explain the different roles of basic and applied research
describe the different criteria for success of basic and applied research
explain why government policymakers seem to prefer applied research
describe how basic research reflects liberal democratic values
Over fifty years ago, Vannevar Bush released his enormously influential report, Science, the Endless Frontier, which asserted a dichotomy between basic and applied science. This view was at the core of the compact between government and science that led to the golden age of scientific research after World War II—a compact that is currently under severe stress. In this book, Donald Stokes challenges Bush’s view and maintains that we can only rebuild the relationship between government and the scientific community when we understand what is wrong with that view.
Stokes begins with an analysis of the goals of understanding and use in scientific research. He recasts the widely accepted view of the tension between understanding and use, citing as a model case the fundamental yet use-inspired studies by which Louis Pasteur laid the foundations of microbiology a century ago. Pasteur worked in the era of the “second industrial revolution,” when the relationship between basic science and technological change assumed its modern form. Over subsequent decades, technology has been increasingly science-based. But science has been increasingly technology-based–with the choice of problems and the conduct of research often inspired by societal needs. An example is the work of the quantum-effects physicists who are probing the phenomena revealed by the miniaturization of semiconductors from the time of the transistor’s discovery after World War II.
On this revised, interactive view of science and technology, Stokes builds a convincing case that by recognizing the importance of use-inspired basic research we can frame a new compact between science and government. His conclusions have major implications for both the scientific and policy communities and will be of great interest to those in the broader public who are troubled by the current role of basic science in American democracy.
Why the distinction between basic (theoretical) and applied
(practical) research is important in the politics of science
.
Scopus is a bibliographic database that covers a wide range of academic disciplines. It was developed by Elsevier, a prominent academic publishing company, and was first launched in 2004. Scopus is designed to provide researchers with access to a vast repository of scholarly literature, including journal articles, conference papers, patents, and more. Unlike some other databases, Scopus places a strong emphasis on citation analysis, making it an invaluable tool for assessing the impact and influence of research publications.
This Slide will not explore only the defination of Sociology. But will also elaborate how Sociology differs from other social science such as, Psychology, Political Science and Economics. It will also enlighten how social sciences has emerged?
Gut Feeling or Facts? Revisiting the Relationship between Science and Politics.Yannek Karim Adams
This magazine is the final product for the Petrus Camper Festival, which is being held each year in order to formally conclude the Honours College programme. Since the topic of the connected course was philosophy of science, technology and society, our group wrote several essays that reflect on this relationship along the themes of alternative realities, populism, fact-free politics and trust in science. My contribution centres around alternative realities by reflecting on how neurocriminology alters our conception of crime. This was achieved by applying Ian Hacking's notion of dynamic nominalism to a murder case in which psychiatric assessment was aided through behavioural genetics and structural analysis of the brain (voxel-based morphometry).
Development of Social Sciences in Dissertations of Immanuel Wallerstein - Imp...RemigiuszRosicki
This paper presents an analysis of the social science development concept of Immanuel Wallerstein. In general terms we can say that the development of social sciences was based on a process of emancipation of individual subjects of research and validation of research methods.
I. Wallerstein drew attention to the process of emancipation of individual disciplines, therefore
we can talk about the separation of philosophy, followed by social sciences and, negatively evaluated by I. Wallerstein, applied social sciences. With the constitution of individual disciplines
we dealt with the process of polarising methodological positions, which can be roughly described as the concept of two cultures. The text describes the following issues: (1) the directions
of emancipation of scientific disciplines, (2) the processes of emancipation of scientific disciplines, (3) the dynamics of changes in social sciences, (4) the effects of changes occurring in sciences. In addition to the main assumptions of I. Wallerstein on science, the text attempts to confront these assumptions with the achievements of T. S. Kuhn, R. K. Merton and C. W. Mills. The aim of the article is to point out the implications for the “theory of international relations” deriving from the general trends in the development of social sciences. This issue has come down to only selected issues of: microscopisation, idealisation, metaphorical use, deformation, transcendentalisation, fictionalisation and fetishisation of notions in the “theory of international relations”.
Scopus is a bibliographic database that covers a wide range of academic disciplines. It was developed by Elsevier, a prominent academic publishing company, and was first launched in 2004. Scopus is designed to provide researchers with access to a vast repository of scholarly literature, including journal articles, conference papers, patents, and more. Unlike some other databases, Scopus places a strong emphasis on citation analysis, making it an invaluable tool for assessing the impact and influence of research publications.
This Slide will not explore only the defination of Sociology. But will also elaborate how Sociology differs from other social science such as, Psychology, Political Science and Economics. It will also enlighten how social sciences has emerged?
