1. Analytical Matrix: Contemporary Views of Leadership 1
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Contemporary Views of Leadership
Commonalities Disparities
Contingency-oriented leadership theory (relationship of leadership
decision-making style to group performance and morale)
Vroom and Yetton presented the Normative Decision Theory which
identify a range of decision-making styles. (autocratic, consultative,
group). This model specifies which of the styles is most likely to yield
effective decisions under varying situations (Wren, 1995). This is similar
to Fiedler’s Contingency Model, in that there is no one best way to make
decisions and that the most effective style will depend on the
characteristics of the situation (Wren, 1995).
Situational – Control Dimension
Fiedler’s situational-control dimension contain two important features:
leader-member relations and task structure, which are extremely similar
to Vroom and Yetton’s characteristics of follower acceptance and
structured information availability (Wren, 1995).
Fiedler’s task-motivated and relationship-motivated leaders are typically
described as using decision styles which fall toward two poles of Vroom
and Yetton’s dimension of style (Wren, 1995). Task-motivated leaders
are more likely to tend toward autocratic or minimally consultative styles
while relationship-motivated leaders more often use group-oriented and
participative styles (Wren, 1995). These two theories make similar
predictions.
The Concept of Transformational Leadership
Bass uses the term “transformational leadership” rather than
transforming leadership (Wren, 1995). The adjective form of the
noun, transformation, modifies leadership and suggests a condition
or a state (Wren, 1995). In Bass’s terms, transformational leaders
transform followers (Wren, 1995). The direction of the influence is
one-way, unlike Burn’s treatment in which followers can transform
leaders by the interaction of leaders and followers (Wren, 1995).
Executive Leadership
Bass deals with the transformational style of executive leadership
(Wren, 1995). Burns analysis details “social change” as opposed to
Bass’s analysis when it comes to executive leadership. They also
differ in terms of how they study the context of leadership. Burns
discusses leadership within the context of social and politics:
revolutionary leadership where politics and social movements
overlap (Wren, 1995). Executive leaders become transforming
leaders when they “mobilize political resources in groups, parties,
public opinion and legislatures”(Wren,1995).
Burns portrays more historical views of “transforming” leaders with
examples pertaining to Lenin, Mao, Gandhi, and Luther. These
were leaders that were transforming leaders that become
executive leaders.
How Leaders Operate withTransformational Leadership Concepts of How Changes Occur in Organizations

2. Analytical Matrix: Contemporary Views of Leadership 2
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Bass and Burns indicated that transformational leaders operate out of
deeply held personal value systems that include justice and intergrity
(Wren, 1995). By expressing personal standards, transformational
leaders are able both to unite followers and to change followers goals
and beliefs. This helps to achieve higher levels of performance among
individuals than previously thought possible. Both Burns and Bass
distinguished between levels of transactional leadership. The kinds of
transactional leaders and followers engage in range from obvious to
less obvious. Transactional leaders clarify the roles followers must play
and the task requirements followers must complete to reach their
personal goals while fulfilling the mission of the organization (Wren,
1995).
Bass deals with leadership in formal organizations (authority
management, and leadership blended together).
Burns thinks changes come from outside an organization and
significant changes occur which incorporate involuntary changes of
an organization, and other factors and conditions that transforming
leaders do not create. Bass says the opposite and that change
comes inside formal organizations and leaders create and control
(Wren, 1995).
Knowledge Management and Customer-Focused Knowledge
(From article: Emerging Leadership Paradigms - Knowledge
Leadership)
The grounded theory links the processes of knowledge management
and customer‐focused knowledge management to leader effectiveness
and organizational effectiveness (Lakshman, 2007). The leader's role in
knowledge management starts with the leader's own realization of the
importance of information and knowledge management to the effective
performance of the organization. More specifically, such realization of
the importance of knowledge management, needs to manifest itself
along two dimensions, one internal and the other external (Lakshman,
2007). Internally, the leader's realization of the importance of knowledge
management is instrumental in the leader's establishment of both
technological and sociocognitive routes for managing knowledge in their
organizations (Lakshman, 2007). Externally, the leader's realization of
the importance of customer‐focused knowledge management is
instrumental in the leader's establishment of both technological and
sociocognitive routes for managing such knowledge (Lakshman, 2007).
This is similar to the discipline of Bass and Burns and their approaches
to internal and external roles of the organization that contribute to
leadership. Bass viewpoints rest on internal leadership in formal
Grounded Theory Approach and the Disparities found in
Research
(From article: Organizational knowledge leadership: a grounded
theory approach)
Extant theories of leadership approach the topic from the point of
view of effectiveness of different styles of leadership, assuming
that what leaders do is captured comprehensively by the “styles” of
leadership (Levinson and Rosenthal, 1984). Given that some
literature in the leadership area has identified a role for leaders in
information and knowledge management, but very little subsequent
research exists to substantiate or further investigate this aspect of
leadership, the assumption that we know what leaders (especially
executive leaders) do is questionable. Thus, a reexamination of
what executive leaders do is overdue, with specific reference to
their knowledge management roles (Lakshman, 2007). The extant
theories of leadership are lacking significantly because of the
dominant focus on cross‐sectional designs and focus on content to
the exclusion of processes, which are inherently longitudinal
(Denis et al., 2001).

