward for completing their wor
k. However, when used appropriately, computer learning centers
in the classroom offer teachers and students a great deal of flex
ibility for using technology to augment instruction.
Finally, the profession has long recognized the value of technol
ogy in the classroom to support teacher productivity. However,
attempts to define a core technology tool kit that supports teach
er productivity have been inconsistent. As a result, teachers are
responsible for locating suitable tools beyond the typical office
suite, web browser, e-
mail system, and course management tools. Periodically, there i
s public outcry when technology purchases are perceived by a c
ommunity as only benefiting adults (i.e., administrators, school
board members, or teachers) instead of being accessible to stude
nts (Moore, 2013).Pause to Reflect
In your current school, can you find any evidence of the five ma
nagement approaches used in one-
computer classrooms still in use? As you think about the five ap
proaches to managing the one-
computer classroom, which are compatible with your personal i
nstructional philosophy?
Moving Beyond a Single Computer in the Classroom
The one-
computer classroom represents a developmental milestone in the
adoption of technology in education. Although the justification
for providing a single computer in the classroom was largely rel

15. ated to the expense, this approach continues in many schools in
areas with significant poverty, as well as many alternative and c
harter schools. Arguments for the absence of technology often u
se Dockterman’s (1991) insight that the most valuable resource
in the classroom is the teacher. Nonetheless, there is clear evide
nce that society and educators are expecting 21st-
century schools to become more technology intensive in order t
o better prepare students for a life outside of school that is incre
asingly technological.
One management strategy that has been developed to provide m
ore technology in the classroom involves the use of computers o
n wheels (COWS). COWS are portable carts that store laptop co
mputers, Chromebooks, or iPads. The cart can be shared within
a department or group of teachers by simply pushing it from one
classroom to another when curriculum activities require it. The
cart has a charging system built in so that the devices are charge
d when they are not being used. And each evening the cart can b
e moved to a secure location for storage. COWS are an excellent
strategy for schools with limited classroom space for a dedicate
d technology lab and provide considerable flexibility in making
technology available to teachers and students when and where it
is needed.
One of the key questions that emerged during efforts to place te
chnology in schools where it would be used most effectively cen
tered on the issue of instructional goals. That is, what was the le
arning outcome that teachers desired from student use of compu
ters? This question often tripped up teachers, since the early rati
onale for using computers was to enable students to know more
about computers. However, the notion of technology integration
and transparency shifted the focus away from the technology it
self to more important instructional goals and thereby supported
efforts to integrate technology into education by asking educato
rs to find engaging and motivating applications that contributed
to content knowledge (Grabe & Grabe, 2007).
Once teachers were able to answer this question, it became easie
r to request, and to receive, additional technology resources. In

16. some cases, this led to what has been called one-to-
one initiatives—
that is, pilot programs designed to provide each student with a c
omputer to maximize the quality of the learning experience. We
will now turn our attention to schools and classrooms in which a
ccess to technology is ubiquitous and routine.
5.3 Ubiquitous Technology (One-to-One Classrooms)
Ubiquitous technology refers to situations in which technology i
s readily available everywhere. Although computers have been a
fixture in homes and schools for many years, it wasn’t until the
early 2000s that large-
scale projects began to provide each student with a computer an
d study its impact. As a result, one-to-
one access, whereby each student has ready access to his or her
own device (e.g., laptop, tablet, smartphone), is still considered
a special initiative within a school district and a point of pride.
To date there is little evidence to suggest that one-to-
one classrooms are widespread; it appears that less than 50% of
American classrooms feature one-to-
one technologies. In this section, we explore several initiatives t
hat have contributed to what we know about technology-
intensive environments.
Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow
The earliest and most ambitious research to study the impact of
ubiquitous technology was a project sponsored by Apple Compu
ter beginning in 1985. The project, known as the Apple Classroo
ms of Tomorrow (ACOT), provided teachers and students in fiv
e schools with two computers each, one for use at home and one
for use at school. This project received a great deal of attention
because it inspired educators to think of educational possibiliti
es that could be afforded when students had routine access to te
chnology. To understand the context, remember that this project
began in the early days of microcomputers, in classrooms using
Apple IIc computers (the most portable computer of the day), a
nd before the Internet as we know today existed!
The longitudinal study explored a variety of issues related to da

17. ily use, impact on teaching and learning, and a host of impleme
ntation factors. One of the most problematic issues was that stu
dent desk space was too small for both desk work and computer
work, which led to some classroom management challenges (e.g
., the computer would be set on the floor when completing desk
work). The research continued in the early 1990s and provided s
ome of the most important foundational evidence about the impa
ct of ubiquitous technology on teaching and learning (Baker, Ge
arhart, & Herman, 1994; Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Haymore, 1994; D
wyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1992). Much of what we know ab
out technology integration, professional development for teache
rs, and planning for technology-
based instruction can be traced to the ACOT research.
The visibility of the ACOT project served as a powerful incenti
ve for the educational technology profession to consider the imp
ortance of not merely integrating technology into the curriculum
but also using technology to foster the larger agenda of educati
onal reform to improve student learning. In the late 1990s educa
tional leaders were connecting the dots between new powerful l
aptop computers and possibilities afforded by the Internet. This
led to new efforts to replicate the ACOT research by issuing stu
dents laptop computers via one-to-
one initiatives, whereby students could use a school district–
issued laptop computer at school and take it home as needed.
One-to-One Laptop Initiatives
AP Photo/The Herald-Palladium/Don Campbell
These students are part of the One-to-
One Computer Initiative. If your school could take part in the in
itiative, how would you ensure that your students were meeting
the desired learning outcomes?
Innovators have called attention to the profound implications m
obile learning technologies have for education (Bjerede, Atkins,
& Dede, 2010; Breck, 2007). One of the most notable large-
scale efforts was directed by Nicholas Negroponte, a professor a
t the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, whose vision invol

18. ved creating a $100 laptop for education (http://one.laptop.org).
Although Negroponte failed to meet the $100 threshold, when h
is computer did become available, users could buy two for $400,
with one computer being donated to schools in developing coun
tries. School districts like that in Birmingham, Alabama, purcha
sed 15,000 devices in an effort to address the achievement gap b
y creating technology-
intensive learning environments (Warschauer, Choen, & Ames,
2012). In 2012 Google offered its Chromebook for $99, in effect
achieving Negroponte’s vision (Dawson, Cavanaugh, & Ritzhau
pt, 2009; Muir, Knezek, & Christiansen, 2004). These projects t
ypically involved providing each student in an entire grade with
a laptop computer and expanding the project each year by addin
g additional grade levels. These projects were notable for their
partnerships with computer manufacturers and their commitment
to extensive teacher professional development before the laptop
s were deployed.
Based on the lessons learned from ACOT, administrators recogn
ized that enhanced learning outcomes would not be achieved by
simply dispensing technology. Rather, technology provided a co
ntext for rethinking teaching and learning. Further, teachers nee
ded ongoing support and assistance to deal with concerns (Dono
van, Hartley, & Strudler, 2007) and implementation issues that
arose (Clausen, Britten, & Ring, 2008; Grignano, Poftak, & Roc
kman, 2004; Levin, 2004).
To date, the research evidence concerning the educational outco
mes of one-to-
one initiatives is mixed. Some studies have shown very positive
learning gains (Lowther, Ross, & Morrison, 2003; Murphy, Kin
g, & Brown, 2007), while others have pointed to very modest ga
ins that raise questions about the investment (Dunleavy & Heine
cke, 2007). And some studies have shown negative outcomes or
no significant difference between the laptop and control classro
oms (Grimes & Warschauer, 2008). Some studies have discover
ed other benefits such as gender equalization in technology skill
s (Kay, 2006) and significant gains in student engagement that s

19. uggest promise for improving student achievement (Russell, Be
bell, & Higgins, 2004; Swan, van’t Hooft, Kratcoski, & Unger,
2005). To date, most studies indicate the potential of one-to-
one initiatives that need additional attention to the quality of im
plementation and the need for more research. However, there is
little evidence concerning the impact for urban low–
socioeconomic status (SES) students (Grimes & Warschauer, 20
08; Mouza, 2008); this therefore illustrates that the digital divid
e is still operating. Despite the mixed research support for one-
to-
one initiatives, schools continue to make significant investment
s in mobile technologies.
Bring Your Own Device
One of the latest developments in managing technology in schoo
ls relates to the persistent failure of educational systems to fund
technology at a level sufficient to provide each student with a p
ersonal computing device. As a result, schools have used initiati
ves known as bring your own device (BYOD) to encourage stud
ents to bring their own mobile device to school (Alberta Educati
on, 2012). The rationale for these initiatives is found in the stat
ement that “21st-century learners need to be learning with 21st-
century tools.” Readers interested in a practical guide to BYOD
are encouraged to download the following document.
Field Trip: BYOD
Visit this site to explore a guide book for educators on impleme
nting a BYOD initiative in your school. As you explore, are ther
e issues that need to be considered that you had not previously t
hought about?
Bring Your Own Device: A Guide for Schools
https://open.alberta.ca/publications/9781460103388
Not surprisingly, BYOD is appealing to school districts, since it
moves the cost for purchasing technology from school budgets t
o family budgets. However, other concerns are also driving thes
e decisions. First, schools are trying to take advantage of device
s students already own, such as smartphones and tablets. This tr
end is an extension of the ubiquitous computing initiatives that

20. began with the ACOT research. Second, educators believe that s
tudents are more likely to be responsible for technology if it is t
heir own personal device. As a result, in the short term you are l
ikely to hear much more about BYOD initiatives in your school
district and state.
Despite the excitement about the potential of BYOD, there are s
everal drawbacks. First, schools will have to develop policy and
procedures to assist families who cannot afford to purchase and
maintain the technology. To date, this has not been addressed o
n a large scale in low-
SES districts. Second, districts need to develop better access an
d security systems to support the wide variety of devices and op
erating systems that students may bring to school. Typically, thi
s is not a problem for districts that have installed new networks,
but such efforts can require a considerable investment in infrast
ructure. Additionally, school districts may need to change existi
ng school board policies, which in most school districts ban stu
dent use of cell phones during school. And, finally, teachers ma
y need additional professional development about how to manag
e personal technology devices and develop meaningful instructi
onal activities for using mobile technologies (Kolb, 2011; Schro
ck, 2013; Swan, Kratcoski, & van’t Hooft, 2007).
Pause to Reflect
Would you like to teach in a classroom in which each student ha
s his or her own device? Would it make a difference if the devic
e was a computer or a smartphone? What implications might ubi
quitous technology have for teachers when planning and deliveri
ng instruction? How would you feel about being asked to help a
student with a device you have never used before?
5.4 Preparing Students to Use Technology Routinely
Regardless of the type of computer configuration found in a sch
ool, teachers will need to prepare students before they can begin
using technology routinely in the classroom. Only after student

21. s master the basic operations of the technology and software can
attention shift to focus on the issues of learning and performan
ce. In this section, we will examine several issues in order to he
lp you think about how to effectively manage digital technology
in the classroom.
Student Training
It is extremely difficult and frustrating to try to learn a new tool
while also trying to meet a deadline. Therefore, it is essential t
hat teachers teach students how to operate software and apps be
fore beginning an assignment.
Just as teachers spend considerable time in the early part of the
school year teaching students the operating principles of the sch
ool and various classroom routines, they must also teach student
s how to operate the technology found in the school. For exampl
e, when visiting the computer lab, should students turn on the c
omputers at the beginning of the class period? Or are the compu
ters turned on during the first hour and turned off during the fin
al class period of the day? Likewise, does each student have to s
ign in using a user name and password, or are the machines ope
n access for anyone? How does a new student obtain a user nam
e and password? What happens when students forget their passw
ord? What happens when a BYOD device won’t connect to the n
etwork?
Teachers must be trained on the answers to these and similar qu
estions to effectively use technology. Student teachers often enc
ounter barriers in this area when they enter a school midyear, si
nce many of the operating procedures are reviewed with new fac
ulty at the beginning of the year. Log-
in procedures can be particularly challenging to manage as scho
ols implement more online learning initiatives and need to provi
de students with remote access to school servers and software.
Most schools require that students and families sign a document
agreeing to the school’s acceptable use policy (see Figure 5.1 f
or an example). As the name suggests, these policies outline acc
eptable and unacceptable use of school technology and the cons

22. equences for violating the policy. Teachers are required discuss
these documents with students and parents and expand on topics
such as security, privacy, and more.Figure 5.1: Sample accepta
ble use policy
The sample acceptable use policy shown here can be adapted for
classroom use, based on teacher and even student preferences.
Click through the four slides in the following interaction to see
a sample acceptable use policy.
Strategies for Introducing a New Technology Tool
When teachers are introducing a new technology tool, they may
need to use a variety of resources to learn how to use it effectiv
ely. For example, they may find materials created by the publish
er to be useful. This may involve a text- or video-
based product demonstration. Online tutorials like Lynda (https:
//www.lynda.com) are another common resource, which require
the user to read some information and click as directed to simul
ate the software use experience. Finally, teachers may create the
ir own learning guides that provide students with guidance abou
t how to complete certain activities within their software progra
m.
Quick start guides are an example of a learning support tool co
mmonly provided for commercial software. They summarize key
commands and tasks that users might complete. See Figure 5.2
for a teacher-
created quick start guide about how to use a specific website too
l to create web pages. Notice that these types of guides can be
made within a word processor and can include graphics made fr
om screen captures. When appropriate, it is an excellent idea to
have students make these types of tools as a way to help other st

23. udents learn a new tool. Students with disabilities may require s
pecific step-by-
step instruction guides like these to help them remember how to
complete a task.Figure 5.2: Example of a quick start guide
An example of a teacher-
made quick start guide for a web app that students will use.
The fundamental goal of ensuring that students and teachers can
independently use technology tools is to maximize time on task
engaged in learning. This goal applies to apps as well as specifi
c websites. Thus, when it is time to use a technology tool, no ti
me is wasted trying to figure out where it is or how to get it star
ted.
Help Seeking Within the Technology Classroom
Another management issue that teachers will need to consider w
hen using technology in the classroom involves thinking about
what provisions will be available for help seeking. That is, whe
n students forget how to save a file, how to apply a specific for
matting feature, and so on, what should they do first? When eve
ry student encounters multiple such problems, the number of qu
estions can quickly overwhelm a teacher. As a result, it is impor
tant to teach and model help-
seeking behaviors to prevent students from becoming dependent
on the teacher as the sole information source.
For example, you might suggest that students access the online
help system found within a program. Or they might search for a
YouTube video to guide them through a step-by-
step process. If that fails, they may want to turn to a peer for ad
vice. Some schools have training programs for peer technology
experts. These are students who receive advanced training in all
the features of a product like Microsoft Office and are shown h
ow to effectively offer technical assistance to others (rather tha
n just taking control of the keyboard and doing the task themsel
ves). Having a peer expert in the classroom can be very helpful.
Students with disabilities have especially benefited from servin

24. g as “experts,” which can foster a sense of self-
esteem from recognizing that they know more about a topic than
most others and are able to offer assistance to others when need
ed. Finally, some technology labs have implemented a system of
placing plastic cups on top of the computer monitors. The cup i
s routinely face down, but students turn it face up to signal to th
e teacher that they have a question. Since the sight lines are ofte
n impaired in technology labs, this signaling device is a useful c
lassroom management feature.
Managing Assistive Technology in the Classroom
The management of assistive technology in the classroom has re
ceived considerably less attention than general technology mana
gement issues. As a result, little is known about the attitudes, co
ncerns, and interventions of general education teachers concerni
ng the students in their classroom who use assistive technology.
Among the existing research, Banda, Grimmett, and Hart (2009
) provide strategies for students with autism spectrum disorder a
nd explain how activity schedules can facilitate transitions. Sim
ilarly, Mechling (2007) has studied the use of assistive technolo
gy for self-
prompting students with intellectual disabilities to complete dai
ly tasks. Further, Fitzgerald and colleagues have created a syste
m known as KidTools (http://kidtools.cepel.org), which provide
s behavioral supports for students and teachers (Miller, Fitzgera
ld, Koury, Mitchem, & Hollingsead, 2007). Unfortunately, beca
use most teachers have little knowledge or direct experience usi
ng assistive technology, students are left to troubleshoot on thei
r own or to seek the assistance of an assistive technology specia
list.
Troubleshooting
Despite a teacher’s best preparation, there will be times when a
technology malfunction creates a need for a Plan B. This may co
me about because the bulb on the computer projection system ha
s burned out, a computer is broken so that each student does not

25. have his or her own computer, a network is down so that a teac
her cannot access a required document or web page, or a power
outage has unexpectedly shut down the computers and caused st
udents to lose their work. In each of these cases, there will be s
ome disruption in the instructional lesson plan. As a result, it is
necessary to plan some alternative strategies.Pause to Reflect
Has a technology failure ever disrupted your teaching? What we
nt wrong? What did you do as a Plan B? Ultimately, how did yo
u resolve the problem?
What happens when a teacher was planning on using a PowerPoi
nt for the day’s lecture but the server is down? Is there a chance
that the presentation was saved on a USB drive? Do you remem
ber the lecture well enough to provide the information without t
he PowerPoint? Do you create a new schedule and hope that the
server comes up later in the day? Or do you tell students you wi
ll e-
mail them the PowerPoint later in the day? Although we cannot
anticipate the exact nature of these kinds of disruptions, we sho
uld always have a Plan B in case we encounter a problem. Here
are some ideas to consider when troubleshooting.
When Technology Disrupts Your Teaching
Motortion/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
1. First, don’t panic.
2.
Determine if the problem is the computer, keyboard, mouse, soft
ware, power supply, or connection to the Internet. This helps de
termine where to focus problem solving.
3.
Is there a problem getting the computer to start up? If so, check
the power connections and cables. Is everything plugged in? Is t
he power strip turned on? Can you try a different outlet? Are ot
her computers in the room working properly?
4.
Does the computer power on correctly but the keyboard or mous
e do not appear to be working? Check the cable connections and