Gut Feeling or Facts? Revisiting the Relationship between Science and Politics.Yannek Karim Adams
This magazine is the final product for the Petrus Camper Festival, which is being held each year in order to formally conclude the Honours College programme. Since the topic of the connected course was philosophy of science, technology and society, our group wrote several essays that reflect on this relationship along the themes of alternative realities, populism, fact-free politics and trust in science. My contribution centres around alternative realities by reflecting on how neurocriminology alters our conception of crime. This was achieved by applying Ian Hacking's notion of dynamic nominalism to a murder case in which psychiatric assessment was aided through behavioural genetics and structural analysis of the brain (voxel-based morphometry).
Development of Social Sciences in Dissertations of Immanuel Wallerstein - Imp...RemigiuszRosicki
This paper presents an analysis of the social science development concept of Immanuel Wallerstein. In general terms we can say that the development of social sciences was based on a process of emancipation of individual subjects of research and validation of research methods.
I. Wallerstein drew attention to the process of emancipation of individual disciplines, therefore
we can talk about the separation of philosophy, followed by social sciences and, negatively evaluated by I. Wallerstein, applied social sciences. With the constitution of individual disciplines
we dealt with the process of polarising methodological positions, which can be roughly described as the concept of two cultures. The text describes the following issues: (1) the directions
of emancipation of scientific disciplines, (2) the processes of emancipation of scientific disciplines, (3) the dynamics of changes in social sciences, (4) the effects of changes occurring in sciences. In addition to the main assumptions of I. Wallerstein on science, the text attempts to confront these assumptions with the achievements of T. S. Kuhn, R. K. Merton and C. W. Mills. The aim of the article is to point out the implications for the “theory of international relations” deriving from the general trends in the development of social sciences. This issue has come down to only selected issues of: microscopisation, idealisation, metaphorical use, deformation, transcendentalisation, fictionalisation and fetishisation of notions in the “theory of international relations”.
This Lecture has been Prepared for the students of Sociology to help them diffrentiate how Tradition vs. Science. And what was the role of Isaac Newton, Emile Durkheim and James,etc.
Government in Society The Conceptual and Historical ContextShababb Hussain
Government in Society
The Conceptual and Historical Context
for Understanding Government
If you were to import the geometrical method into practical life
you would do nothing more than if you set yourself to work at going mad
by means of reason and you would march straight ahead as though
desire, temerity, occasion, fortune did not rule in human affairs.
(Vico 2010, 113 [1710])
The dignifed burial of the dualistic Descartes forces us to address
the formidable explanatory challenge for a physicalistic theory of
human agency and a nondualistic cognitivism. (Bandura 2011, 4)
Scanned by CamScannerScanned by CamScannerSo.docxanhlodge
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Soviet Scientists and
the State: Politics,
Ideology, and
Fundamental
Research from
Stalin to
Gorbachev BY PAUL R. JOSEPHSON
1 HE SOVIET UNION PROVIDES a unique opportunity to
examine the impact of social, political, and cultural factors on
the development of science. In perhaps no other country do
external forces shape the face of research so visibly. Whether
through economic desiderata to increase industrial produc-
tion, ideological pronouncements to create a new "proletarian"
science, or political pressures imposed from above, fundamen-
tal research in the USSR has reflected the tenor of Soviet
history. The most important factor in the history of Soviet
science was the imposition of Stalinist policies in the 1930s.
This led to the ideologization of science and the belief that
socialist science existed as distinct from bourgeois science. The
ideologization of science imposed significant impediments to
fundamental research which handicap the system to this day.
In a word, politics and ideology played a predominant role in
the Soviet scientific enterprise.
The politics of Soviet science refiect the personalities and
programs of Communist party leaders, from Lenin to Stalin,
SOCIAL RESEARCH, Vol. 59, No. 3 (Fall 1992)
590 SOCIAL RESEARCH
Khrushchev, Brezhnev, and Gorbachev. In the 1920s, no
coherent national science policy existed. Scientists and bureau-
cracies sparred among each other for power and influence.
Under Stalin, new policies were introduced to harness science
to the machine of industrialization. The party brought
scientists, like all other potentially autonomous groups, stricdy
under its control, centralized policy-making, infiltrated re-
search institutes, and established ideological hegemony and
international isolation. Under Khrushchev and Brezhnev,
scientists succeeded somewhat in loosening the constraints of
party control. Scientists managed to throw off the remnants of
the Stalinist legacy only after the revolution initiated by
Gorbachev in the 1980s.