3. Analytical Matrix: Contemporary Views of Leadership 3
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organizations and Burns views rest on outside leadership stemming
from changes that occur on the outside that trigger internal changes.
Knowledge management Impacting Leader Behavior
(From article: Emerging Leadership Paradigms - Knowledge
Leadership) (Additional similiarity)
Information and knowledge requirements of situations are key
contingencies that impact leader behavior (e.g. Vroom and Jago,
1988). The behavior of the leaders in facilitating the existence and
availability of required information and knowledge through such
processes as knowledge management can have a significant impact on
organizational effectiveness (Lakshman, 2007). From a behavioral
perspective, by personally participating, both on a day‐to‐day basis and
in specially organized events, in information sharing, CEOs send
valuable signals to all concerned of the importance of the information
that can be obtained through such knowledge networks (Lakshman,
2007). For similar views on knowledge management, Jack Welch of GE
operated on a simple belief that information sharing and knowledge
sharing is crucial to the success of organizations (Lakshman, 2007). At
Merck, Roy Vagelos operatesdon a similar belief that led to Merck's
acquisition of Medco, a prescription benefits management company
(Lakshman, 2007). Thus, information knowledge and sharing is critical
for success in organizations as envisioned by these leaders.
Impact of Gender
(Walking between Two Worlds: Indigenous Women and Educational
Leadership)
Available theoretical and empirical studies on women and educational
leadership (Blackmore, 1999; Coleman, 2001; Court, 1998; Ozga, 1993;
Strachan, 1999) contribute to an understanding of the broader socio-
political environment in which women as leaders operate as a numerical
minority. The central focus of these studies is the way in which women
leaders face occupational and professional challenges and the various
personal and professional strategies employed to acquire positions and
exercise leadership. Theory and research in the field of educational
management has turned its attention to systematically questioning the
absence of gender in scholastic debates and the under representation
Gender: How it Plays a Role
(Walking between Two Worlds: Indigenous Women and
Educational Leadership
Disparities exist based on the findings in this article. Indigenous
women ‘walk’ and work ‘within two systems’ (Indigenous and non-
Indigenous) and are ‘judged as a woman’ in a white man’s world’.
Women in leadership positions are subject to constraints
regarding [men’s] ways of knowing and leading (Blackmore, 2002;
Ozga, 1993) and are deemed to be ‘trouble’ in their challenges to
hegemonic practices (Blackmore, 1999). To further illustrate the
dual challenges of being Indigenous and being a woman. Milliken
and Martins (1996) have noted that emotional response is usually