26. try again. Or swap out a keyboard and mouse from another com
puter to determine whether there is a problem.
5.
Are you able to connect to a local area network or the Internet?
If not, use the network diagnostic control panel to see if you are
receiving an Internet signal. Could the local server be down? O
r could the disruption be from your Internet service provider?
6.
Were you working one moment and then everything just froze u
p? Can you save your current work before proceeding? If yes, th
is will provide a measure of safety. Can you quit the current app
lication you are in and restart the program? Then, check to see i
f the autosave feature of the software saved a temporary version
of your file before it shut down. At this point, you may need to
restart the computer to clear the memory and reset everything to
its proper working state.
7.
Is there a problem with the audio? If so, check the volume contr
ol settings.
8.
Is there a problem with the printer? If so, check to see that the c
ables are connected properly and that there is paper in the tray.
Also access the print monitor to determine if there are any print
jobs on hold that are creating an issue and blocking all new prin
t jobs. Finally, if there is still a problem, turn off the printer po
wer and restart it before trying to print again.
For additional troubleshooting tips, visit http://webpage.pace.ed
u/ms16182p/troubleshooting.Pause to Reflect
Given your experience, what suggestions would you offer to oth
er teachers about managing technology in the classroom? What
procedures and structures do you find most useful for ensuring t
hat students are on task? What recommendations would you mak
e regarding what to do when technology goes awry?
5.5 Digital Work Flow
Most adults grew up in an era when professional productivity in
volved moving paper around. However, it is now increasingly i

27. mportant to learn how to work digitally. Beyond the initial thou
ght that technology would make us more environmentally friend
ly by using less paper, digital work flow also provides a retrieva
l mechanism that was not previously available. Consider the exa
mple of airline boarding passes. At one time we needed to go to
the airport in person and check in to receive a piece of paper tha
t was used to provide admission to the appropriate terminal and
then entrance onto the appropriate airplane. Now we can forgo p
rinting altogether by checking in online and sending a digital bo
arding pass to our smartphone that can be scanned at the airport.
The digital boarding pass has been readily adopted by frequent
flyers because it eliminates the problem of finding a printer whi
le traveling between hotels and client work sites. However, in e
ducation we have not seriously examined the teaching and learni
ng work flow in the classroom.
Knowledge Management
Productivity experts (Allen, 2002; Sparks, 2012) have a variety
of suggestions for helping 21st-
century citizens deal with the ever-
increasing amounts of information. In particular, the problem of
managing an ever-expanding e-
mail inbox has been a significant vexation for productivity. Whi
le the notion of sharing information via e-
mail was initially viewed as desirable, most young people avoid
e-
mail in favor of sharing information via texting and social medi
a. Nevertheless, the fundamental issue remains: How do we man
age an ever-increasing amount of information?
Within education, the Council for Exceptional Children Preside
ntial Commission on the Conditions of Special Education Teach
ing and Learning (2000) drew attention to the urgent need to ad
dress the quality of special education work life by reducing the
paperwork demands of the profession. Despite this attention, the
IEP process continues to be an overwhelming paper-
based task for special education teachers to manage each year.

28. Knowledge management for teachers is largely an underdevelop
ed field (Caroll et al., 2003; Saba & McDowell, 2007). As a res
ult, we mostly rely on general strategies that have been found to
be useful in other professions. One of the foundational issues r
elated to knowledge management centers on the creation and ma
nagement of digital information. Once text has been created in a
word processor, it can be shared with others via e-
mail and posted on a server for downloading or archiving. More
over, as people rely more on cloud-
based tools such as Google Drive and Office 365, information is
accessible from each of their devices from any location. This is
a profound transformation in knowledge management that has y
et to be fully embraced by educators.
The goal of creating and managing information in a digital form
at is to ensure that it can be accessed and manipulated as needed
. Unfortunately, some people use their e-
mail box as a permanent storage folder for every message and at
tachment they have ever received. Although this system may wo
rk for some, it is largely ineffective. Productivity experts indica
te that we should act immediately on tasks that take less than 2
minutes and allocate regularly timed periods to take action on ta
sks that take 2–
10 minutes to complete in order to minimize the number of mess
ages in our e-mail inboxes with action pending.
One way that teachers can use this principle is to create an inbo
x in the online content management system or use a service such
as Dropbox (https://www.dropbox.com) through which students
can submit their assignments. Then teachers can provide feedba
ck on the assignments by using Track Changes within Microsoft
Word. After they have recorded the student’s grades in an elect
ronic grade book, they can return the assignment to the student
via e-
mail. Notice how this sample assignment has converted a paper
process to a transaction that has been completed entirely in an e
lectronic format. And because of the nature of server backups, i
nformation is seldom lost, and documents can be retrieved from

29. the system as needed in the future.
Naturally, this process takes some getting used to, and teachers
will need to prepare students to operate within a digital work fl
ow process (e.g., file naming conventions, where to upload assi
gnments). One frequent problem that some teachers encounter is
that students may save files in a noncompatible format that pre
vents teachers from opening the file. Therefore, it is important t
o teach students which file formats will be accepted and direct t
hem to online file conversion services like Zamzar (https://www
.zamzar.com) if needed.
Practical Strategies for Digital Work
The goal of modifying traditional classroom work into a digital
work flow requires an appreciation of the value of working elect
ronically, and clearly the transition process is painful for some.
Perhaps you recall hearing of professionals who had an assistant
print out e-
mails so that they could read them and then direct the assistant
on how to respond! Our students are increasingly familiar with
working in a digital environment and are comfortable completin
g forms online, submitting documents, and completing e-
commerce transactions without any need for paper printouts.
A good place for teachers to begin implementing a digital work
flow system in the classroom is by creating and using templates.
Think about a field trip permission form that you might create
and send home. Because the form is basically the same each tim
e, creating a file that serves as a template for this correspondenc
e saves a great deal of time, since you can go in and simply cha
nge the location and dates. Most productivity tools like word pr
ocessors, databases, and spreadsheets come with templates you
can use immediately for managing digital information.
Teachers have also found the use of digital logs helpful in keepi
ng track of events, materials, and more. Once you become disci
plined to record the entry, a log will show you a day-by-
day listing of the events (e.g., absences, behavioral outbursts, et
c.). Although logs are ideal for tracking basic information, if th

30. e goal is to do extensive searching, it might be better to store th
e information in a database. A practical tool for teachers who ne
ed to track information involves using a database like FileMaker
Pro (http://filemaker.com) that allows you to create custom dat
abases that function as an app. A practical tool for storing misce
llaneous information is Evernote (http://evernote.com). In both
cases the goal is to store information in an accessible digital for
mat, rather than trying to keep track of notes and random scraps
of paper.
Once teachers become comfortable with digital work, they often
find themselves accumulating an excellent collection of quizzes
, exams, and study materials. Such documents are extremely hel
pful when it comes time to make a study guide or design new qu
izzes. Simply open old documents and copy and paste selected it
ems into a new file. Distributing them via the class website allo
ws students to know where they can find these study resources
when they need them. All of this is part of the typical process of
helping students understand how to work effectively in the clas
sroom.
Finally, let’s consider an example using Google Sheets. A teach
er is interested in creating a survey that students will complete t
o provide information for an upcoming social science lesson. By
using the Google Forms tool (see Figure 5.3), the teacher create
s a simple survey. The app generates a URL that the teacher can
send via e-
mail to all of the students in the class. Students click on the link
and complete the survey. The teacher can go into Google and vi
ew the results of the survey as the raw data are captured in a spr
eadsheet and responses are graphed for visual analysis .
Notice that the entire process has been completed electronically.
If you have past experience in conducting survey research, you
will readily appreciate the time saved by not having to enter the
data from paper into the computer for analysis. This example il
lustrates the value of reconceptualizing educational practices th
at have traditionally been paper-
based into a digital work flow process.Figure 5.3: Survey result

31. s
Pause to Reflect
Think about recent transactions you have been involved in (such
as online shopping) that have been completely electronic. Is it r
easonable to think about how teaching and learning may be facil
itated through a digital work flow model? If so, why? If not, wh
y not?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
As more technology enters the classroom, the learning environm
ent is changing. Although some schools have limited classroom
technology that requires teachers to take their classes to labs, ot
hers have placed presentation technology (e.g., computer projec
tion systems, interactive whiteboards) in the classroom to suppo
rt teacher-directed instruction. However, the availability of low-
cost tablet computers and handheld devices is fueling a trend to
place technology in the hands of students. As districts move tow
ard implementing ubiquitous technologies, the classroom is subj
ect to a variety of new considerations about how to store, manag
e, and use technology when each child has access to digital tool
s. This means that teachers need support to design instruction th
at will take advantage of the power and potential of technology,
as well as assistance in troubleshooting when technology disrup
ts their teaching.
·
Technology labs are artifacts of the early days of educational te
chnology when computers were expensive and needed to be kept
in a central location where students would go to use computers.
·
In classrooms where there is only one computer, teachers often
use the computer for group instruction or professional productiv
ity. However, creative management strategies can be used to set
up three learning stations from one computer.
· In one-to-
one classrooms, technology is ubiquitous. To maximize the imp
act of this technology infrastructure, teachers must integrate tec

32. hnology into teaching and learning by developing meaningful le
arning activities that engage students and contribute to enhance
d learning outcomes.
·
In classrooms in which technology is integrated and used routin
ely, the technology becomes transparent. That is, the technology
is seldom noticed because the attention is focused on what stud
ents are able to do with it. Technology failures are an inconveni
ence, but the teacher and students can be well versed in how to
address such problems and move forward.
·
One important skill teachers may wish to acquire involves imple
menting digital work flow procedures in the classroom. That is,
it is possible to create procedures whereby teachers distribute as
signments electronically, students prepare and submit their wor
k electronically, and teachers evaluate student work and provide
feedback to students in an electronic format. Although some tea
chers are motivated to move in this direction because of its envi
ronmentally sensitive means of conserving paper, others recogni
ze the efficiencies found in digital work flow.
Reflection and Critical Thinking
1.
You have been given the role of technology coordinator for your
school. How will you go about supporting teachers’ use of tech
nology? Review the following three-
article series, which provides some suggestions for technology l
eaders:
·
Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 1: Managing the vi
sion. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(1), 46–50.
·
Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 2: Managing the pe
rformance. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(2), 36–
39.
·
Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 3: Managing the o

33. perations. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(3), 50–
53.
2.
Why does the configuration of technology in the classroom have
an impact on the management plan that teachers must use?
3.
Conduct a search to identify videos that may be used to introduc
e students to how to use a new piece of software or app.
4.
Select a software program or app and create a quick start guide.
5. Download and browse the following e-book:
The MacSparky Paperless Field Guide, by David Sparks (http://
www.macsparky.com/paperless). What ideas could you impleme
nt in your classroom to begin implementing the principle of digi
tal work flow? What are the pros and cons of such a system?
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Frasier, M., & Hearrington, D. (2017). Technology coordinator’
s handbook (3rd ed.). Eugene, OR: International Society of Tech
nology in Education.
An overview of the responsibilities of a school-
based technology leader who manages not only technology but p
eople and systems.
Schrum, L. M., & Levin, B. B. (2009). Leading 21st-
century schools: Harnessing technology for engagement and ach
ievement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Describes the importance and practical strategies for moving sc
hools to become 21st-
century learning organizations in which technology is used routi
nely and effectively to enhance student learning.
Web Watch
Classroom Management Technology Tools is a comprehensive c
ollection of tools and resources for managing technology in the
classroom.
http://ncsucedmetrc.weebly.com/classroom-management-
tech.html
The State Educational Technology Directors Association is a pr

34. ofessional association of state directors of educational technolo
gy that provides a means of staying up-to-
date on a variety of policy and implementation issues.
http://www.setda.org
Key Terms
acceptable use policy
bring your own device (BYOD)
computers on wheels (COWS)
digital work flow
one-to-one initiatives
technology lab
ubiquitous technology
Chapter 4Principles of Universal Design for Learning
· 4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
· 4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
· 4.3 Universal Access to Text
· 4.4 Universal Access to Media
· 4.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
AP Photo/Janet Hostetter
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
·
Describe the consequences of lesson planning that focuses on th
e average student.
·
Summarize the conceptual foundations of universal design for le
arning.
·

35. Demonstrate three methods for improving the accessibility of te
xt.
·
Identify the accessibility barriers found in audio files and video
files, and describe practical features that can be used in these ty
pes of media to make them universally accessible.
·
Demonstrate how you could implement universal design for lear
ning in your classroom using the principles of multiple means o
f representation or multiple means of expression.
Introduction
Schools have a long tradition of standardizing the format and fu
nction of education that has led to an expectation that the one-
size-fits-
all classroom will benefit everyone. However, diversity is a cha
racteristic of the human condition that needs to be valued and ce
lebrated. When the needs of diverse learners are not anticipated,
there is a relentless need for curriculum accommodations and m
odifications to retroactively try to meet their needs.
The goal of universal design for learning (UDL) is to proactivel
y value diversity such that supports are embedded in instruction
al materials before a student needs them. Not only does this hel
p facilitate the academic performance of students with disabiliti
es, who may be considered the primary beneficiary of accessible
design interventions, it also supports secondary groups of diver
se learners for whom we may not be able to identify such a need
in advance.
The design of curriculum and instruction is fundamentally differ
ent than the design of physical structures and environments. As
a result, teachers and instructional designers must be aware of t
he accessibility of the different containers they select for the ins
tructional materials they provide to diverse students. In this cha
pter, we will introduce methods that enhance the accessibility a
nd usability of text and media.
UDL is a discipline that is nearly 20 years old. Despite its short

36. history, the potential of UDL has captured the imagination of fe
deral policy makers, administrators, teachers, and parents. This
chapter will examine how UDL is being incorporated into federa
l legislation, policies, and laws, as well as suggest new directio
ns that are needed to ensure the widespread implementation of t
his important initiative to build flexible and engaging instructio
nal materials to meet the needs of diverse learners.Field Trip: M
eet Dr. David Rose, One of the Founders of UDL
Watch this video to learn about the historical foundations of UD
L.
Introduction to UDL
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbGkL06EU90
4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
When designers create a new product, they are seeking to solve
a problem through innovative design. Perhaps you have heard th
e phrase, “Build a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a pa
th to your door.” This statement speaks to the value of innovativ
e design for solving practical problems. However, design and in
vention are always contextualized within a time period and a sp
ecific culture, and they are subject to the limitations of contemp
orary technologies and materials.
As a result of recent advances in technology, it is now possible
to design tools, products, and information resources in ways tha
t make them accessible to diverse individuals. In this section, w
e will introduce principles from the field known as accessible d
esign. You will learn how designs that focus on the special need
s of individuals with disabilities can improve the user experienc
e for these individuals while also having secondary benefits for
everyone.
Design for the Mean
One common design strategy is known as “design for the mean.”
As shown in Figure 4.1, using this approach, the designer is foc
used on creating a product that will reach the largest number of
people to ensure that it is commercially successful. When this h
appens, the needs of people at the ends of the bell curve are not

37. fully considered, because they are perceived as small segments
of the market. For example, consider the design of a wooden kit
chen chair for an adult who is of average height and weight. Ign
oring the segments of the population that fall outside of the mid
dle of the bell curve, in the margins, results in a chair that is no
t comfortable for people who are very short or very tall. In a bu
siness sense, the manufacturer made a deliberate decision to foc
us on the segment of the population where they could make the
most money.Figure 4.1: Design for the mean
A product that is designed for the mean seeks to achieve comme
rcial success by reaching a large percentage of people in the mai
nstream. The blue line represents the standard bell curve. The s
haded area below the peak indicates the target mass market of th
e average user.
In education, design for the mean takes on the form of a textboo
k that is written, purchased, and distributed to every student at a
specific grade level regardless of their reading ability or native
language. Similarly, design for the mean is the key instructiona
l principle when a teacher decides that all students will write a t
hree-
page book report to demonstrate that they have read and underst
ood a specific book. The problems associated with design for th
e mean are perpetuated on a daily basis when teachers use a trad
itional lesson plan book (see Figure 1.4 in Chapter 1) to develop
their lesson plans, because they restrict their thinking to the abi
lities and needs of the average student.
When teachers and instructional designers assume that everyone
is like them (e.g., of average height and weight, able to read at
grade level), the product they create will inevitably meet the ne
eds of only a limited range of users. Without an appreciation for
the fundamental ways that people are different (Hughes & Talb
ott, 2017), it is unlikely that teachers will be able to design prod
ucts that meet the accessibility and usability needs of all learner
s, because they will not understand the special needs of some. R
ose (2016) makes a compelling argument that we are living in a

38. n age in which mass customization and personalization has rend
ered the notion of “average” irrelevant. However, there is clearl
y much more to learn about how to meet the instructional needs
of diverse learners. Edyburn (2010) has argued that the develop
ment of “diversity blueprints” which describe the salient nature
of learner variance, are critical to the design process of product
s that meet the needs of all learners (see Table 4.1).Table 4.1: D
iversity and instructional design
Student performance variable
Range of diversity
Memory
Students develop increased capacity in short- and long-
term memory as they grow. Some disabilities interfere with info
rmation storage and retrieval and therefore may require explicit
strategy instruction.
Motivation
Students display varying levels of persistence in completing a ta
sk that may be related to their success with completing similar p
revious tasks. Therefore, choice of challenge and dependency on
adults are important aspects to monitor. Over time, learners dev
elop intrinsic motivation for completing challenging tasks.
Sustained attention span
Ranges from 8 seconds for 2-year-
olds to 40 minutes for young adults. Attention-
deficit disorder may affect attention span. Over time, learners d
evelop expanded attention spans that allow them to focus on co
mplex cognitive tasks.
Speech and language
Speech and language begins developing in very young children
and provides a foundation for accelerated development once chil
dren become school age. Some disabilities will impair a child’s
oral communication skills and therefore may require other meth
ods of communication, such as a communication board or augme
ntative communication system.
Fine motor skills
Fine motor tasks require a level of hand–