In spite of divergences in science policy among Soviet
leaders, several trends remain constant. First, throughout
Soviet history party leaders, economic planners, and scientists
alike have maintained their faith in modern science as a
panacea for the social and economic problems facing their
nation. Marxism, which in its Soviet form is particularly
economically determinist, has reinforced this belief. Second,
scientists and engineers commanded great respect in Soviet
history, the periods of ideological scrutiny of their work
notwithstanding. And third, the physical and chemical sciences
have prospered, while the life sciences have garnered less than
their share of resources. Of course, Lysenkoism in genetics
contributed to this state of affairs. However, the technicist
leaning of Soviet science policy, and the fascination with
large-scale technologies, tended to reinforce emphasis on the
exact sciences.
Science and Pol.
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docxAlleneMcclendon878
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical study carefully. Can you think of circumstance where it might be okay to misrepresent data?
Video Reflection 12 -
Do you think it is possible to create a study where there really is no bias sampling done? How would you manage to create one?
Video Reflection 13 -
What are your thoughts on statistics being misrepresented/ how does it make you feel? Why do you think the statistic are often presented in this way?
.
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docxAlleneMcclendon878
Explain how Matthew edited/changed Mark's Gospel for each of the following passages, and what reasons would he have had for doing that? What in Mk’s version was Mt trying to avoid – i.e., why he might have viewed Mk’s material as misleading, incorrect, or problematic? How did those changes contribute to Matthew’s overall message? How did that link up with other parts of Mt’s message?
Use both the following two sets of passages to support your claim, making use ONLY of the resources below, the Bible, textbooks and Module resources.
1. How did Matthew edit/change Mark 6:45-52 to produce Matthew 14:22-33 – and why?
2. How did Matthew edit/change Mark 9:2-10 to produce Matthew 17:1-13 – and why?
The paper should 350-750 words in length, double-spaced, and using MLA formatting for reference citations and bibliography. Submit the completed assignment to the appropriate Dropbox by
no later than Sunday 11:59 PM Eastern.
Resources for this paper:
See the ebook via SLU library:
New Testament History and Literature
by Martin (2012), pp. 83-88,105-108.
See the ebook via SLU library:
The Gospels
by Barton and Muddiman (2010), p. 53,56-57,102,109.
.
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This Lecture has been Prepared for the students of Sociology to help them diffrentiate how Tradition vs. Science. And what was the role of Isaac Newton, Emile Durkheim and James,etc.
Government in Society The Conceptual and Historical ContextShababb Hussain
Government in Society
The Conceptual and Historical Context
for Understanding Government
If you were to import the geometrical method into practical life
you would do nothing more than if you set yourself to work at going mad
by means of reason and you would march straight ahead as though
desire, temerity, occasion, fortune did not rule in human affairs.
(Vico 2010, 113 [1710])
The dignifed burial of the dualistic Descartes forces us to address
the formidable explanatory challenge for a physicalistic theory of
human agency and a nondualistic cognitivism. (Bandura 2011, 4)
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Soviet Scientists and
the State: Politics,
Ideology, and
Fundamental
Research from
Stalin to
Gorbachev BY PAUL R. JOSEPHSON
1 HE SOVIET UNION PROVIDES a unique opportunity to
examine the impact of social, political, and cultural factors on
the development of science. In perhaps no other country do
external forces shape the face of research so visibly. Whether
through economic desiderata to increase industrial produc-
tion, ideological pronouncements to create a new "proletarian"
science, or political pressures imposed from above, fundamen-
tal research in the USSR has reflected the tenor of Soviet
history. The most important factor in the history of Soviet
science was the imposition of Stalinist policies in the 1930s.
This led to the ideologization of science and the belief that
socialist science existed as distinct from bourgeois science. The
ideologization of science imposed significant impediments to
fundamental research which handicap the system to this day.
In a word, politics and ideology played a predominant role in
the Soviet scientific enterprise.
The politics of Soviet science refiect the personalities and
programs of Communist party leaders, from Lenin to Stalin,
SOCIAL RESEARCH, Vol. 59, No. 3 (Fall 1992)
590 SOCIAL RESEARCH
Khrushchev, Brezhnev, and Gorbachev. In the 1920s, no
coherent national science policy existed. Scientists and bureau-
cracies sparred among each other for power and influence.
Under Stalin, new policies were introduced to harness science
to the machine of industrialization. The party brought
scientists, like all other potentially autonomous groups, stricdy
under its control, centralized policy-making, infiltrated re-
search institutes, and established ideological hegemony and
international isolation. Under Khrushchev and Brezhnev,
scientists succeeded somewhat in loosening the constraints of
party control. Scientists managed to throw off the remnants of
the Stalinist legacy only after the revolution initiated by
Gorbachev in the 1980s.
In spite of divergences in science policy among Soviet
leaders, several trends remain constant. First, throughout
Soviet history party leaders, economic planners, and scientists
alike have maintained their faith in modern science as a
panacea for the social and economic problems facing their
nation. Marxism, which in its Soviet form is particularly
economically determinist, has reinforced this belief. Second,
scientists and engineers commanded great respect in Soviet
history, the periods of ideological scrutiny of their work
notwithstanding. And third, the physical and chemical sciences
have prospered, while the life sciences have garnered less than
their share of resources. Of course, Lysenkoism in genetics
contributed to this state of affairs. However, the technicist
leaning of Soviet science policy, and the fascination with
large-scale technologies, tended to reinforce emphasis on the
exact sciences.
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Do you think it is possible to create a study where there really is no bias sampling done? How would you manage to create one?
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Use both the following two sets of passages to support your claim, making use ONLY of the resources below, the Bible, textbooks and Module resources.
1. How did Matthew edit/change Mark 6:45-52 to produce Matthew 14:22-33 – and why?
2. How did Matthew edit/change Mark 9:2-10 to produce Matthew 17:1-13 – and why?
The paper should 350-750 words in length, double-spaced, and using MLA formatting for reference citations and bibliography. Submit the completed assignment to the appropriate Dropbox by
no later than Sunday 11:59 PM Eastern.
Resources for this paper:
See the ebook via SLU library:
New Testament History and Literature
by Martin (2012), pp. 83-88,105-108.
See the ebook via SLU library:
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Aedes
aegypti
gene of unknown function. Using Blast you were able to find the homologs of your gene. You have done research regarding the function of the homologs. Using this information:
A.Construct
a hypothesis
Give a hypothesis on the function of your gene SHAKER is in Aedesaegypti.
B.Design
an experiment to test your hypothesis.
Include a
labeled
sketch and written summary of experiment. (
include drawing of all conditions
, negative/positive etc)
C. Variables
List the Dependent and Independent
List Control variable
List a Positive and /or Negative controls
D.
Create a
data
set
and figure
Create a graph that clearly conveys to the reader what your experiment is about.
F.Interpretation
Give an interpretation of the possible meaning of your data. (although this isn’t conclusive since we are not doing statistics) . Does it align with your hypothesis?
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Expand
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Select
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Identify
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Exercise 7: Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo.
____________________________
gustar faltar quedar molestar
encantar fascinar interesar
____________________________
1. A mi ______ __________ la poesía romántica.
2. A nosotros ______ ________ estudiar lenguas extranjeras.
3. A las muchachas ______ _______ la música de Julio Iglesias.
4. A Juan y a Ramón ______ ___________ practicar los deportes.
5. A ti no _____ _________ el café.
6. A la profesora no ______ ________ preparar los exámenes.
7. Al consejero _____ ____________ los estudiantes.
8. A los atletas ____ ___________ el gimnasio.
9. Tenemos $500 y pagamos $350 por la matricula. ___ ___________ $150.
10. A los doctores ____ ________ la medicina.
11. A nosotros ____ ________ las pizzas.
12. A ellos ____ __________ la violencia.
13. En la Argentina bailan mucho. A ellos ____ ______ el tango.
14. Nosotros deseamos buscar el vocabulario. ____ __________ un diccionario.
15. Uds. desean llamar a los amigos. ____ ________ un teléfono.
16. A los estudiantes ________ ________ las vacaciones.
17. A mí ________ _________ los actores.
18. A Ud. _________ ____________ solamente diez dólares.
19. A Alberto y a Juan _______ ____________ el béisbol.
20. A ti _______ ____________ trabajar.
21. A Marisa _____ _____________ la música popular.
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Exercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)
The following facts pertain to a noncancelable lease agreement between Windsor Leasing Company and Sheridan Company, a lessee.
Inception date:
May 1, 2017
Annual lease payment due at the beginning of
each year, beginning with May 1, 2017
$21,737.01
Bargain-purchase option price at end of lease term
$3,800
Lease term
5
years
Economic life of leased equipment
10
years
Lessor’s cost
$68,000
Fair value of asset at May 1, 2017
$93,000
Lessor’s implicit rate
10
%
Lessee’s incremental borrowing rate
10
%
The collectibility of the lease payments is reasonably predictable, and there are no important uncertainties surrounding the costs yet to be incurred by the lessor. The lessee assumes responsibility for all executory costs.