39. eye coordination and fluency that is first learned as a preschool
er and evolves over time. Some disabilities will cause impaired
fine motor skills, which has implications for student work that
may involve handwriting, keyboarding, manipulating objects su
ch as turning pages in a book or using a computer mouse, etc.
Reading
Children’s early learning experiences frequently prepare them f
or formal reading instruction. Reading skills are measured by gr
ade levels and Lexiles. The goal is to match the difficulty of a t
ext with the student’s independent or instructional reading level
. It is common to find a range of reading levels at every grade le
vel (some students will be reading at several levels below grade
level, and some will be reading at levels above grade level).
Problem solving
As in each of the other areas, children’s mathematical and probl
em-
solving skills will vary considerably at each grade level. Young
children and students who have difficulty with the conceptual pr
ocesses of problem solving benefit from the use of manipulative
s. Older students learn how to support their problem-
solving skills by using tools such as graphing calculators and sp
readsheets.
At this point, it is important to understand two related concepts:
accessibility and usability. Accessibility refers to the inclusive
goal of designing tools, products, and information resources to
be usable by all people regardless of their skills or abilities. Usa
bility, in turn, refers to how easy it is to learn and use a product
. When considering any tool, product, or information resource, i
t is necessary to evaluate both its accessibility and usability (La
ngdon, Lazar, Heylighen, & Dong, 2014). A key principle of acc
essible design involves understanding that the special needs of i
ndividuals with disabilities can produce solutions that benefit ot
her groups.
For example, knowing that some people have a vision impairme
nt can translate into a design principle that all text should be adj
ustable, if necessary, by users so that they can enlarge the text t

40. o a size sufficient for comfortable viewing. Microsoft Word allo
ws users to change the size of the text on the screen by simply d
ragging a slider to make the text larger or smaller. Although vis
ion impairments are a specific disability, the same text enlarge
ment intervention can benefit most adults who experience decre
ased visual acuity as they age. This is a practical example of uni
versal design. That is, knowing that people have different levels
of visual acuity, product designers provide users with the oppor
tunity to adjust the size of the text to a level that they find “just
right” for their needs.
In summary, the fundamental problem of the design for the mea
n approach is that the resulting tool, product, or information ma
y be inaccessible for many individuals. That is, because the desi
gner focused on meeting the needs of only a specific segment of
the population, the product may not be accessible or usable by
many others (Carvalho, Dias, Reis, & Freire, 2018; Juárez-
Ramírez, 2017; Lidwell, Holden, & Butler, 2010). Again, consid
er what happens with a printed textbook that is written with the
assumption that all students read at grade level. Quite readily w
e can identify at least three groups of students whose needs will
not be met: students who are blind will not be able to access th
e printed textbook; students with reading disabilities will not be
able to independently read the information; and while gifted stu
dents will be able to read the information, they may not be suffi
ciently challenged to learn at a level commensurate with their a
bility. As a result, design for the mean involves assumptions ab
out the average student and therefore fails to meet the needs of
each student whose skills and abilities fall outside that range.
The printed textbook had many positive attributes in the early 2
0th century. Clearly, the technical advances that allowed printin
g costs to be reduced such that each student could study from hi
s or her own textbook were an important development in educati
on. However, the historical one-size-fits-
all textbook is a poor match for the needs of diverse learners in
the 21st century because of the fixed layout, font size, reading l
evel, and language characteristic of printed text. This situation

41. creates the need for accommodations and modifications to make
the textbook accessible to diverse individuals by converting it t
o a digital format that permits students who are blind to access t
he text through refreshable Braille, students with reading disabi
lities to listen to the text with a text-to-
speech tool, and gifted students to pursue more advanced topics
through hyperlinks.
One characteristic of innovation is the ongoing development of
new technologies. Therefore, if we consider the achievement ga
p to be a result of the limitations of traditional instructional des
ign in education, it is necessary to explore instructional designs
that are more inclusive (Coyne, Kameenui, & Simmons, 2004; E
dyburn, 2010; Westwood, 2018).
Design for More Types
The principles of universal design have emerged from our under
standing of the design of physical environments for individuals
with disabilities. As a result, the term universal design is most c
ommonly associated with architecture (Preiser & Ostroff, 2011;
Steinfeld & Maisel, 2012). These developments have provided i
mportant insights regarding the need to prepare architects and d
esigners to understand special needs to ensure that their designs
are accessible from the outset, rather than requiring costly buil
ding modifications later.
Perhaps the best example of the success of universal design prin
ciples is curb cuts. Originally designed to improve mobility for
people with disabilities within our communities, curb cuts not o
nly accomplished that goal, they also improved access for peopl
e navigating their community with baby strollers, bicycles, skat
eboards, and more.
Another well-
known example of accessible design in the built environment is
what is known as the zero-
entry swimming pool. This type of pool was created to provide a
ccess for individuals in wheelchairs but has proved to be excelle
nt for anyone seeking to enjoy the water without becoming com

42. pletely submerged.
MichaelAngeloBoy/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Curb cuts addressed the special needs of people in wheelchairs
by providing better accessibility.
Readers may also encounter the term universal design in the con
text of the home remodeling industry if they are caring for an ag
ing parent. Home remodelers have discovered that specific types
of changes to the living space (e.g., kitchen, bathroom, bedroo
m) make a home more accessible and safer for aging adults. Ma
ny families explore universal design home remodeling options—
such as changing doorknobs, altering countertop heights, and m
odifying toilets and showers—as a cost-
effective alternative to nursing homes. Indeed, many of the univ
ersal design interventions for individuals with disabilities are th
e same interventions that facilitate the independence of older ad
ults.
Another application of universal design concepts was created in
the 1990s as the underlying principles were applied to computer
s. Gregg Vanderheiden at the Trace Center at the University of
Wisconsin–
Madison spearheaded conversations among the disability comm
unity and technology developers concerning initiatives to includ
e disability access-
ibility software as part of the operating system. At the time, a p
erson with a disability needed to seek out the services and assist
ance of an assistive technology specialist to be able to independ
ently use a computer. Vanderheiden argued that many accessibil
ity needs could be addressed, not only for individuals with disab
ilities but also for older adults, by installing the specialized acc
essibility software on each computer when it was shipped, rathe
r than being added later as an accommodation.
Over time, the computer manufacturing industry found Vanderh
eiden’s argument persuasive and agreed to install an accessibilit
y folder within the operation system. As a result, since the mid-
1990s, every computer shipped in the United States has an acces

43. sibility control panel that allows users to customize the operatio
n of the computer to accommodate physical, sensory, and to a li
mited extent, cognitive disabilities. Thus, accessibility control p
anels on computers represent a powerful example of universal d
esign that moves the construct from simply focusing on the built
environment to one that illustrates the importance of making to
ols and information accessible.
The historical lessons learned through these cases have led to a
statement that serves as a mantra for universal design: “Good de
sign for people with disabilities can benefit everyone.” While u
niversal design is often advocated as “design for all,” in practic
e this has been difficult to achieve. A more practical way to thin
k about universal design is “design for more types” (see Figure
4.2). This means that we seek to understand the accessibility an
d usability barriers that individuals encounter and create new to
ols, products, and information resources that are inclusive to mo
re individuals than would be the case with ordinary design for t
he mean approaches.Figure 4.2: Design for more types
Design for more types reflects the goal of universal design by e
xpanding the zone of accessibility and usability beyond a small
segment of the population (as contrasted with Figure 4.1) in ord
er to include as many individuals as possible.
Recognizing and Responding to Differences
As discussed in Chapter 2, over a lifetime each of us or someon
e we know will encounter limitations due to aging, disease, acci
dent, and/or disability that may impair basic life functions such
as hearing, seeing, self-
care, mobility, working, and learning. While some of us may be
born with a disability or disease that will require us to overcom
e limitations throughout our lives, others will need to learn how
to respond to challenges that arise from an accident or simply a
s a result of growing older.
In other words, we must learn to recognize that differences and
limitations are fundamentally part of the human condition. In th

44. e classroom, it is important to think about learner differences as
part of the instructional planning process. For example, should
n’t we expect to find great variation in students’ knowledge and
skills? When we walk into any classroom, we should anticipate
differences among students relative to the following:
· attention span
· persistence
· reading ability
· handwriting legibility
· number sense and problem-solving skills
· oral communication skills
Diverse students encounter a variety of barriers in school, both
obvious and hidden, as summarized in Table 4.2.Table 4.2 Acce
ss barriers can be visible or hidden
Access barriers
Obvious barriers
· Stairs for a person in a wheelchair or on crutches
· Print for a person who is blind
· Audio for a person who is deaf
· Video for a person who is blind
Hidden barriers
· Attitudes
· One-size-fits-all approaches
· Text that is fixed
· Poor design
· Time limits
Often learner differences are viewed as a negative, outside of a
range that we think we can manage (e.g., “Oh, I can’t teach that
student; he’s blind.”). When we fail to recognize the range of di
versity found in the population, there will be a need for an acco
mmodation (e.g., “We’ll see if we can get a copy of the textboo
k in Braille.”).
Contrary to this narrow and often negative approach to diversity
, the goal of universal design is to proactively value differences
—

45. that is, to anticipate learners’ differences before they enter the c
lassroom so that we can support their academic performance bef
ore they fail. This is consistent with McLeskey and Waldron’s (
2007) description of the goal of special education as “making di
fferences ordinary.” As a result, we need not only to recognize
diverse learners in our classrooms but also to respond to their n
eeds before they fail. Universal design for learning is a speciali
zed application of universal design and is an approach that hold
s considerable promise for meeting the needs of diverse learners
.Pause to Reflect
Locate the accessibility controls on your computer, tablet, or sm
artphone. What adjustments can you now make with these tools
to improve the accessibility and usability of your device? Do yo
u know anyone else who could benefit from knowing about and
using these tools?
4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
The origin of the phrase “universal design for learning” is gener
ally attributed to David Rose, Anne Meyer, and their colleagues
at the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) (Edyburn
& Gardner, 2009). However, an often overlooked fact is that th
e principles of UDL were developed during the period before an
d after the 1997 reauthorization of the IDEA. During that time,
both general and special educators were preoccupied with issues
associated with implementing inclusion. Although students wit
h disabilities had gained physical access to the general educatio
n classroom through inclusion, concerns were being raised abou
t how students would gain “access to the general curriculum.” A
n interpretive document about universal design for learning (Or
kwis & McLane, 1998) was disseminated extensively and served
to generate the first wave of national attention to the construct.
McLaughlin (1999) reported that IDEA reauthorization containe
d several specific mandates relative to making the general curric
ulum accessible for students with disabilities.
·

46. statements of a child’s current level of educational performance
to specify how his or her disability affects involvement and pro
gress in the general curriculum
· IEP teams to design measurable annual goals, including short-
term objectives or new benchmarks, to enable the child to be in
volved—and progress—in the general curriculum
·
a statement of the special education and related services and sup
plementary aids and services to be provided to the child
·
a description of any program modifications or supports for scho
ol personnel necessary for the child to advance appropriately to
ward the annual goals, to progress in the general curriculum, an
d to be educated and participate with other children both with a
nd without disabilities
·
IEP team members to document an explanation of the extent, if
any, to which the child will not participate with children withou
t disabilities in the general class and activities (p. 9)
Readers interested in a legal analysis of the issues associated wi
th access to the curriculum are encouraged to review Karger and
Hitchcock (2004). These issues were at the forefront of CAST’s
work, and in 1999 CAST received a federal grant to establish th
e National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum, which
became instrumental in garnering national attention for the pote
ntial of UDL.
As CAST’s insights about UDL were taking shape, staff member
s presented their work at the annual Office of Special Education
Project Directors’ Conference in 2000. CAST also used publica
tion outlets to describe its ideas about how universal design cou
ld be applied within education (Meyer & Rose, 2000; Rose & M
eyer, 2000).
The second wave of widespread attention to UDL came in 2002
when Rose and Meyer published a book called Teaching Every
Student in the Digital Age, which became a classic work about
UDL. The authors elaborated on the conceptual framework of U

47. DL, pointing out that it is grounded in emerging insights about
brain development, learning, and digital media. Rose and Meyer
also called attention to the disconnect between an increasingly
diverse student population and a one-size-fits-
all curriculum, arguing that these conditions would not produce
the desired academic achievement gains expected of 21st-
century global citizens. Challenging educators to think of the cu
rriculum, rather than the students, as disabled, their translation
of the principles of universal design from architecture to educati
on are nothing short of a major paradigm shift (Edyburn & Gard
ner, 2009).
CAST advanced the concept of universal design for learning as
a means of focusing research, development, and educational pra
ctice on understanding diversity and applying technology to faci
litate learning. CAST’s philosophy of UDL is embodied in a ser
ies of principles that serve as the core components of UDL:
·
multiple means of representation to give learners various ways o
f acquiring information and knowledge;
·
multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives fo
r demonstrating what they know; and
·
multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, ch
allenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn.
Joesboy/iStock Unreleased/GettyImages
A teacher takes his class on a field trip to learn about ecosystem
s. What are some other ways teachers can present information to
students without using a textbook?
Multiple means of representation may be understood as providin
g students with alternatives to learning information beyond sole
ly using a textbook. Teachers today have many choices when it
comes to presenting instructional content to students: Watch a Y
ouTube video, listen to a podcast, read text on a web page, use
Wikipedia to learn more about a topic, and so on. The key notio

48. n is to encourage teachers to use a wider palette of information
containers to reach diverse students by breaking out of the one-
size-fits-
all model, which assumes that all students learn in the same way
and need the same learning materials.
Multiple means of expression draws attention to the need to pro
vide students with multiple options for demonstrating what they
know. Some teachers recognize the value of this principle as th
ey allow students a choice of writing a paper, preparing a slide s
how presentation, recording a video, and so on. The key notion i
s to provide students with choices in how they demonstrate what
they have learned and the media they use to express themselves
. Twenty-first-
century educators will likely need to alter their instructional pra
ctices to place students in the role of Goldilocks: that is, allowi
ng them to try multiple options to determine which option is “ju
st right” for ensuring that their performance meets increasingly
high standards. Principles of fairness dictate that equity is achie
ved when every student receives what he or she needs (Welch, 2
000).
Of the three principles above, perhaps the most important is mul
tiple means of engagement, which is based on the learning princ
iple that deep learning is only accomplished through sustained e
ngagement. Access to the curriculum is a prerequisite to engage
ment. However, sustained engagement is achieved by activities t
hat are interesting, motivating, and at the right challenge level,
what Vygotsky (1962) calls the zone of proximal development. I
ndeed, research has demonstrated the relationship between deep
learning and high levels of performance and expertise (Csikszen
tmihalyi, 1990; Schlechty, 2002; Kaufman & Duckworth, 2017).
CAST (2011) elaborated on the core principles through the deve
lopment of UDL Guidelines. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, each o
f the three core principles has been expanded to include three gu
idelines that speak to the instructional design features that are n
eeded to implement each principle. Teachers and instructional d
esigners can use these guidelines as they create instructional ma

49. terials.
Figure 4.3: CAST’s UDL guidelines 2.0
By following the core guidelines for providing multiple means o
f representation, action and expression, and engagement, teache
rs can help shape more informed, goal-
oriented, and determined learners.
The following interaction walks you through the UDL guideline
s.
Policy Foundations
The impact of UDL can be traced through U.S. federal special e
ducation law. Thus, in the 2004 reauthorization of the IDEA, wh
ich governs special education, the term universal design was def
ined by its reference in a previous federal law:
The term “universal design” is defined in section 3001, item (19
) of Public Law 105-
394, the Assistive Technology Act of 1998, as “a concept or phi
losophy for designing and delivering products and services that
are usable by people with the widest possible range of functiona
l capabilities, which include products and services that are direc

50. tly accessible (without requiring assistive technologies) and pro
ducts and services that are interoperable with assistive technolo
gies.” (U.S.C. § 3002)
Following the backward chain of legal reference, the definition
of universal design as it was included in the Assistive Technolo
gy Act of 1998 is as follows:
The term “universal design” means a concept or philosophy for
designing and delivering products and services that are usable b
y people with the widest possible range of functional capabilitie
s, which include products and services that are directly usable (
without requiring assistive technologies) and products and servi
ces that are made usable with assistive technologies. (U.S.C. § 3
002)
Next, consider how the terms are defined in the Higher Educatio
n Opportunity Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-315, § 103, a):
(23) UNIVERSAL DESIGN.—
The term “universal design” as the meaning given the term in se
ction 3 of the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 (29 U.S.C. 300
2).
(24) UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING.—
The term “universal design for learning” means a scientifically
valid framework for guiding educational practice that—
(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in
the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills,
and in the ways students are engaged; and
(B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accom
modations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achieve
ment expectations for all students, including students with disab
ilities and students who are limited English proficient.
As illustrated, the definition of UDL evolved from a concept or
philosophy in 1998 to a scientifically validated framework in 20
08. Evidently, the work CAST (2011) compiled to support vario
us components of UDL design principles was mischaracterized b
y lobbyists and written into federal law (Edyburn, 2010). Where
as the body of knowledge concerning UDL has expanded in the
past 10 years, researchers conclude that there is insufficient res

51. earch evidence to support claims that UDL is a scientifically val
idated intervention (Capp, 2017; Crevecoeur, Sorenson, Mayorg
a, & Gonzalez, 2014; Edyburn, 2010; Kennedy et al., 2018; Ok,
Rao, Bryant, & McDougall, 2017; Rao, Ok, & Bryant, 2014).
Over the past 20 years, UDL has captured the imagination of pol
icy makers, researchers, administrators, and teachers. UDL prov
ides a vision for breaking the one-size-fits-
all mold and therefore expands the opportunities for learning for
all students with learning differences. Recognizing and respond
ing to diversity is a core motivation for engaging in UDL practi
ces. Finally, in an era with increased expectations for education
al outcomes, UDL is an important and timely strategy for enhan
cing student academic achievement. The mantra that evolved fro
m our understanding of the value of curb cuts, “Good design for
people with disabilities benefits everyone,” provides a powerfu
l rationale for exploring large-
scale application of UDL in education.
Translating UDL Theory Into Practice
Without seeing a class list, in a class of 30 middle school stude
nts, an experienced educator can reasonably anticipate that 5–
7 students will have below grade-level reading skills, 3–
5 will have learning disabilities, 1–
2 will have vision or hearing difficulties, and 2–
4 will have a primary language other than English. The current
model of curriculum accommodations requires that these student
s first be identified as having special needs before special suppo
rt services can be provided.
The promise of UDL suggests that instructional materials can be
designed to provide adjustable instructional design controls. On
e way to think about these controls is to consider a volume cont
rol slider that is adjustable to be off or some level between low
and high. Tomlinson (1999) speaks of this concept as equalizers
. As illustrated in Figure 4.4, universal design control panels co
uld be included in all instructional software and be accessed by
students and teachers when an adjustment is needed. Just think
of it: Do you need reading materials at a lower readability? Just