Click here to view factor tables
(c)
Your answer is partially correct. Try again.
Prepare a lease amortization schedule for Sheridan Company for the 5-year lease term.
(Round present value factor calculations to 5 decimal places, e.g. 1.25125 and Round answers to 2 decimal places, e.g. 15.25.)
SHERIDAN COMPANY (Lessee)
Lease Amortization Schedule
Date
Annual Lease Payment Plus
BPO
Interest on
Liability
Reduction of Lease
Liability
Lease Liability
5/1/17
$
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
(To record depreciation.)
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
(To record interest.)
1/1/18
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
(To record second payament.)
Question 27
Pearl Corporation manufactures replicators. On January 1, 2017, it leased to Althaus Company a replicator that had cost $100,000 to manufacture. The lease agreement covers the 5-year useful life of the replicator and requires 5 equal annual rentals of $40,200 payable each January 1, beginning January 1, 2017. An interest rate of 12% is implicit in the lease agreement. Collectibility of the rentals is reasonably assured, and there are no important uncertainties concerning costs.
Prepare Pearl’s January 1, 2017, journal entries.
(Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually. If no entry is required, select "No Entry" for the account titles and enter 0 for the amounts. Round present value factor calculations to 5 decimal places, e.g. 1.25124 and the final answer to 0 decimal places e.g. 58,971
.
)
Click here to view factor tables
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
January 1, 2017
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
(To record the lease.)
January 1, 2017
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
(To record cost.)
January 1, 2017
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
[removed]
(To record first lease payment.)
6 years ago
16.01.2017
8
Report Issue
Answer
(
0
)
Bids
(
0
)
other Questions
(
10
)
what can i bring to class that symbolizes growth and change
calculate it.
EXERCISE 9.4 Using Structured Interview Questions from the GSS .docxAlleneMcclendon878
EXERCISE 9.4 Using Structured Interview Questions from the GSS
The GSS, conducted by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC), uses a structured interview schedule.
The GSS was administered annually from 1972 and then biennially from 1994 to a national probability sample.
Some questions are asked on every survey, other questions have rotated, and some have been used only in a single survey.
The GSS measures a great many variables using answers to questions as indicators.
The variables included on past surveys cover a wide range of behaviors, among them drinking behavior, membership in voluntary associations and the practice of religion, and numerous attitudes, such as opinions about abortion, affirmative action, capital punishment, family roles, and confidence in the military.
Browse through the archives of the GSS to find questions asked between 1972 and 2008, which is available at
http://sda.berkeley.edu/archive.htm
and select a few variables of interest.
1.List the names of the variable and the questions on the GSS that are the indicator(s) of those variables.
2.Comment on the specific questions that were used. Do you think they are valid indicators for the variables? Are the questions clear and easy to understand?
What do you think of the answer categories?
.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
explain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docx
1. explain the different roles of basic and applied research
describe the different criteria for success of basic and applied
research
explain why government policymakers seem to prefer applied
research
describe how basic research reflects liberal democratic values
Over fifty years ago, Vannevar Bush released his enormously
influential report, Science, the Endless Frontier, which asserted
a dichotomy between basic and applied science. This view was
at the core of the compact between government and science that
led to the golden age of scientific research after World War II—
a compact that is currently under severe stress. In this book,
Donald Stokes challenges Bush’s view and maintains that we
can only rebuild the relationship between government and the
scientific community when we understand what is wrong with
that view.
Stokes begins with an analysis of the goals of understanding
and use in scientific research. He recasts the widely accepted
view of the tension between understanding and use, citing as a
model case the fundamental yet use-inspired studies by which
Louis Pasteur laid the foundations of microbiology a century
ago. Pasteur worked in the era of the “second industrial
revolution,” when the relationship between basic science and
technological change assumed its modern form. Over
subsequent decades, technology has been increasingly science-
based. But science has been increasingly technology-based–with
the choice of problems and the conduct of research often
inspired by societal needs. An example is the work of the
quantum-effects physicists who are probing the phenomena
revealed by the miniaturization of semiconductors from the time
of the transistor’s discovery after World War II.
On this revised, interactive view of science and technology,
Stokes builds a convincing case that by recognizing the
importance of use-inspired basic research we can frame a new
2. compact between science and government. His conclusions have
major implications for both the scientific and policy
communities and will be of great interest to those in the broader
public who are troubled by the current role of basic science in
American democracy.
Why the distinction between basic (theoretical) and applied
(practical) research is important in the politics of science