52. go into the control panel and reset the slider, and the same infor
mation could be presented at a lower reading level.
Figure 4.4: Model of equalizers
The figure shows a model of equalizers that could be used to adj
ust the difficulty of curriculum and/or the type of supports that
are activated to help diverse learners.
Many people find it difficult to visualize what universally desig
ned curricula might look like. Table 4.3 identifies digital resour
ces that can help us understand the potential of UDL. As you ex
plore each resource, consider how the resource was designed to
support the success of all learners by embedding supports that c
an be used by any learner as needed. Also consider the followin
g questions:
·
Would these instructional materials be helpful to a single studen
t? (If so, it might be considered assistive technology.)
·
Would these instructional materials be helpful to a small group
of students? (If so, it might be useful as a response to interventi
on Tier 2 intervention.)
·
Would these instructional materials be of value to the entire cla
ss in order to reach those who we know will struggle, as well as
many other students whom we cannot identify in advance? (If so
, it might be considered universal design for learning.)
Table 4.3: Instructional designs that proactively value differenc
es
Instructional challenge

53. Finally, consider the difference between traditional textbooks (c
reated with a design for the mean perspective; see Figure 4.1) a
nd digital learning materials that feature embedded supports tha
t can be used by any learner (created with a design for more typ
es perspective; see Figure 4.4).
Pause to Reflect
If we begin with the design premise that not all learners who ent
er a classroom will be reading at grade level, why might a websi
te that (a) has curriculum content written at multiple reading lev
els, (b) has text-to-
speech available, and (c) has second language translation availa
ble be more accessible and engaging than a traditional textbook
? If such instructional materials were routinely available, what
does this type of digital curriculum say about a school’s commit
ment to UDL as a strategy for meeting the needs of diverse lear
ners?4.3 Universal Access to Text
The text found in printed textbooks is fixed. That is, the font is
a certain size. The leading (the space between lines) is fixed. Th
e margins are fixed. The font color is usually black (to provide
a striking contrast against the white paper). While the characteri
stics of print and books have changed little since the invention
of the printing press, we now know that to some people the boo
k is a difficult container in which to access information.
For example, consider a child who was born without arms. How
does he turn the pages of the book or carry the book from his de
sk to his locker? What about a child who has a vision impairmen
t and needs the text enlarged to be able to see the print? What a
bout a child whose first language is not English—

54. of what use is an English textbook to her? And what about the st
udent who cannot read independently at grade level?
helenaak/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
By converting printed text into digital format, you can make tex
t more accessible to students. What are other advantages to stud
ents accessing text digitally?
Typically, the first step in making the information accessible is
to scan the text into the computer to create a digital version of t
he text. Digital text is inherently flexible. That is, the size, font,
and color of the text can be readily altered (e.g., consider how
you can change the appearance of text in your word processor).
In addition, digital text can be manipulated in ways that provide
physical, sensory, and cognitive access.
To meet the needs of diverse learners, it is becoming increasingl
y clear that 21st-
century curricula should be developed, stored, and used in a dig
ital format. Print-on-
demand tools can be made available and used as needed. Howev
er, notice how the traditional paradigm has been flipped. Rather
than creating print books that have to be converted into digital
format, books should be created and distributed in electronic for
mats and printed when the need arises.
This section outlines a series of design interventions that make t
ext universally accessible. The goal is to present resources, strat
egies, and tools that you can use in your classroom to ensure tha
t your students will have universal access to text-
based information.
Text Creation
Today almost all information is created through the use of a key
board and a computer. This means that most text is “born” digit
al. As you learned while mastering your word processor, it is ea
sy to save, change, and print documents when the text is saved i
n a word processor. As a result, few people who have mastered t
he basic mechanics of a word processor want to go back to usin

55. g a typewriter or writing entirely by hand.
One of the simplest strategies that teachers can use to make text
accessible to their students is to provide digital copies (e.g., .d
ocx, .pdf, or Google Docs) of their handouts. In fact, many scho
ol districts support this strategy by providing teachers with an o
nline work space on a local area network (i.e., intranet) or a con
tent management system (e.g., Blackboard, Canvas, Google Clas
sroom, Weebly). These types of tools allow teachers to post doc
uments online. Students learn to retrieve documents from the se
rver that they can open and view in their own word processor or
web browser.
Alter the View
Students who need to alter the view of a document can use the z
oom feature in their word processor (click on View menu, click
on Zoom, select appropriate size) or web browser (Command +
or Command -
) to increase the font size. This is another excellent example of
universal design. That is, while zoom was originally developed
for people with visual disabilities, nearly everyone periodically
discovers the need to enlarge text in order to see information m
ore comfortably.
A key design principle for making text accessible on web pages
uses a web development technique known as Cascading Style Sh
eets (CSS). CSS is a preferred web development practice becaus
e it separates content from the display of information. This is re
ally a significant development for accessibility because in the p
ast all decisions about the appearance of text were made by the
designer or publisher. By separating content from the characteri
stics of how information is displayed, control has shifted from t
he publisher to the reader, who determines what is the “just righ
t” format. When you see web pages that have a series of boxes
with the letter A or T, this is an indication that the web page ha
s used CSS to build in text enlargement. Simply click on the lett
er to enlarge the text to a comfortable size.Field Trip: CSS
Visit the following website to experience CSS.

56. CSS Zen Garden
http://www.csszengarden.com
What you will notice is that as you click on each link on the CS
S Zen Garden site, the content of the pages stays exactly the sa
me, but the graphic design, layout, text style, and so on, change.
The point of this website is to illustrate that good design can be
creative by saving the text in one file and saving the CSS varia
bles that affect the appearance of the page in a second file.
The value of text enlargement has led to a number of new tools,
some of which are designed to work within your web browser (e
.g., browser plug-
ins or bookmarklet). Increasingly common is the need for these
same kinds of tools to work on smartphones, given the very sma
ll screen size and the need to remove the clutter found on many
web pages (see Table 4.4). Hence, we are seeing another exampl
e of universal design, transforming what was originally an assist
ive technology intervention useful for some people into a featur
e that benefits everyone.Table 4.4: Apps that alter readability fe
atures of text
Another important strategy for making text accessible involves
styles. Perhaps you used style sheets when you learned to word
process; unfortunately, most of us did not. The purpose of using
a style sheet is that headings and text elements are consistently
tagged regarding their function (e.g., Heading 1, body text). Wh
ile visual users can see the difference in subheadings, blind user
s cannot. As a result, screen readers rely on style sheets to read
the tagged elements of a document and provide the user with the
opportunity to move around a document (i.e., using heading tag
s to jump from one section to another). Styles also offer authors
the opportunity to view the headings that they have created in a
document in an outline view to ensure that they are being consi
stent in their writing style.Field Trip: Style Sheets
Visit the following website to learn more about making and usin
g style sheets.
WebAIM

57. http://webaim.org/techniques/word
Saving the Text File
After you have created your text, you have many choices concer
ning the file format in which you save your document. Table 4.5
summarizes some of the common text file formats. Today most
word processing programs and web browsers can easily open an
d view documents created in any of these common file formats.
Table 4.5: Common text file formats
In most environments, Microsoft Word files saved as .doc or .do
cx are universally accessible because Word has become the wor
d processing standard. Be considerate of the needs of your stude
nts when selecting a file format in which to save the informatio
n. For example, if you create a document in WordPerfect or Pag
es, these specialized formats cannot be opened on most compute
rs that do not have these specific programs installed. In this situ
ation, the students may need to use an online conversion service
(see Table 4.6) to convert the file to a format they can open and
view. This issue of file format compatibility has become increa
singly important as schools implement one-to-
one programs and expand their online learning or virtual school
s programs.Table 4.6: File conversion tools
Instructional challenge
Strategy
Technology options
Manipulating Digital Text
Once students have access to a digital text file, they are able to
manipulate the information in a variety of ways to make it more
accessible. Essentially, the only technology skills needed to do
so involve copying and pasting.
One important strategy for many struggling readers involves alt
ering the cognitive accessibility of the text. This can be accomp

58. lished by copying and pasting digital text into a specialized tool
that offers summarization or vocabulary substitution (see Table
4.7). Search your favorite app store to find summarization prod
ucts that work on your smartphone.Table 4.7: Cognitive rescalin
g tools
Instructional challenge
Strategy
Technology options
Students’ independent reading skills make it extremely difficult
and tedious to complete grade-level reading assignments.
Copy the desired text and paste it into Text Compactor. Use the
slider to create a summary. Continue moving the slider until you
get the right level of text length/difficulty. If further support is
needed, copy the summarized text into a text-to-
speech tool or a language translation tool (see below for specifi
c products).
Text Compactor
http://www.textcompactor.com
Students often struggle with grade-
level texts because of the advanced vocabulary.
Copy the desired text and paste it into Rewordify or paste in a w
eb page URL. The tool replaces advanced vocabulary with easie
r words.
Rewordify
http://rewordify.com
Cognitive rescaling tools offer an interesting application of UD
L. Teachers might use them in a class because of a few strugglin
g readers. However, to reach those targeted students, the teacher
may wish to introduce the tools to the entire class. The potentia
l of UDL indicates that the tool will help not only the small gro
up of targeted students but also a larger number of students in t
he class—
many of whom the teacher could not know in advance would nee
d, want, or benefit from such supports.
This case illustrates that the outcomes of UDL should be consid

59. ered in terms of primary and secondary beneficiaries. If only a s
mall number of targeted users end up using the tool, it functions
more like assistive technology. However, if the secondary bene
ficiaries are a larger group, it is likely we have discovered a UD
L application in the same way that we notice the beneficiaries o
f the zero-entry swimming pool.
Once students have a summary of the text, they can choose to co
py and paste it into a text-to-
speech program. This allows them to listen to information that t
hey may not be able to (or choose not to) read (see Table 4.8).T
able 4.8: Text-to-speech tools
Finally, digital text affords the opportunity to convert text from
English into another language. Some students whose first langua
ge is not English will struggle to extract meaning from text foun
d in grade-
level readings. Such students may benefit from translation tools
that offer the text and audio formats in English and more than 1
00 languages.Field Trip: Google Translate
Explore this site to learn how you can translate text from one la
nguage to a second language.
Google Translate
http://translate.google.com
The purpose of this section has been to show how something as
simple as making digital text available to students in turn allow
s students to manipulate information to enhance the physical, se
nsory, and cognitive accessibility of the information. Whereas s
ome access-to-
text interventions are essential for students with disabilities, the

60. re is considerable evidence that such tools and strategies can off
er benefits to all students. Given the importance of learning fro
m text in U.S. schools, the design of accessible text is a primary
starting point for efforts to implement UDL.Pause to Reflect
How would you explain the difference between digital text and t
raditional print to a parent of one of your students? Are these di
fferences significant or relevant for 21st-
century learners versus when the parent attended school?
4.4 Universal Access to Media
The accessibility of instructional media is another important co
nsideration in UDL. Media often supplements text and adds mea
ning for struggling readers and students who are visual learners.
However, audio and video resources can pose significant barrier
s for students who have hearing or visual impairments if the me
dia have not been properly prepared. Thus, we must remember t
hat efforts to improve accessibility for one population may incre
ase barriers for others. This means we must constantly be attenti
ve to assumptions about our learners and the barriers associated
with specific types of information containers selected to use in i
nstruction. Because audio and video are routinely used for learn
ing, clear guidelines exist on how to make multimedia content a
ccessible.
Accessible Design of Audio
Audio files may contain music; a recorded conversation like a r
adio show, podcast, or interview; or spoken text that has been di
gitized from a human reader (digitized speech) or generated by
a computer voice (synthesized speech). Although this content m
ay enhance the learning experience for many learners, the audio
format poses intrinsic barriers for individuals who are deaf or h
ard of hearing. Therefore, the key design principle when includi
ng audio in instructional materials is to ensure that a transcript
of the audio is available.
Transcripts are simply text files that contain the same informati
on that is found in the audio file. For example, if the audio is a
radio interview, the transcript would be formatted in script form

61. at so that the deaf reader can see who says what. Descriptions of
sounds are also included in a transcript. For example, if the rad
io interview begins with soft jazz music, this is indicated in the
script. Similarly, if there is background noise such as a firetruck
siren, this is also noted. Transcripts may be saved in any conve
nient text format, such as .doc, .docx, .html, or .pdf, and the lin
k should be available on the same page as the audio file. The go
al is to provide equal access to the information for all learners s
o that they can choose their preferred media. When a transcript i
s not provided, students with hearing impairments are denied eq
ual access to the opportunity to learn.
The most significant challenge for most educators is generating
a transcript when all they have is an audio recording. The most t
edious way to produce a transcript is to replay the audio and typ
e up a transcript. However, a more effective approach is to pay
a professional to transcribe the audio. A Google search for “tran
scription services” will help you identify local, regional, and sta
te transcription services, and many organizations may have a ne
gotiated contract with a school district to provide this service to
teachers as needed. Increasingly, efforts are being devoted to a
utomating the transcription process (more about this later in the
section).
Accessible Design of Images
Adding images to text facilitates comprehension for most learne
rs. However, for students who are blind, the information contain
ed in an image is obviously inaccessible. For a blind person to h
ave access to the visual information, instructional designers mus
t prepare a text description that explains the information found i
n the graphic. Whereas captions are commonly used to provide a
brief description of an image, a person who is blind will often
need an extended description. The nature of the description dep
ends on the purpose of the image (e.g., a simple graphic to make
the design visually interesting versus a graph with data).
Extended descriptions may be included in a word processing do
cument or a web page so that all may access the information, or

62. it may be stored in a separate file to be accessed as needed. Wh
en inserting a graphic on a web page, most web authoring progr
ams prompt the user to add information in what is known as an
alt text tag to an image file. The alt tag directs screen readers an
d browsers that have turned off graphics to retrieve descriptions
or text files that provide a text version of the information prese
nted in visual format.
The alt tag signals the availability of a text description that can
be read to the individual so that he or she can gain access to the
visual information available to his or her sighted peers. If you
would like to see an alt tag in action, and you are reading this te
xtbook online, hover your mouse over any image or figure in the
book. The text that was written for the alt tag will automaticall
y appear. As you view the image and read or listen to the descri
ption, decide whether the description would be adequate for und
erstanding the visual information if you could not see the image
.
The universal design of images requires that designers include t
ext descriptions of each image. This is not a difficult process, b
ut it can be time consuming. The development of alt tags, captio
ns, and extended descriptions requires the instructional designer
to thoughtfully describe the information presented in an image
in ways that are useful to someone who cannot see the image an
d needs additional information concerning factors that sighted i
ndividuals may take for granted (e.g., issues of graphic style or
context of a photo).Field Trip: Alt Text
To learn more about creating alt text, visit the following site.
WebAIM
http://webaim.org/techniques/alttext
Accessible Design of Video
The popularity of YouTube and Netflix has placed video at the c
enter of social media, and therefore it is increasingly finding its
way into the classroom for instructional purposes. However, th
e multimedia nature of video makes it problematic for individua
ls with sensory impairments (i.e., those who are deaf, hard of he

63. aring, blind, or visually impaired). As a result, educators must e
nsure that all videos are appropriately captioned.
Captioning in the context of video and multimedia means that th
e information presented via audio is available through captions
or a transcript and that the information presented via video is av
ailable through text descriptions (see Table 4.9). Creating capti
ons is a bit more involved than creating a transcript because the
text has to be linked to specific audio and video frames. As a re
sult, this is one area of accessible design that it is difficult to ex
pect teachers to be able to do on a daily basis. However, new to
ols are making the process easier, and commercial services prov
ide a method for schools to contract for accessibility services if
they are creating videos.Table 4.9: Captioning tools for creating
accessible media
Pause to Reflect
Why is it important to consider the accessibility of multimedia
when planning for the unive
rsal design of instruction?
4.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
In the final section of this chapter, we will focus on how educat
ors can plan for implementing UDL in their classrooms. The goa
l is to provide you with some practical strategies to enhance the
accessibility of instruction, moving from design for the mean (F
igure 4.1) to design for more types (Figure 4.2). We will also ad
dress issues that are likely to impact universal design in the nea
r future.
The A3 Model
The transition from inaccessible design to universally accessible
design involves awareness training, new technical development
, and time for these new standards to be widely adopted. As a re
sult, achieving universal accessibility will not happen quickly.

64. The A3 model (Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001) illustrates t
he ebb and flow of concurrent interactions between advocacy, a
ccommodation, and accessibility across a three-
phase developmental cycle necessary to achieve universal acces
sibility (see Figure 4.5).Figure 4.5: The A3 model
The figure shows how advocacy, accommodation, and accessibil
ity shift across the developmental cycle.
Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001.
Advocacy efforts raise awareness of inequity and highlight the n
eed for system change to respond to the needs of individuals wit
h disabilities. It is during this phase that advocates seek to sprea
d the message about the benefits of UDL. Part of the message is
intended to change the thinking of individuals and organization
s about the need for equitable access to tools, products, and info
rmation resources.
Accommodations are the typical response to advocacy: Inaccess
ible environments and materials are modified and made availabl
e. Typically, accommodations are provided upon request. Altho
ugh this represents a significant improvement over situations in
the earlier phase, accommodations tend to maintain inequality b
ecause (a) there may be a delay (e.g., time needed to convert a h
andout from print to Braille); (b) it may require special efforts t
o obtain (e.g., call ahead to schedule); or (c) it may require goin
g to a special location (e.g., the only computer in the school wit
h text enlargement software is located in the library).
Accessibility describes an environment in which access is equit
ably provided to everyone at the same time. Often this is accom
plished through outstanding design (e.g., ergonomic furniture, s
oftware with accessibility and performance supports built in). T
hus, this third phase illustrates the goal of universal design in th
at the majority of instructional materials are universally designe
d, therefore drastically limiting the number of accommodations
needed.
It is important to understand that all three factors are present in
each phase. However, the waves across each phase suggest the d

65. ifferential impact of the three factors in terms of time, effort, an
d focus. As a result, individuals and organizations can use the m
odel to assess how their time and effort is being allocated to det
ermine which phase they are currently operating within.
CAST’s work on UDL paints a vision of the world in which inst
ructional environments, materials, and strategies are universally
designed (as found in the third phase). It has created an outstan
ding series of products—
such as WiggleWorks (CAST, 1994), Thinking Reader (CAST, 2
004), UDL Editions by CAST (CAST, 2008), CAST UDL Book
Builder (CAST, 2009b), CAST Science Writer (CAST, 2009a)—
that provide experiential evidence of what UDL principles could
look like in practice. These products illustrate what might be p
ossible if students had access to a large supply of UDL material
s to support their learning across subjects, each and every day o
f the school year.
In the first 10 years of UDL implementation, the UDL message
has been shared with substantial numbers of educators (phase 1)
. However, the reality is that once we understand the principles
of UDL, we move from phase 1 (advocacy) to phase 2 (accomm
odation). This means that while we are waiting for the widespre
ad availability of the promise of UDL (phase 3—
accessibility), we are left to our own devices to try to apply the
UDL principles to create more accessible accommodations (e.g.,
“Since the web page does not feature audio, let me show you ho
w to copy the text and paste it into a text-to-
speech tool.”). Thus, the A3 model illustrates why many early d
isciples of UDL find themselves struggling to achieve the potent
ial of UDL within the current limitations of instructional design
and product development.Pause to Reflect
Given your understanding of the A3 model, which phase do you
believe most accurately describes your personal knowledge and
skills concerning UDL?
A fundamental question that has yet to be fully addressed in the
UDL literature is whether the demands of daily instruction will
allow teachers to function effectively as instructional designers.

66. That is, is UDL a task for instructional designers and publisher
s who make instructional products? Or are teachers the principal
stakeholders as they select and deliver instruction in accordanc
e with UDL principles?
Given the difficulties the author has observed in trying to scale
UDL implementation beyond single classrooms, he is of the opi
nion that UDL is an intervention that involves the design and cr
eation of instructional materials (phase 3—
accessibility). Hence, the work of teachers is more accurately re
presented by the description of phase 2—
that is, advocating for UDL, selecting and using UDL materials
when they are available, and facilitating accommodations (as ill
ustrated in Section 4.3 for making text accessible). However, thi
s perspective is controversial.
In the sections that follow, we explore tools and strategies for i
mplementing universal design in the classroom with the goal of
helping teachers design for more types (Figure 4.2).
Planning for Multiple Means of Representation
The UDL principle of multiple means of representation seeks to
provide diverse students with alternatives to gaining informatio
n solely from a textbook. A sample plan, illustrated in Figure 4.
6, provides an example of what such a multiple means of repres
entation menu might look like for a middle school lesson on vol
canoes.Figure 4.6: Sample volcano lessons using the multiple m
eans of representation planning template
This figure shows an example of how lessons can be planned usi
ng the multiple means of representation planning template.
Although this planning template does require extra time on the t
eacher’s part, it provides multiple pathways for all students to e
xplore the content, since the teacher may select resources that p
rovide a more basic presentation of the information as well as th
ose that provide more advanced content. Because students will r
eview each of the resources, just as Goldilocks does to determin
e what is “just right,” they are likely to accumulate more time o

67. n task than commonly found with traditional one-size-fits-
all curricula.
When teachers seek to implement the UDL principle of multiple
means of representation, they are valuing academic diversity by
discarding the historical notion that any one information source
is the only source needed. In reality, providing students with a
menu of information sources is thought to enhance access, enga
gement, and learning outcomes both for targeted students (prima
ry beneficiaries) who we know will struggle with the content an
d for a large number of other students (secondary beneficiaries)
whom we cannot identify in advance.
Planning for Multiple Means of Expression
A second principle of universal design for learning focuses on p
roviding students with choices on how they express what they h
ave learned. In many classrooms, teachers expect students to ma
ke presentations to the class regarding a topic that they have stu
died.
In this case, the teacher would like each student to make a form
al presentation, using one of the tools in Table 4.10. By giving s
tudents a choice in the presentation tool, students can opt to lear
n a new tool, use one that they are familiar with, or use one that
supports specific features that they want to utilize in this partic
ular context. Such specific features could include collaboration
(e.g., Google Docs); visualization (e.g., Prezi); or cognitively si
mplified interface (e.g., Kid Pix 3D). Beyond formal presentatio
ns, teachers are increasingly allowing students to use other form
ats, such as short animated videos (Nawmal), comic strips (Com
icLife), video shot on student’s smartphones (WeVideo) and oth
er modes of storytelling and presentation. Because the teacher i
n this example is not an expert in each of the products, she direc
ts students to use each other as resources for learning about the
tools and to take advantage of online help and tutorials. This tac
tic frees the teacher to devote more time and energy to helping s
tudents learn about the content and performance standards. Onc
e such a menu has been created, it may be reused frequently.

68. Planning for Multiple Means of Engagement
Access to information is not the same as access to learning (Boo
ne & Higgins, 2005; Rose, Hasselbring, Stahl, & Zabala, 2005).
Access to information is necessary but not sufficient for learnin
g to take place. As a result, it is important to consider how tech
nology and digital media engage students in meaningful learnin
g activities. When UDL provides the opportunity for a student t
o access and engage in learning, as minutes of engaged learning
accumulate (i.e., time on task), this fosters the opportunity for
deep learning to occur. Deep learning, sustained over time, has
been found to lead to significant gains in academic achievement
. As we seek to reverse the effects of the achievement gap, we
must keep this strategy in mind. That is, how do we engage stud
ents in meaningful learning activities such that they are able to
experience the deep learning that is needed for the development
of expertise?
One strategy for implementing the UDL principle of multiple m
eans of engagement is to use an instructional planning template
known as tic-tac-
toe. You can implement this principle in your classroom by crea
ting your own tic-tac-
toe table by going into Microsoft Word and creating a table with
three columns and three rows. When populating the nine cells,

69. keep in mind the UDL principles to provide multiple means of r
epresentation, expression, and engagement. Students are expecte
d to select three in a row (using the traditional rules of tic-tac-
toe) to complete the assignment.
Naturally, the creation of tic-tac-
toe activities will require a bit of time investment for teachers.
However, as an instructional management tool, it is an excellent
beginning step for applying the principles of universal design t
o the classroom. Teachers will reap the dividends of their time i
nvestment when they track the academic performance of student
s who have typically struggled to complete traditional assignme
nts. Often, students will ask to do more tic-tac-
toe projects. This is a powerful indicator of the instructional val
ue of this intervention and one that operationalizes our values o
f proactively valuing diversity to support students before they f
ail.Pause to Reflect
As you think about applying the principles of UDL in your class
room, which approach (multiple means of representation, expres
sion, or engagement) seems most important or manageable for y
ou to begin with?
Previous section
Next sectionSummary and Resources
Chapter Summary
Universal design has its roots in the field of architecture, where
it was discovered that it was preferable to consider disability ac
cess in the initial design of the building environment rather than
try to achieve access by retrofitting and remodeling an existing
structure. Universal design for learning represents a 21st-
century intervention that seeks to utilize emerging insights gain
ed from research in diverse fields such as neuroscience, learnin
g sciences, instructional design, and technology. The three princ
iples of UDL involve providing multiple means of representatio
n, expression, and engagement. Understanding the potential of

70. UDL is seductively easy. Its exponential growth indicates that c
learly it is the right idea at the right time. However, it has prove
d far easier to help the various stakeholders understand the pote
ntial of UDL than it has been to implement UDL on a large scal
e and develop a sound research base supporting its efficacy.
·
The foundations of UDL were created during a period when ther
e was a need to move inclusion beyond physical access to the ge
neral education classroom to a level that offered access, engage
ment, and improved outcomes of learning by students with disab
ilities within the general curriculum.
·
Efforts to design for the mean reflect a value of designing for a
segment of the population that will achieve the best return on on
e-size-fits-
all tools, products, and information resources. This approach cre
ates a relentless demand for accommodations because all needs
were not considered in the original design.
·
Although universal design promotes the notion that everyone wi
ll benefit from a given design, in practice this has yet to be achi
eved. As a result, a more promising approach to consider is desi
gn for more types. That is, how can we improve our instructiona
l designs to reach more learners today than we did yesterday?
·
The accessible design of digital text allows users to manipulate
text in ways that enhance the physical characteristics of print, a
s well as providing scaffolds such as text at multiple difficulty l
evels, audio, and language translations that provide cognitive ac
cess to the information. Media containers must be designed with
accessibility in mind.
·
Application of the principles of UDL in the classroom requires t
hat teachers provide students with choices to foster access and e
ngagement.

71. Reflection and Critical Thinking
1.
Explore design interventions that were created explicitly for ind
ividuals with disabilities but subsequently had greater implicati
ons for mainstream populations. Using the following sources or
others you find, select two cases that illustrate the UDL mantra,
“Good design for individuals with disabilities can benefit every
one.” What about each case appeals to you?
History of Technological Advances Inspired by Disability
http://www.infinitec.org/history-of-tech-advances
The Evolution of Assistive Technology Into Everyday Products
http://incl.ca/the-evolution-of-assistive-technology-into-
everyday-products
2.
Conduct a Google search to locate information on how to open t
he accessibility control panels on your computer, tablet, or smar
tphone. Consider how these features could be used by a student
in your classroom or an older adult that you know. What is the v
alue of having such control panels on every device, rather than i
nstalling them on individual computers as needed?
3.
Review the following links concerning UDL resources. Identify
three to five resources that you would share with a colleague to
introduce him or her to the concept of UDL. Why would you ch
oose to share these resources?
Teaching Every Student Blog
http://teachingeverystudent.blogspot.com
Free Technology Toolkit for UDL in All Classrooms
http://sites.google.com/view/freeudltechtoolkit/home
CAST UDL Studio
http://udlstudio.cast.org
4.
Explore the following link. As you think of each recommendatio
n, how would you describe the primary beneficiary (i.e., a perso
n with a special need that is known in advance) and the seconda
ry beneficiary (i.e., people who would also benefit from the inte

72. rvention but are not known in advance)?
5 Ways Universal Design Makes Products More Accessible
https://www.section508.gov/blog/5-Ways-Universal-Design-
Makes-Products-More-Accessible
5.
Download a copy of the latest National Education Technology P
lan from the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educatio
nal Technology:
National Education Technology Plan
http://tech.ed.gov/netp
Use the Find feature within your word processor or PDF viewer
to locate the phrase “universal design for learning” in the Natio
nal Education Technology Plan.
e.
In which contexts is the use of UDL in technology planning adv
ocated for?
e.
Based on your reading about UDL in this federal educational do
cument, what would you tell a school district administrator rega
rding the importance of UDL and the need to create a local plan
for implementing it?
Additional ResourcesRecommendations for Your Professional B
ookshelf
Lidwell, W., Holden, K., & Butler, J. (2010). Universal principl
es of design: 125 ways to enhance usability, influence perceptio
n, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach thro
ugh design (2nd ed.). Gloucester, MA: Rockport.
A comprehensive introduction to design interventions for maxi
mizing accessibility and usability of tools, products, and inform
ation resources.
Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the dig
ital age. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
A classic book outlining the principles of UDL.Web Watch
The Universal Design for Learning Implementation and Researc
h Network is a new independent professional organization devot

73. ed to the implementation of UDL.
http://udl-irn.org
The UDL Center is an authoritative resource concerning UDL re
search, policy, and practice.
http://www.udlcenter.org
Key Terms
accessibility
accessibility control panel
alt text tag
captions
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
digitized speech
multiple means of engagement
multiple means of expression
multiple means of representation
synthesized speech
text description
universal design
universal design for learning (UDL)
usability
Chapter 1Diverse Students and Academic Performance
· 1.1 The Importance of Education
· 1.2 Higher Expectations in Our Classrooms
· 1.3 Achievement Gaps
· 1.4 Academic Diversity
· 1.5 Inclusive Technologies for Academic Success
ERproductions Ltd/Blend Images/Getty Images
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to

74. ·
Describe why all generations emphasize the importance of educ
ation but differ on their expectations of what’s worth knowing.
·
Identify five major factors impacting educational reform over th
e past 40 years and highlight their influence on current professi
onal practice.
·
Draw a graph illustrating how achievement gaps develop and de
scribe essential lessons that educators must understand in order
to alter the trajectory of students at risk for school failure.
·
Give three examples of how inclusive technologies could be use
d in the classroom by diverse students to enhance academic perf
ormance.
Introduction
When the Founding Fathers wrote the U.S. Constitution, they vi
ewed education as a necessary institution for sustaining a democ
ratic society. Likewise, parents place great importance on educa
tion as a means of helping their children achieve more than they
themselves accomplished. As we will see in this text, education
al attainment is increasingly viewed as an indicator of the econo
mic viability of a country. As a result, there is increased attenti
on on global measures of academic achievement and the impact
of technology on workforce development, employment, and eco
nomic productivity.
Educational reform has been a consistent theme in the United St
ates over the past 40 years. In this chapter you will learn how re
form efforts are affecting classroom instructional practices. In p
articular, we will explore how educational reform efforts influe
nce the use of technology in the classroom.
Finally, we will examine the concept of academic diversity as a
means of understanding learner differences. Educators who view
technology as a performance support tool will be strategically e
quipped to use inclusive technologies in the classroom to enhan

75. ce accessibility, engagement, and learning outcomes of all stude
nts.
· Knowledge Check
1.1 The Importance of Education
Historically, education has been prized by cultures around the w
orld as a means of transmitting culture, values, and knowledge f
rom one generation to the next. In the United States, however, it
was not until the late 1800s that the government began to encou
rage local communities to establish compulsory education. Part
of the motivation for these efforts may be viewed as a reaction t
o the industrial revolution, a time of significant social change, n
ot unlike what we are experiencing in the early 21st century. By
1918 every state had compulsory attendance laws that required
students to complete elementary school, and almost every famil
y complied (Rauscher, 2014).
In the past 100 years, significant progress has been made toward
increasing the level of educational attainment in the United Sta
tes (see Figure 1.1). Whereas in the 1920s most Americans conc
luded their education at the end of elementary school, by the 19
50s most youth graduated from high school. Indeed, parents rout
inely aspire to have their children achieve more than they did th
emselves. Today we see high school graduation levels at approx
imately 90% and college completion near 20% (U.S. Census Bur
eau, 2017b).
Figure 1.1: Population age 25 and over by educational attainmen
t, 1940–2015
Based on data from U.S. Census Bureau (2017). Educational Att

76. ainment. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/tim
e-series/demo/educational-attainment/cps-historical-time-
series.html.
Over the same period, the standard of living in the United States
rose considerably, due largely to the gains made by the achieve
ments of an increasingly educated society. Economists have co
me to view educational attainment as an important variable for a
ssessing the economic vitality of countries around the world (Lu
tz, Butz, & Samir, 2017). There is considerable evidence to sug
gest that increased educational attainment leads to increased life
time earnings (see Figure 1.2). However, it is equally clear that
the rewards of the American Dream are not available to every st
udent, since there are significant differences in educational attai
nment by race (Moore, Vitale, & Stawinoga, 2018; Ryan & Bau
man, 2016).
We currently live during a period of transition from an economy
based on manufacturing to an economy based on information (P
erkins, 2014). A country’s educational system is viewed as the r
aw materials of economic growth in the current information age,
in much the same way that agriculture, lumber, and minerals w
ere the raw materials of industrial society in the 1800s. This shi
ft has implications for what students need to learn to remain co
mpetitive in the global economy.
Figure 1.2: Educational attainment and lifetime earnings
In most fields, lifetime earning potential increases along with e
ducational attainment.
Based on data from U.S. Census Bureau (2012). Pathways After
a Bachelor’s Degree series. Retrieved from https://www.census.
gov/library/visualizations/2012/comm/pathways-series.html.
What’s Worth Knowing in a Changing World?
As the world changes, each generation must come to terms with

77. how the demands of an increasingly advanced society, as well a
s the technologies of the day, redefine what knowledge needs to
be taught to young people in schools. Often, such conversations
reveal generational differences, sometimes creating tensions ar
ound the teaching of basic literacies like reading, writing, and
math (often referred to as the three Rs).
Consider, for example, the difference in teaching the three Rs in
your grandparents’ day, when memorization and rote practice w
ere the focus. In contrast, consider what is possible for students
today, who have nearly ubiquitous access to smartphone technol
ogies that feature web searching, point-to-
point mapping and directions, and virtual assistants that provide
information in response to one’s voice commands. In light of s
uch advances, a critical question that must be periodically reeva
luated by society and the educational community is, “What’s wo
rth knowing?”
Pause to Reflect
In your opinion, do students need to memorize multiplication fa
cts before being allowed to use a calculator? Or should we disco
ntinue tasks that are primarily memory-
based in order to focus on the use of tools that offer opportuniti
es to engage students in higher level thinking and problem solvi
ng? Would your answer have been different in 1970? Do you thi
nk it will be different in 2030? Why?
It is essential that educators understand their personal perspecti
ve regarding the nature of learning and the role of technology in
preparing students for college and career opportunities in a futu
re that is not entirely clear. Educators are a critical community r
esource to help students and their parents engage in conversatio
ns about essential knowledge and skills needed for life in the 21
st century. As we continue our studies, we’ll discover that techn
ology sometimes replaces the need to memorize information bec
ause the information can be retrieved quickly and with greater a
ccuracy. For example, you can ask your favorite virtual assistan
t (Alexa, Cortana, Google Assistant, or Siri) to multiply two nu
mbers, name the capital of a country or state, or tell you when s

78. ome historical event occurred. In contrast to these simple fact-
retrieval tasks, we often spend the bulk of our waking hours sol
ving problems that are more complex. As a result, society, polic
y makers, and educators are challenged to determine the role of
technology in supporting learning in a future in which human–
machine interactions are expected to expand considerably.
The debate about the role of technology in 21st-
century learning has recently been rekindled, with some authors
arguing that technologies have a particularly negative effect by
undermining the rigors of memory and thinking (Hassan, 2017;
Turkle, 2017). In particular, the article “Is Google Making Us S
tupid?” by Nicholas Carr (2008) seems to have captured the ima
gination of those who want to argue that technology is being use
d to lower expectations in schools.
Despite these debates, there is a growing body of research evide
nce to suggest that use of technology and complex tools has bee
n contributing to a rise in IQ scores around the world (Flynn, 20
07). One explanation for this development is that using sophisti
cated tools, with a variety of interfaces, fosters the type of inqui
ry and problem solving that is essential for learning (Sternberg
& Preiss, 2005). (This explanation has particular appeal if you h
ave ever seen a very young child show his or her grandparents h
ow to use an iPad!) While the explanations for rising IQ scores
are varied and controversial (Bratsberg & Rogeberg, 2018), ther
e is clear evidence that technology will continue to challenge co
nceptions of learning that equate knowing with memory (Perkin
s, 2014).
One technology trend that has important implications for the fut
ure of teaching and learning involves the evolution of machine l
earning and its application in devices such as robots that can tak
e the place of a human. While such advances have already been
deployed in manufacturing, we are beginning to see a future in
which massive amounts of data are available for computers to b
egin combing through to discover patterns. Once a pattern of be
havior can be codified in an algorithm (Cormen, Leiserson, Rive
st, & Stein, 2009), computers can begin making connections to

79. other patterns that may not be readily observable to humans. Ov
er time, it is expected that these techniques will have practical a
pplication in education (Nelson, 2017) and dramatically alter th
e workplace (McCauley & Swabey, 2018).
Field Trip: Explore the Future of Work
Visit this link to read an article about automation and its implic
ations for the future of work. After you read it, ask yourself: W
hen will your job be replaced by a robot?
Where Machines Could Replace Humans—
and Where They Can’t (Yet)
https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/digital-
mckinsey/our-insights/where-machines-could-replace-humans-
and-where-they-cant-yet
Exactostock/SuperStock
As opposed to manufacturing and physical labor jobs, those bas
ed on information and knowledge require greater levels of educa
tion. How do you think this shift will affect the culture and valu
es of the next generation?
Education is the investment a society makes in each new generat
ion of children and youth. Parents understand this as they encou
rage their children to do well in school. Policy makers understa
nd this as they seek to reform education to foster the creativity
and innovation necessary for a nation to be competitive in a glo
bal society. Despite the turbulence caused in the transformation
of global economies, it is clear that strong educational systems
are valued and that the importance of education cannot be under
estimated.
1.2 Higher Expectations in Our Classrooms
One outcome of the technological advances that have occurred i
n the past century is that the world has become smaller due to i
mprovements in transportation, communication, and the Internet
(Friedman, 2005). As a result, world leaders can no longer sim
ply focus on domestic issues. Because of increased connectivity

80. , leaders must also be prepared to address an array of regional a
nd global issues impacting a global society. One such issue is th
e quality of a country’s educational system. If countries wish to
remain economically competitive, they must manage their educa
tion system with both an eye toward domestic issues and a globa
l perspective. In this section, we examine factors that have led t
o a tacit understanding that schools need to be reformed in order
to produce graduates of a higher quality than ever before (Trou
ght, 2017).
International Comparisons of Education Performance
International educational performance is measured by the Organ
isation for Economic Co-
operation and Development using a biannual assessment known
as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).
Scores on the PISA are reported in levels as a means of commun
icating a functional outcome. One international educational goal
is to ensure that as many students as possible perform at least a
t Level 2, meaning students have acquired the skills essential to
participate effectively and productively in society. Students fun
ctioning below this level tend to struggle in completing everyda
y tasks, including encountering challenges in the workplace. Th
ey are also unlikely to become lifelong learners—
a prerequisite for success in the 21st century.
Countries seeking to gain a competitive advantage in the global
knowledge economy are expected to educate an increasing numb
er of students performing at Levels 5 and 6. To understand the p
erformance expectations at the different levels of the PISA, go t
o the following web page to test your skills in answering five fi
nancial literacy questions posed on the PISA for 15-year-
olds: https://www.usnews.com/news/slideshows/can-you-beat-a-
15-year-old-on-the-pisa-financial-literacy-exam?onepage.
A considerable body of research on the PISA is emerging to inf
orm international comparisons about educational systems (Hopf
enbeck et al., 2018). When PISA test scores are released every 2
years, the event tends to provoke headlines in the United States
about the quality of our education system. That is because the

81. United States often finds itself in the top third of the rankings, r
ather than in the top three positions (like Americans often expec
t in terms of Olympic medals). For instance, on the 2015 PISA,
the United States ranked 20th in reading, 24th in mathematics, a
nd 19th in science. You can access the latest results here: http://
www.oecd.org/pisa. As you view the rankings, consider how yo
ur impressions of various educational systems are supported or r
efuted by the rankings. Among the leading world educational sy
stems, Singapore was number 1 in all three disciplines, and Can
ada, Estonia, Hong Kong, and Japan were ranked in the top 10 f
or all three disciplines.
Pause to Reflect
Read each of the following statements. Which would you ascrib
e to reading performance on the PISA at Level 2, and which refl
ect reading performance at Level 5? If these are the types of out
comes students in your class will be held accountable for, what
do these statements suggest for the type of daily learning activit
ies you select?
· locating straightforward information
· making low-level inferences of various types
·
managing information that is difficult to find in unfamiliar texts
·
showing detailed understanding of such texts and inferring whic
h information in the text is relevant to the task
· working out what a well-
defined part of a text means and using some outside knowledge
to understand it
·
evaluating critically and building hypotheses, drawing on specia
lized knowledge, and accommodating concepts that may be cont
rary to expectations
School Reform Efforts in the United States
Over the past decade, international comparisons of academic per
formance have fueled efforts in the United States for the federal
government to exert more leadership in defining high academic

82. standards and adopt more rigorous assessments of student learni
ng. However, the arguments for school reform started more than
30 years ago (see summary in Table 1.1). The following discuss
ion outlines some of the key issues and recurring themes in educ
ational reform in the United States.
Table 1.1: Timeline of notable school reform initiatives in the U
nited States
Most authorities trace the beginning of the current educational r
eform movement to a 1983 report titled A Nation at Risk: The I
mperative for Educational Reform that was authored by the Nati
onal Commission on Excellence in Education. The report used st
rong language to call attention to the shortcomings of K–
12 education, such as “a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens
our very future” (National Commission on Excellence in Educat
ion, 1983, p. 1). While the report did not have an immediate or s
ignificant impact on the educational community, it did serve as
a wake-
up call to policy makers and the business community about the
need to evaluate America’s educational system.
In 1989 the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics releas
ed standards for the teaching of mathematics, making it the first
professional organization to outline what students need to know
and be able to do. This action would initiate the standards mov
ement. Other professional organizations soon began similar stan
dards development projects to define what all students needed t
o know and be able to do.
In 1994 President Bill Clinton signed the Educate America Act (
also known as Goals 2000). He viewed the federal role in educat
ion as outlining the goals that states and local schools would rea
ch by the year 2000. However, states and local school districts
were to determine the best way to reach the goals by developing

83. their own school improvement plans. This work significantly in
volved state governors and therefore represents a milestone in t
he political responsibility for educational improvement.
In 2002 President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Be
hind Act (NCLB). This landmark federal education law created
expectations for closing the achievement gap by 2013–
2014 by holding schools, districts, and states accountable for an
nual achievement gains, reported as adequate yearly progress. T
his placed intense pressure on academic performance as measure
d by annual high-
stakes tests and a series of sanctions for schools designated as f
ailing and in need of improvement.
In 2009 the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act provided
$4.35 billion for the Race to the Top fund. Nearly $400 million
was allocated to two consortia (the Partnership for Assessment
of Readiness for College and Careers and the Smarter Balanced
Assessment Consortium) for the development of a new generatio
n of computer-based high-
stakes tests that would be designed to replace state-
specific high-
stakes tests. When implemented, the new generation of compute
r-
based tests would measure the learning outcomes associated wit
h the learning outcomes in the Common Core State Standards.
Shironosov/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images
Computer-
based tests are becoming the new standard for assessment in sch
ools. Do you think the transition from paper-
based assessments will encounter any challenges?
On June 2, 2010, the Council of Chief State School Officers and
the National Governors Association released national education
standards in two areas: mathematics and English language arts.
These standards have subsequently been adopted by 45 states an
d serve as the basis for recent curriculum reform efforts, known
as the Common Core, focused on what students needed to know

84. and be able to demonstrate that they can do.
Over time public outcry over NCLB (Houston, 2007; Popham, 2
009) attracted the attention of policy makers. Their efforts to pr
eserve components of NCLB that were working and address the
problematic areas resulted in the passage of the Every Student S
ucceeds Act (ESSA), signed into law in December 2015. ESSA i
s currently the federal education law, amending the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and replacing NCLB prov
isions.
Both Presidents Barack Obama and Donald Trump directed the
U.S. Department of Education to develop a process to review pr
oposals from states seeking waivers for flexibility in meeting N
CLB goals as the country transitions its federal education policy
. ESSA sought to return power back to the states relative to esta
blishing their own student performance standards and creating s
tate-based assessments to benchmark student performance.
A close reading of these American education reform efforts reve
als a pattern of discourse that schools are failing and that signifi
cant reform is necessary, which in turn has created a context for
increased federal and state legislation to mandate change. Even
though most state constitutions place the responsibility for edu
cation at the local level, until recently there has been little resis
tance in local communities to the large-
scale reform agenda. At the time this book went into production
, a variety of issues are being examined in Washington, D.C., th
at may contribute to the next phase of educational reform. These
issues include school safety, charter schools, vouchers, access t
o higher education, college affordability scorecards, and student
loan debt (Ferguson, 2017).1.3 Achievement Gaps
Schools routinely evaluate academic performance, and grading s
ystems are found in nearly every classroom. Historically, many
educators have argued that if a student fails to learn the content
presented within the designated time, it is the student’s fault, an
d therefore, it is the educator’s responsibility to fail the student.
This long-
held attitude is now considered unacceptable. School reform eff

85. orts have succeeded in defining an expectation that schools will
find ways to help all students achieve high-
academic outcomes. In this section, we will explore the consequ
ences of persistent academic failure that must be reversed.
The achievement gap—
or the difference in academic achievement found between differ
ent groups of students (e.g., students of color vs. White students
, students with disabilities vs. nonhandicapped peers, English la
nguage learners vs. native English speakers, students living in p
overty vs. more affluent students)—is a well-
documented problem in schools (Bradbury, Corak, Waldfogel, &
Washbrook, 2015; Demie & Mclean, 2015; Jeynes, 2015). More
than 50 years of educational research reports on the effect of th
e achievement gap, which in fact is not one single gap but a nu
mber of gaps that affect different groups.
Michael Feinberg: Personal Feelings about His 5th Grade Stude
nts
A fifth grade teacher at a low-
income school discusses the urgency of addressing the achievem
ent gap before students fall even farther behind. What measures
do you think schools should take to reduce underachievement?
The issue can be illustrated in a graph as shown in Figure 1.3. T
he blue diagonal line illustrates expected achievement. That is,
1 year of academic achievement for each year in school. Student
s who are performing at grade level are expected to be on the di
agonal line (naturally, some gifted and talented students will pe
rform above their grade level). The lower beige line illustrates t
he pattern of achievement of many underperforming students. T
he area between the beige line of performance by low achievers
and the diagonal line of expected grade-
level performance represents the achievement gap.Figure 1.3: T
he achievement gap
The achievement gap is the area between an underperforming st
udent’s expected performance and actual achievement.
While it is admittedly a simplification of the problem, the graph

86. in Figure 1.3 implies that (a) small delays in the lower grades c
an become big gaps in the later grades, and (b) once a student fa
lls behind, it is exceedingly difficult to catch up. The impact of
leaving school with below-
average skills has significant costs. The true costs of the achiev
ement gap can be measured for both the individual and society i
n terms of unemployment, underemployment, reduced earnings
over a lifetime, encounters with the corrections system, and mor
e (Bradbury et al., 2015).
For many observers, the lessons of the achievement gap are clea
r. First, contemporary schooling practices are not effective for a
ll students. Second, continuing to do what we have always done,
under the guise of high standards, may perpetuate, rather than e
liminate, the achievement gap. Third, repeated failure over time
creates an achievement gap that is exceedingly difficult to clos
e (Edyburn, 2006b).Field Trip: The Achievement Gap
Take a moment to explore the latest data concerning achieveme
nt gaps among various groups of students in your state.
Annie E. Casey Foundation’s Kids Count Data Center
https://datacenter.kidscount.org.
1.4 Academic Diversity
(from top to bottom) FatCamera/E+/GettyImages; Steve Debenp
ort/E+/GettyImages; martin-
dm/E+/GettyImages; Tomwang112/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Ge
ttyImages
There are many ways to engage diverse learners in learning. Wh
y is it important to help each learner find an appropriate way to
engage in learning about a topic?
American classrooms, at every level of education, are now more
diverse than ever (Digital Promise, 2016). We often think about
diversity in terms or race or ethnicity; sometimes we think of it
in terms of the native language spoken. However, understandin
g academic diversity requires insight about learner differences t
hat goes beyond race, ethnicity, and culture. Instead, we must b
egin to think more deeply about differences that have a profoun

87. d impact on learning. For example, we know that students learn
more when they are interested in a topic, have intrinsic motivati
on to learn about a topic, and choose to engage in meaningful le
arning activities (Hattie & Yates, 2014). We also know that all l
earners fall on a continuum, which on one end might be called “
novice” and the other “expert.” Given any topic, each of us falls
somewhere on the continuum. The goal of instruction is to prov
ide the context for learners to move from where they are initiall
y toward the side reflecting more expertise. Considering these d
ifferences is essential when designing instruction that allows di
verse learners to be successful (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010).
One-Size-Fits-All Instructional Planning
Few teachers today are adequately prepared to effectively teach
the array of diverse learners found in every classroom. As a res
ult, we tend to play Mirror, Mirror on the Wall—
Who Is the Best Teacher of Them All? That is, rather than looki
ng at all our students, we tend to think about our best students a
nd walk away from the mirror with great satisfaction. Since our
teaching prowess was just verified, we believe that the chronic
underachievement of students in the bottom 50th percentile is n
ot our problem. “Those students should be in a special class or n
eed to see a tutor. After all, I am a great teacher,” the reasoning
often goes.
Historically, teacher planning has followed a one-size-fits-
all model. There are two reasons for this. First, as illustrated in
Figure 1.4, the format of the lesson plan book used by the major
ity of teachers in this country emphasizes content coverage. Tha
t is, teachers record the content they plan to cover during a give
n class period. There is no requirement to consider individual st
udent needs when preparing one’s weekly lesson plans. Second,
the technology of instruction in the late 20th century was shape
d by the technology available at the time; that is, providing each
student with the printed textbook and workbooks. It was not un
til the widespread adoption of copy machines in schools in the 1
970s, laser printers in the 1990s, and collections of apps in the e

88. arly 2000s that teachers were able to create and use supplement
ary instructional materials of their own creation. Nonetheless, t
he textbook remains the primary source of curriculum in most cl
assrooms to this day.
The teacher lesson plan book, a key by-
product of the current instructional planning model, has contrib
uted to the achievement gap. Essentially, teaching planning ofte
n involves determining the scope of textbook coverage and reco
rding such plans in a lesson plan book. Throughout this text, we
will emphasize a variety of technology applications that suppor
t teaching and learning with an emphasis on making each learne
r successful.Figure 1.4: Excerpt of traditional lesson plan book
Traditionally, teaching has followed a one-size-fits-
all model. What are the benefits and drawbacks of this approach
?
Pause to Reflect
What evidence have you observed that technology is altering ins
tructional planning and helping teachers move beyond one-size-
fits-all instructional planning?
Making Differences Ordinary in the Classroom
Differences are an ordinary part of the human condition. It shou
ld not come as a surprise to teachers that some children like rea
ding and some do not; that some students are reading above gra
de level and some are reading many levels below grade level. W
hen differences are ignored or undervalued, students with learni
ng differences are likely to experience failure. Within education
, curriculum accommodations and modifications are the direct re
sult of a mismatch between a task and the capabilities of a learn
er. Unless teachers and administrators understand that academic
diversity is a characteristic, not a flaw, of every classroom, the
re will be an endless need for curriculum accommodations and
modifications.
Efforts to enhance the success of 21st-
century learners will require a fundamental shift in thinking abo
ut and responding to learner differences. Gordon, Meyer, and R

89. ose (2016) argue that we should not think of students as being d
isabled but rather consider the curriculum disabled since it pose
s barriers to access, engagement, and success. Tomlinson (2004)
in turn suggests that we think about learning differences as a M
öbius strip—
a continuum of knowledge and skills with no clear demarcation
on the journey from the starting point as novice and the end poi
nt as expert. In the same vein, McLeskey and Waldon (2007) no
ted that classrooms must be places where differences are ordinar
y. However, in most classrooms, the acceptable range of learner
variance is very narrow, and differences outside of this band ar
e considered to be a problem for someone else to deal with. We
must break this cycle in order to close the achievement gap. Tea
chers must become skilled in teaching the students they have, n
ot the students they wish they had (Hattie, 2009).
Cala Images/SuperStock
Technology such as tablet computers allows teachers additional
resources to use in their classrooms. How would you decide if a
new technology was more effective than a traditional instruction
al tool?
Throughout this text, you will be introduced to strategies and in
terventions that proactively value academic differences in order
to use technology in ways that seek to mitigate historical achiev
ement gaps. We must equip teachers with a tool kit that enables
them to recognize and respond to academic differences in such a
way that differences are viewed as ordinary. If we begin with t
he premise that every classroom is composed of diverse learners
, we start from a different point than traditional instruction, in
which content is the exclusive focus. That is, we begin to think
about how we can support diverse learners before they have a ch
ance to fail. This mind-
set establishes the need for technology since digital media offer
s flexibility, tools, and supports not available in traditional instr
uctional settings with whiteboard, textbook, paper, and pencil.
The perspective of this author is that technology is absolutely es

90. sential for supporting the academic success of diverse learners.
In a traditional classroom that relies primarily on a printed textb
ook, diverse students may encounter a variety of problems in ac
cessing and understanding the information presented and asked f
or. In this case they must seek assistance from friends, family, a
nd teachers to understand the information that they cannot read
independently. However, when the instructional needs of divers
e students are considered as a design principle, course content c
an be created in a digital environment with a wide variety of bui
lt-
in supports that can be used by all learners. Advances in technol
ogy afford new opportunities to abandon the mistaken assumptio
n about curriculum design that one size fits all. Next, we exami
ne the concept of inclusive technologies as a means of using tec
hnology in ways that enable diverse students to access, engage,
and excel in challenging curriculum.
1.4 Academic Diversity
(from top to bottom) FatCamera/E+/GettyImages; Steve Debenp
ort/E+/GettyImages; martin-
dm/E+/GettyImages; Tomwang112/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Ge
ttyImages
There are many ways to engage diverse learners in learning. Wh
y is it important to help each learner find an appropriate way to
engage in learning about a topic?
American classrooms, at every level of education, are now more
diverse than ever (Digital Promise, 2016). We often think about
diversity in terms or race or ethnicity; sometimes we think of it
in terms of the native language spoken. However, understandin
g academic diversity requires insight about learner differences t
hat goes beyond race, ethnicity, and culture. Instead, we must b
egin to think more deeply about differences that have a profoun
d impact on learning. For example, we know that students learn
more when they are interested in a topic, have intrinsic motivati
on to learn about a topic, and choose to engage in meaningful le

91. arning activities (Hattie & Yates, 2014). We also know that all l
earners fall on a continuum, which on one end might be called “
novice” and the other “expert.” Given any topic, each of us falls
somewhere on the continuum. The goal of instruction is to prov
ide the context for learners to move from where they are initiall
y toward the side reflecting more expertise. Considering these d
ifferences is essential when designing instruction that allows di
verse learners to be successful (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010).
One-Size-Fits-All Instructional Planning
Few teachers today are adequately prepared to effectively teach
the array of diverse learners found in every classroom. As a res
ult, we tend to play Mirror, Mirror on the Wall—
Who Is the Best Teacher of Them All? That is, rather than looki
ng at all our students, we tend to think about our best students a
nd walk away from the mirror with great satisfaction. Since our
teaching prowess was just verified, we believe that the chronic
underachievement of students in the bottom 50th percentile is n
ot our problem. “Those students should be in a special class or n
eed to see a tutor. After all, I am a great teacher,” the reasoning
often goes.
Historically, teacher planning has followed a one-size-fits-
all model. There are two reasons for this. First, as illustrated in
Figure 1.4, the format of the lesson plan book used by the major
ity of teachers in this country emphasizes content coverage. Tha
t is, teachers record the content they plan to cover during a give
n class period. There is no requirement to consider individual st
udent needs when preparing one’s weekly lesson plans. Second,
the technology of instruction in the late 20th century was shape
d by the technology available at the time; that is, providing each
student with the printed textbook and workbooks. It was not un
til the widespread adoption of copy machines in schools in the 1
970s, laser printers in the 1990s, and collections of apps in the e
arly 2000s that teachers were able to create and use supplement
ary instructional materials of their own creation. Nonetheless, t
he textbook remains the primary source of curriculum in most cl
assrooms to this day.

92. The teacher lesson plan book, a key by-
product of the current instructional planning model, has contrib
uted to the achievement gap. Essentially, teaching planning ofte
n involves determining the scope of textbook coverage and reco
rding such plans in a lesson plan book. Throughout this text, we
will emphasize a variety of technology applications that suppor
t teaching and learning with an emphasis on making each learne
r successful.
Figure 1.4: Excerpt of traditional lesson plan book
Traditionally, teaching has followed a one-size-fits-
all model. What are the benefits and drawbacks of this approach
?
Pause to Reflect
What evidence have you observed that technology is altering ins
tructional planning and helping teachers move beyond one-size-
fits-all instructional planning?
Making Differences Ordinary in the Classroom
Differences are an ordinary part of the human condition. It shou
ld not come as a surprise to teachers that some children like rea
ding and some do not; that some students are reading above gra
de level and some are reading many levels below grade level. W
hen differences are ignored or undervalued, students with learni
ng differences are likely to experience failure. Within education
, curriculum accommodations and modifications are the direct re
sult of a mismatch between a task and the capabilities of a learn
er. Unless teachers and administrators understand that academic
diversity is a characteristic, not a flaw, of every classroom, the
re will be an endless need for curriculum accommodations and
modifications.
Efforts to enhance the success of 21st-
century learners will require a fundamental shift in thinking abo
ut and responding to learner differences. Gordon, Meyer, and R
ose (2016) argue that we should not think of students as being d
isabled but rather consider the curriculum disabled since it pose

93. s barriers to access, engagement, and success. Tomlinson (2004)
in turn suggests that we think about learning differences as a M
öbius strip—
a continuum of knowledge and skills with no clear demarcation
on the journey from the starting point as novice and the end poi
nt as expert. In the same vein, McLeskey and Waldon (2007) no
ted that classrooms must be places where differences are ordinar
y. However, in most classrooms, the acceptable range of learner
variance is very narrow, and differences outside of this band ar
e considered to be a problem for someone else to deal with. We
must break this cycle in order to close the achievement gap. Tea
chers must become skilled in teaching the students they have, n
ot the students they wish they had (Hattie, 2009).
Cala Images/SuperStock
Technology such as tablet computers allows teachers additional
resources to use in their classrooms. How would you decide if a
new technology was more effective than a traditional instruction
al tool?
Throughout this text, you will be introduced to strategies and in
terventions that proactively value academic differences in order
to use technology in ways that seek to mitigate historical achiev
ement gaps. We must equip teachers with a tool kit that enables
them to recognize and respond to academic differences in such a
way that differences are viewed as ordinary. If we begin with t
he premise that every classroom is composed of diverse learners
, we start from a different point than traditional instruction, in
which content is the exclusive focus. That is, we begin to think
about how we can support diverse learners before they have a ch
ance to fail. This mind-
set establishes the need for technology since digital media offer
s flexibility, tools, and supports not available in traditional instr
uctional settings with whiteboard, textbook, paper, and pencil.
The perspective of this author is that technology is absolutely es
sential for supporting the academic success of diverse learners.
In a traditional classroom that relies primarily on a printed textb

94. ook, diverse students may encounter a variety of problems in ac
cessing and understanding the information presented and asked f
or. In this case they must seek assistance from friends, family, a
nd teachers to understand the information that they cannot read
independently. However, when the instructional needs of divers
e students are considered as a design principle, course content c
an be created in a digital environment with a wide variety of bui
lt-
in supports that can be used by all learners. Advances in technol
ogy afford new opportunities to abandon the mistaken assumptio
n about curriculum design that one size fits all. Next, we exami
ne the concept of inclusive technologies as a means of using tec
hnology in ways that enable diverse students to access, engage,
and excel in challenging curriculum.
1.5 Inclusive Technologies for Academic Success
Many teachers believe it is their job to sort students based on th
e quality of their academic performance by using the full range
of A through F grades. Teachers with this perspective visualize
the bell curve as a means of sorting students in a manner similar
to the distribution of IQ. While perhaps this was appropriate fo
r the 20th century, it is not appropriate in the 21st century, whe
n societal expectations are that all students will achieve high pe
rformance outcomes. Teachers are now being asked to take poor
performers and, within a relatively short period of instruction,
produce learners that have exceptional performance. The learnin
g curve associated with this expectation is known as the J-
curve (see Figure 1.5). The implications of these expectations ar
e that (a) teachers need interventions that are effective in produ
cing the desired achievement gains, and (b) the demands of the
curriculum leave little time for remediation if a student fails to
acquire the necessary skills.
Figure 1.5: Contrasting perspectives on student achievement
The bell curve seeks to sort students, whereas the J-
curve seeks to get all students to levels of high performance afte
r a short period of targeted instruction.

95. Academic Failure
When students fail at a given task or learning activity, it results
in two unfortunate outcomes: (a) Students learn that they don’t l
ike the subject matter, and (b) they internalize the failure in wa
ys that reflect the idea that they are “no good” in the subject. In
deed, the emotional scarring of this process is so powerful that t
hese negative outcomes are transmitted generationally. Most tea
chers have encountered a parent who explains a son’s or daught
er’s academic failure as follows: “Well, I was never very good a
t that in school either.”
Academic failure has a lifelong effect of closing doors to learni
ng and opportunity. The lessons of the achievement gap suggest
that our historical decisions about when to intervene with perfor
mance supports are seriously flawed. In short, performance supp
ort interventions must be provided much sooner than in the past
—that is, we cannot wait until the student fails.
Figure 1.6 illustrates the daily algebra homework scores of four
ninth-
grade students. Using the student performance data in the graph,
can you identify the following?
· a student who is successfully achieving
· a student who is nonengaged
· a student with inconsistent performance
· a consistently low-performing student
Figure 1.6: Performance by four students
Graph comparing the performance of four students over 5 weeks
in algebra. Which students have a performance problem?
Rather than addressing the causes of poor performance, educato
rs often search for reasons to explain poor performance, become
sidetracked, and fail to intervene with appropriate supports. Ho
wever, without knowing all the reasons, perhaps we can agree th
at the performance profile of three of the four students above pr

96. ovides clear evidence of an academic performance problem.
Unfortunately, schools have been failing large numbers of stude
nts for many years. The problem is not about performance stand
ards. Rather, it is whether educators are responsible for doing m
ore than simply failing students who are not benefiting from the
current models of one-size-fits-
all instruction. If a child has repeatedly failed, how much failur
e data do we need before we have enough evidence that the he o
r she cannot perform the task? When do we intervene? And what
do we do?
Evidence of an academic difficulty requires that we respond qui
ckly and differently to signs of academic failure. Research on h
uman performance technology illustrates the palette of intervent
ions for overcoming performance problems.
Variables Impacting Human Performance
Researcher David Wiley (1996) produced a synthesis of the key
factors that have been identified in the performance support lite
rature (see Figure 1.7). Wiley’s analysis suggests that human pe
rformance is affected by the following seven variables.
1. organizational systems
2. incentives
3. cognitive support
4. tools
5. physical environment
6. skills/knowledge
7. inherent ability
In Wiley’s evaluation the variables are sequenced in terms of th
eir ease of remediation. That is, performance problems related t
o (1) organizational systems are easier to modify than problems
associated with (7) intrinsic abilities.
Figure 1.7: Wiley’s model of human performance technology
According to Wiley’s analysis, performance is impacted by thes
e seven variables.
Republished with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., from

97. Wiley, D. (1996). Why doers do. Performance and Instruction, 3
5(2), 30-
35.Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, In
c.
When a student encounters difficulties in the academic environ
ment, Wiley’s model illustrates why educators have had limited
success in closing the achievement gap—
they focus all their efforts on instructional strategies (6) and inh
erent abilities (7). The model also suggests other interventions f
or teachers to explore: Changes in the organizational structure (
e.g., change classes/teachers), changes in settings, or various in
centive/motivational strategies. Finally, if these interventions fa
il to produce the desired level of student performance, two addit
ional variables deserve further investigation: cognitive support
and tools.
The nature of most learning activities that students complete in
school is indistinguishable from the way previous generations c
ompleted the same tasks. However, outside of schools, technolo
gy has fundamentally altered how some tasks are completed:
·
the mortgage underwriter uses a spreadsheet to calculate the rep
ayment schedule and costs
·
the mechanic uses an engine diagnostic system to pinpoint the s
pecific component that has failed or malfunctioned
·
the priority delivery service agent uses a bar code scanner so th
at the whereabouts of a package can be tracked every step of the
journey from sender to receiver
Unfortunately, we have more data about the priority shipping of
a package than we do about the academic performance of stude
nts. The reality of this observation is part of the current attentio
n being devoted to expanding computer-
based curricula and using digital learning analytics to understan
d student performance data in new ways (Dede & Richards, 201
2).

98. Technology and Performance
Recent educational innovations include differentiated instructio
n—
differentiating content, process, or products and tailoring instru
ction to meet individual student needs (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 20
10)—and universal design for learning—
valuing student differences by providing multiple means of repr
esentation, expression, and engagement (Gordon et al., 2016). S
uch innovations offer ways to proactively plan instruction that e
mbraces academic diversity. Recognizing the need for both phys
ical and cognitive access to learning provides a rationale for far
-
ranging searches of existing technologies that fundamentally alt
er the way specific tasks can be completed.
Consider a few examples of technology tools that our grandpare
nts didn’t have.
·
For students who are unable to independently read their textboo
ks, digital text and text-to-
speech software such as Natural Readers (http://www.naturalrea
ders.com) or Snap Reader (http://www.donjohnston.com) offer t
he means to listen to the information as it is read by the comput
er.
·
For students who struggle with the physical and mechanical task
s of generating a first draft of a paper, a dictation service such a
s iDictate (http://www.idictate.com) prepares documents based
on dictation provided over the telephone.
· For students with computational difficulties in math, web-
based tools such as WebMath (http://www.webmath.com) and W
olframAlpha (http://www.wolframalpha.com) provide calculatin
g and instructional support for solving math problems from ele
mentary through graduate school.
Let’s consider the impact of using one of these tools, WebMath,
with a student who is struggling in math. Figure 1.8 illustrates
Carmella’s performance in solving 20 algebra problems with an

99. d without technology. To assess whether WebMath contributes t
o Carmella’s enhanced performance, every other day the teacher
assigns the homework to be completed in the typical paper-and-
pencil format. On the other days, Carmella completes her home
work using WebMath. After reviewing the data, do you think th
e difference between the two lines provides convincing evidence
of the boost in performance that Carmella is able to achieve as
a result of her use of appropriate technology tools? Indeed, this
example of WebMath illustrates the potential value of cognitive
supports and technology tools for enhancing academic performa
nce. However, it also raises a number of provocative questions a
bout whether she has really learned to complete the algebra pro
blems. Indeed, some argue that the use of WebMath is cheating.
Figure 1.8: Carmella’s algebra performance
Carmella’s algebra performance with and without WebMath visu
ally demonstrates the contribution, or boost, that technology pro
vides to her functional academic performance. That is, she can s
uccessfully complete the problems when using the tool. Howeve
r, when it is taken away, her unaided performance is unsatisfact
ory.
If all students are to achieve a given educational standard, then
time and tools need to vary to allow for differences in learning.
However, despite the current educational reform rhetoric about
high academic standards, educational practice prefers to hold ti
me constant (e.g., 1-day lessons, 2-
week units), moving on to the next topic even when the perform
ance of the students within a class varies greatly. When time is
held constant and a single form of instruction or instructional m
aterials are used, it is impossible to expect that all students will
achieve high standards. The historical lessons of the achieveme
nt gap have already taught us this. The long-
term consequences of academic failure must motivate the profes
sion to intervene with carefully designed learning activities to e
nsure success from the outset. Technology tools and cognitive s

100. upports represent essential and underutilized interventions for e
nhancing the academic performance of struggling students.
Research on fairness indicates that most adults’ notions of fairn
ess are arrested at the kindergarten level (Tierney, 2014; Welch,
2000; Wormeli, 2006). That is, fairness means everyone gets th
e same thing (e.g., “He got a blue M&M, so I need one too!”). H
owever, the functional definition of fairness is that everyone get
s what he or she needs (Welch, 2000). Much work remains to be
done to provide every struggling student with the appropriate te
chnology and tools he or she needs to be academically successfu
l. The purpose of providing students with technology tools is to
ensure that they can achieve the academic standards that have b
een established in a timely and efficient manner.
Pause to Reflect
How do you define fairness? Would your definition be different
if we were talking about sports rather than academic performanc
e?
Using Technology to Promote Success in All Students
Educational Consultant Kendra Grant discusses how technology
can be used in the classroom to support students' success.
Inclusive technologies allow diverse individuals to complete a t
ask in different ways. For example, when a teacher assigns a pro
ject that requires students to make a presentation to demonstrate
what they learned, a classroom with inclusive technologies give
s students choices about the specific type of presentation softwa
re they will use as well as the presen-
tation format (e.g., use of the interactive whiteboard, a tradition
al stand and present, or an autoplay movie). Some tools may hav
e simplified interfaces that are ideal for young children or indiv
iduals with emerging technology skills or cognitive impairments
(e.g., Kid Pix Studio Deluxe), whereas other tools might suppor
t different hardware (e.g., Keynote on the Macintosh) or special
ized features (e.g., Google Presentation to support collaborative
design and development or Prezi, a web app that emphasizes en
gaging visual presentation).
In this text, we will advance the perspective that every form of t

101. echnology has the potential to extend human abilities. As a resu
lt, we view technology as a performance support tool. That is, w
hen used well, technology has the potential to make us more effi
cient and effective. In many cases technology also offers possib
ility for choice. Choice facilitates engagement that is a prerequi
site for learning. The research is clear: Students learn more whe
n they are given the opportunity to make choices about their lea
rning activities (Erwin, 2004; Suarez, 2007). One important cha
racteristic of the information age is that there are far more optio
ns than ever before. As a result, we will take the position that n
o single tool will meet the needs of all students: One size does n
ot fit all. Our task is to explore how to harness the power of tec
hnology to engage students in meaningful learning in ways that
promote high levels of academic achievement.
Rather than focusing on finding the “best” presentation software
, this text will continually emphasize the needs of diverse learne
rs and how teachers can provide a menu of tools and choices for
students. Since the essence of learning involves optimal challen
ge—that is, not too easy, not too hard (Vygotsky, 1962)—
we will offer students options and supports so they can discover
which technology tool is just right for them. After all, if we co
ntinue to advocate that all students achieve the same outcome w
ithin the same allocated time period, it means that we have faile
d to learn the lessons of the achievement gap. It means that we r
eally do want to assign students a place to stand on a line from
1 to 100 so that we can sort them. Instead, we are looking for th
e combination of tools and instructional strategies that will enab
le all students to achieve high academic standards in a short tim
e (the J-
curve). We will continue to elaborate on this philosophy in the f
ollowing chapters as we learn how to differentiate technology to
ols.
Chapter Summary
·

102. Schools serve a critical function in transmitting culture, values,
and knowledge from one generation to the next. Advances in tec
hnology often pose questions about what is worth knowing that
may result in different responses across generations.
·
Whereas lifetime earnings are correlated with educational attain
ment, some groups, like students of color, students with disabili
ties, and students whose first language is not English, are under
represented in postsecondary education attainment.
·
The major issues in current educational reform efforts can be tra
ced back over the past 40 years.
·
No Child Left Behind focused critical attention on the achievem
ent gap. However, to date, the gains have been modest in closin
g the achievement gap. As a result, much more remains to be do
ne.
·
New approaches to instructional planning are needed that recog
nize the importance of planning for the success of diverse learn
ers.
Reflection and Critical Thinking
1.
Think of the big ideas and important themes that you have been
learning about in this chapter. Write a headline concerning dive
rse students and academic performance that captures a key aspe
ct that you feel is significant and important.
2.
Reflect on your experience in school and contrast this with the e
xperiences of your parents and your grandparents. This offers a
perspective across three generations. Consider how each generat
ion might go about a task such as planning a trip. What types of
tools might each generation use (e.g., paper map stored in the gl
ove box of the car, Google Maps, GPS)? What does this exampl
e say about the role of tools as schools prepare students for a fu

103. ture that we cannot see?
3.
Do you live in a highly educated part of the United States? Unfo
rtunately, high levels of educational attainment are not equally
distributed throughout the country. Visit the following website t
o explore tables and interactive maps that draw on census data t
o show the proportion of adults holding college degrees with br
eakdowns by gender, race, population density, wealth, poverty,
and more. Determine if the (a) state and (b) county you live in a
re above, below, or the same as the national average for educati
onal attainment.
Educational Attainment in the United States: https://statisticalat
las.com/United-States/Educational-Attainment
4.
Education reformers point to international rankings that reveal t
hat the United States is not number one on tests of academic ach
ievement. What other metrics would you suggest to measure the
successful outcomes that are produced by American education?
5.
What do you know about disability? If you are new to the field
of special education, you might like to browse the following rep
ort as a means of gaining a general overview of disability. The i
ntent is to begin to understand the impact various types of impai
rments may have on learning and the accessibility of learning m
aterials. As you read, make note of any new insights you may ga
in. What would you like to know more about?
World Report on Disability: http://www.who.int/disabilities/wor
ld_report/2011/en
6.
Several national groups have made a commitment to collecting
data to benchmark children’s well-
being. Explore the following two resources to discover topics of
personal interest that will allow you to gain statistical data abo
ut some aspect of children, disability, or well-
being. As you read, consider the implications of the data present
ed. What does the data tell you about our society? Are there any

104. actions you feel should be taken as a result of this data? If so,
what?
2018 Kids Count Data Book: http://www.aecf.org/resources/201
8-kids-count-data-book
Child Trends DataBank: https://www.childtrends.org/databank-
indicators
7.
Why is it important to think about inclusive technologies as a st
rategy for enhancing academic performance?
8.
The National Education Technology Plan is a blueprint for guidi
ng federal and state agencies and school districts regarding the
adoption and implementation of education technology. Downloa
d a copy of the plan from the following link or view components
of the report online. What technology initiatives in your school
or school district can you trace back to the priorities listed in t
he National Education Technology Plan? What evidence do you
see in the plan concerning the use of technology to support the s
uccess of diverse learners?
The National Education Technology Plan 2017: https://tech.ed.g
ov/netp
Additional ResourcesRecommendations for Your Professional B
ookshelf
Aoun, J. E. (2017). Robot-
proof: Higher education in the age of artificial intelligence. Ca
mbridge, MA: MIT Press.
Examines the argument about the types of jobs that will be repla
ced by robots and what types of educational experiences will pr
epare students to do work that robots cannot.
Carr, N. (2010). The shallows: What the Internet is doing to our
brains. New York, NY: Norton.
A provocative argument that extensive use of the Internet is cau
sing a rewiring of our brains as we seek information in short for
ms and are less able to comprehend complex text.
Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2013). Scarcity: Why having too

105. little means so much. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Examines the influence poverty has on cognitive functioning an
d illustrates the subtle and not so subtle impact on attention, co
ncentration, daily life, and more.Web Watch
The United States Education Dashboard provides data about edu
cation in the United States.
https://dashboard.ed.gov
The Disability Simulation allows you to experience what it is li
ke to have a disability.
https://webaim.org/simulations
Key Terms
academic diversity
achievement gap
curriculum accommodations
educational attainment
inclusive technologies
The following interaction walks you through important school r
eform initiatives of the last 60 years.
.
Required Resources
Text
Edyburn, D. L. (2013). Inclusive technologies: Tools for
helping diverse learners achieve academic success (2nd ed.).
Bridgepoint Education.
· Chapter 5: Managing Digital Technology in the Classroom
Multimedia
CAST. (2010, June 6). UDL at a glance (Links to an external
site.) [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://youtu.be/bDvKnY0g6e4
· This video, created by the Center for Applied Special
Technology (CAST), is approximately five minutes long and
illustrates the three principles of Universal Design for Learning
(UDL). This video is a required resource for the Week 4

106. Discussion.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Privacy
Policy (Links to an external site.)
Webpages
CAST. (n.d.). The UDL guidelines (Links to an external site.).
https://udlguidelines.cast.org/
· This webpage is sponsored by The National Center on
Universal Design for Learning. It contains numerous examples
and resources related to UDL. This website is a required
resource for the Week 4 Discussion.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Privacy
Policy (Links to an external site.)
CAST UDL Lesson Builder. (n.d). Explore model UDL lesson
plans (Links to an external site.).
http://lessonbuilder.cast.org/explore.php
· This section of the UDL Lesson Builder website shows
customized UDL lessons that are aligned to standards and
tailored to include principles and practical applications of
Universal Design for Learning. This website is a required
resource for the Week 4 Discussion.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Privacy
Policy (Links to an external site.)
Meyer, A., Rose, D., & Gordon, D. (n.d.). Universal design for
learning: Theory and practice (Links to an external site.).
CAST.
http://udltheorypractice.cast.org/login;jsessionid=EB27BE6C79
293351E8C2D70A9FBC9C5B
· This website is a required resource for the Week 4 Discussion.
Here, you will register for a free account so as to have access to
sample lessons and build your own.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Privacy
Policy (Links to an external site.)
West Virginia Department of Education. (n.d.). UDL strategies
by checkpoint (Links to an external site.).
https://wvde.state.wv.us/osp/UDL/7.%20UDL%20Guidelines%2

107. 0Checklist.pdf (Links to an external site.)
· This document provides specific strategies for each principle
and checkpoint that supports the learning in the Week 4
Discussion.Recommended Resources
Text
Edyburn, D. L. (2013). Inclusive technologies: Tools for
helping diverse learners achieve academic success (2nd ed.).
Bridgepoint Education.
· Chapter 3: The Need for Assistive Technology
· This chapter will help inform your response to the second
discussion this week.
Article
Bertling, J., Darrah, M., Lyon, D., & Jackson, S. (2012). Early
childhood building blocks: Universal design for learning I in
early childhood inclusive classrooms. downloadREC.
· This PDF article requires the Adobe Reader plugin to view and
is a large file, so it may take a while to download. In this
article, the authors discuss how UDL can be incorporated into
early childhood classrooms that are inclusive. This arti cle is
recommended as a resource for the Week 4 Discussion.
Multimedia
Kyger, J. (2016). Getting started with Screencast-O-
matic (Links to an external site.) [Video]. Screencast-O-Matic.
https://screencast-o-matic.com/watch/cDnoca1cDx
· This presentation provides a brief tutorial of how to create a
presentation using Screencast-O-matic. This is a recommended
source for the Week 4 discussion.
Accessibility Statement not available
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Webpage
Techsmith.(n.d.). Jing (Links to an external site.).
http://www.techsmith.com/jing.html

108. · Website for the web-based screen recording software that
allows up to five minutes of narration for on-screen content,
including a presentation, with a free account. Web-based
publishing of recordings is possible as well through the
associated screencast service with a free account. This is a
recommended source for the Week 4 Discussion.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Privacy
Policy (Links to an external site.)
Website
Screencast-O-matic (Links to an external site.). (n.d.).
https://screencast-o-matic.com
· Upload, share, and discuss documents, presentation, images,
audio files, and videos. This is a recommended source for the
Week 4 discussion.
Accessibility Statement not available.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Go to top of page
Week 4 Instructor Guidance
Welcome to Week 4 of EDU620: Meeting Individual Student
Needs with Technology. Please be sure to review the Week 4
homepage and review the specific learning outcomes for the
week, the schedule overview, the required and recommended
resources, the introduction to this week’s focus, and a listing of
the assessments to be completed. Next, be sure to read the
Instructor Guidance in its entirety.
Overview
In Week 3, you began building a foundational understanding
UDL. This week we specifically analyze the principles of UDL.
Moreover, you will analyze UDL in relation to how it can be
used to reduce barriers for all students and not just those for
students identified formally as having special instructional
needs.

109. Intellectual ElaborationUDL Three Principles
Recall, UDL is an educational framework and set of principles
that maximizes learning opportunities for all learners and it is
based on three guiding principles. These principles can be
applied to the overall design of a course and/or curriculum as
well as to specific instructional strategies. Recall that each
principle has a set of detailed guidelines, which provide an
evidence-based approach to understanding how learning can be
improved through tools and resources. Each principle is aimed
at helping educators improve how information is presented so as
to engage students and create inclusive assessments and
evaluations. (For a review of these principles, see the resource
from CAST, 2007).
(CAST, 2008)
UDL Guidelines
For each of the three principles, there are specific guidelines
that help direct implementation into the classroom and
curriculum. These guidelines work as checkpoints and are
flexible; they must be mixed and matched into the curriculum
effectively. It is important to note that UDL checkpoints are not
meant to be a prescription for how or what to teach, but a set of
strategies that can be employed to overcome the barriers
inherent in most existing curriculum that is designed for a one-
size-fits-all approach (CAST, 2007).
Principle 1: Multiple Means of Representation
For principle one, multiple means of representation, there are
the three supporting guidelines:
1. provide options for perception (giving learners the option of
watching a video to learn through listening),
2. provide options for language and symbols (use of word
clouds, line graphs, circle graphs could all be used to provide

110. the same information to learners, just in different formats), and
3. provide options for comprehension (creating a PowerPoint
presentation or instructional video on the subject).
For an overview of principal one, visit the Universal Design for
Learning website (Links to an external site.).
Principle 2: Provide Multiple Means for Action and Expression
For principle two, multiple means for action and expression,
there are three supporting guidelines:
1. provide options for physical action (students can put on a
play or building a diorama to represent learning),
2. provide options for expressive skills and fluency (offer a
variety of multiple media applications such as text, speech,
drawing, illustration, design, film, music, sculpture or video to
demonstrate learning), and
3. provide options for executive functions( post goals,
objectives and schedules of when assignments are due in the
classroom as a visual reminder).
For an overview of principal two, visit the Universal Design for
Learning website. (Links to an external site.)
Principle 3: Provide Multiple Means of Engagement
For principle three, multiple means for action and expression,
there are three supporting guidelines:
1. Provide Options for Recruiting Interest (provide students the
option to participate in the design of classroom activities),
2. Provide Options for Sustaining Effort and Persistence
(provide learning opportunities that allow for active
participation, exploration and experimentation, and
3. Provide Options for Self Regulation (create an accepting and
supportive classroom climate, were students are free to take
risks and experiment with their learning).
For an overview of principal three, visit the Universal Design
for Learning website (Links to an external site.).

111. To see UDL and the three principles in action watch the
following videos that show the UDL guidelines in practice in a
variety of grade levels and subjects. Each video is
approximately 10 minutes long
· UDL Guidelines in Practice: Grade 1 Mathematics (Links to an
external site.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuTJJQWnMaQ
· UDL Guidelines in Practice: Grade 5 Language Arts (Links to
an external site.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zE8N8bnIlgs
· UDL Guidelines in Practice: Grade 6 Science (Links to an
external site.) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTxFYf50l-4
Minimizing Modifications
A key piece of federal legislation tailored to support students
with disabilities and other impairments is the reauthorized
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) enacted in
2004. IDEA ensures that public schools meet the educational
needs of students with disabilities and requires that schools
provide special education services to students as described in a
student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP). Schools and
school districts must also provide a Free and Appropriate Public
Education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE) —
two protective rights of every eligible student in the U.S. and
U.S. Territories (National Center for Learning Disabilities,
2014).
What do you know about IDEA as it relates to UDL?
Remember, UDL supports providing educational access and
opportunities for learning success for all students. UDL does
this by minimizing barriers to learning by proactively offering
different learning opportunities for all students. That is, UDL
includes students with a disability in a more integrative and less
stigmatizing manner, by recognizing that it is not only students
with a disability who may be disadvantaged or excluded from
learning because of elements of course design, teaching or

112. assessment.
“Universal design goes beyond accommodations in many
respects, making many common accommodations unnecessary
because what students with a disability may require is already
built into the course” (CAST, 2007).
An example is providing an audio component to a text resource.
Students who need the audio component will have it provided
and those that will learn better through the use of an audio
component also have increased opportunity to learn. Therefore,
UDL does not replace the need for IEP’s for some students,
what it does is to assist all students learn in the least restrictive
environment, regardless of an identified disability.
Assessment Guidance
This section includes additional specific assistance for excelling
in the discussions for Week 4 beyond what is given with the
instructions for the assessments. If you have questions about
what is expected on any assessment for Week 4, contact your
instructor before the due date.Discussion 1: UDL Guidelines:
Examples and Resources
This discussion is an opportunity to further demonstrate your
mastery of the third course learning outcome; apply the
principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in the design
of instruction and assessment. In the Week 4 Discussion 1 you
have the opportunity to gain an authentic view of how lessons
can incorporate UDL principles. You will conduct an
examination of a particular UDL principle within a lesson
making direct associations with the coordinating guidelines and
checkpoints; the understanding gained from this activity will
assist you in applying the principles into your current or future
design of a classroom and curriculum experience!
Consider the information you have gathered about UDL in
particular in the design of instruction and assessment as you

113. develop a response to the Discussion 1 in Week 3. Here, you
will examine one of the principles of UDL from the CAST
(2007) website. Be sure to review the instructions for this
discussion: you will choose a principle to review based on the
first initial of your last name. Choose a checkpoint from the
principal that is geared toward the grade level you are currently
teaching, have experience in, or intend to teach.
You are strongly encouraged to practice using digital tools by
preparing a presentation using your choice of digital software
and creating an audio or visual recording that shares in a way
reflective of 21st-century learning, what you have learned about
the guidelines and checkpoints associated with the principles of
UDL.
Remember to follow the Guided Response prompt for this, and
every Discussion each week.
PowerPoint Tips: It is recommended you use the Purdue Online
Writing Lab “Designing an Effective PowerPoint Presentation:
Quick Guide” resource provided in the references list below as
a guide for designing your presentation this week and in
subsequent weeks when a presentation is requested. Discussion
2: Minimizing modifications for individual students.
This discussion is another opportunity to demonstrate your
mastery of the third course learning outcome, apply the
principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in the design
of instruction and assessment.
You will start this discussion by signing up for a CAST
account. (Links to an external site.)(This is required step as to
review the videos from the CAST website; you will need to sign
up for a free account). Next watch the video on how UDL
minimizes modifications for individual students. Be sure to take
notes while watching the video on how the student and teacher
benefit from the use of UDL incorporation into teaching and
learning, provides options for different types of learning styles.

114. Note how the video demonstrates a non-threatening, all-
inclusive classroom. While watching the video think back to
your own classroom or a classroom you have volunteered in,
was the use of UDL present in the classroom?
References
Callison, D. (2001). Constructivism. School Library Media
Activities Monthly, 18(4), 35-38.
Center for Applied Special Technology. (2007). Principles of
universal design. Retrieved from
http://www.cast.org/library/UDLguidelines/
CAST (2008). Universal design for learning guidelines version
1.0 Wakefield, MA.
Karagiorgi, Y. & Symeou, L. (2005). Translating
Constructivism into Instructional Design: Potential and
Limitations. Educational Technology & Society, 8(1), 17-27.
National Center for Learning Disabilities (2014). What is
IDEA? Retrieved from http://www.ncld.org/disability-
advocacy/learn-ld-laws/idea/what-is-idea
Scruggs, B. (2009). Constructivist practices to increase student
engagement in the orchestra classroom. Music Educators
Journal, 95(4), 53-59.
UDL CAST Account. Retrieved from
http://udltheorypractice.cast.org/login;jsessionid=EB27BE6C79
293351E8C2D70A9FBC9C5B
Week 4 - Discussion 2
No unread replies.No replies.
Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and
you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates.
Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and
the depth of your responses. Refer to the Discussion Forum
Grading Rubric under the Settings icon above for guidance on
how your discussion will be evaluated.

115. Minimizing Modifications for Individual students
This discussion is an opportunity for you to apply the principles
of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in relationship to
constructivism and meeting the needs of all students. To prepare
for this discussion, aside from reviewing the Week 4 Instructor
Guidance, you will need to view the video UDL Minimizes
modifications for individual students (Links to an external
site.)at the CAST website. To view the video, you will need to
sign up for a free CAST account (Links to an external site.).
Initial Post: Create an initial response that addresses the
following areas.
· Evaluate how the video has strengthened or otherwise changed
your views about differentiated instruction? Do you have a
deeper understanding and appreciation for differentiated
instruction now? Why/ Why not?
· Analyze the benefits for both students and the teacher when
instruction follows the UDL framework when compared to the
practice of isolating learners and planning for specific
modifications for individual students. Provide evidence from
the readings and/or outside sources to support your analysis.
· Discuss what you learned in the video about setting up a non-
threatening learning environment that does not isolate students.
For example, what connections can you make between this and
what you observed when analyzing the lesson during Week 3
and when evaluating the example or resource in the Week 4
Discussion 1.
Guided Response: Respond to at least two peers. As always,
consider asking questions of peers about their responses to
encourage further conversation. In your replies, you can discuss
common themes you shared with your peer about differentiated
instruction prior to and after watching the video. Additionally,
discuss how the benefits your peer provides help guide learning
away from isolation for students who are identified as needing
modifications. Finally, consider in your replies what your peers
shared regarding their week three lesson and post suggestions to
help your peers further identify connections in ways that the

116. lesson supports differentiated instruction. Though two replies is
the basic expectation, for deeper engagement and learning, you
are encouraged to provide responses to any comments or
questions others have given to you to further the conversation.
Remember, this continued interaction gives you further
opportunities to demonstrate your content expertise, critical
thinking, and real world experiences with the topic of UDL and
differentiated instruction.