4. Analytical Matrix: Contemporary Views of Leadership 4
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of women in school leadership positions (Blackmore, 2002; Coleman,
2001; Shakeshaft, 1987). Similiarly, what is known is that women from
minority groups are underrepresented both in the research and in
leadership positions and that these women occupy two unique
positions—one related to gender and one related to ethnicity. Another
similiarity is that there have been a number of thoughtful studies that
point to the potential importance of a comparative dimension in the field
of educational management and leadership (Bush, 2004; Dimmock and
Walker, 2000; Foskett and Lumby,2003). Similarly, Crossley (2000: 324)
suggests ‘it is now increasingly difficult to understand education in any
context without reference to the global forces that influence policy and
practice’.
stronger and prejudice more likely in any situation in which
difference (for example, colour of skin) is more visible.
Leadership
(Situational leadership theory: A test of three versions)
Related to the prescriptive guidance of SLT is the inherent recognition
that there is no single universal style of leadership that is best for all
circumstances. Finally, SLT emphasizes the value of (a) understanding
subordinates in terms of differential readiness for taking greater
responsibility and (b) developing the skill-set of followers (Northouse,
2007). This is similar to the contingency leadership theory of Fiedler’s
Contingency Model, in that there is no one best way to make decisions
and that the most effective style will depend on the characteristics of the
situation (Wren, 1995).
Situational Leadership-Prediction of Leadership Style and
Attributes
(Situational leadership theory: A test of three versions)
There are disparities involved in the types of models under this
type of leadership when working with the SLT1 and SLT2. In
comparison to SLT-I, SLT-II still rests on the underlying dimensions
that previously were used to define follower readiness/maturity
(i.e., follower competence and commitment). SLT-II also differs
most directly from SLT-I in its relabeling of the most desirable
follower developmental end-state (i.e., where fully-developed
followers are no longer in need of supervision, and therefore are
allowed a high degree of autonomy) as one that involves being
“developed” rather than high on readiness/maturity (Thompson &
Vecchio, 2009).
References
Blackmore, J. (1999) Troubling Women: Feminism, Leadership and Educational Change. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Blackmore, J. (2002) ‘Troubling Women: The Upsides and Downsides of Leadership and the New Managerialism’, in C. Reynolds (ed.) Women
and School Leadership: International Perspectives, pp. 49–69. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Bush, T. (2004) ‘The Global Significance of Educational Leadership and Management’,
Educational Management Administration & Leadership 32(4): 363–7.

5. Analytical Matrix: Contemporary Views of Leadership 5
Copyright © 2013 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.
Coleman, M. (2001) Achievement Against the Odds: Female Secondary Headteachers in England and Wales’, School Leadership and
Management 21(1): 75–100.
Court, M. (1998) ‘Women Challenging Managerialism: Devolution Dilemmas in the Establishment of Co-Principalship in a Primary School in
Aotearoa/New Zealand’, School Leadership and Management 18(1): 35–57.
Crossley, M. (2000) ‘Bridging Cultures and Traditions in the Reconceptualisation of Comparative and International Education’, Comparative
Education 36: 319–22.
Denis, J., Lamothe, L. and Langley, A. (2001), “The dynamics of collective leadership and strategic change in pluralistic organizations”, Academy
of Management Journal, Vol. 44 No. 4, pp. 809‐37.
Dimmock, C. and Walker, A. (2000) ‘Developing Comparative and International Educational Leadership and Management: A Cross-cultural
Model’, School Leadership & Management 20(2): 143–60.
Foskett, N. and Lumby, J. (2003) Leading and Managing Education: International Dimensions. London: Paul Chapman.
Lakshman, C. (2007). Organizational knowledge leadership: A grounded theory approach. Leadership & Organization Development Journal,
28(1), 51-75.
Levinson, H. and Rosenthal, S. (1984), CEO: Corporate Leadership in Action, Basic Books, New York, NY.
Milliken, F. and Martins, L. (1996) ‘Searching for Common Threads: Understanding the Multiple Effects of Diversity in Organisational Groups’,
Academy of ManagementReview 21(2): 402–34.
Northouse, (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA (2007)
Ozga, J. (1993) Women in Educational Management. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Shakeshaft, C. (1987) Women in Educational Administration. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Strachan, J. (1999) ‘Feminist Educational Leadership: Locating the Concepts in Practice’, Gender and Education 11(3): 309–22.
Thompson, G., & Vecchio, R. P. (2009). Situational leadership theory: A test of three versions. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(5), 837-848.

6. Analytical Matrix: Contemporary Views of Leadership 6
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Vroom, V.H. and Jago, A.G. (1988), The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organizations, Prentice‐Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Wren, J.T. (1995). The Leader’s Compaion: Insights on Leadership Through the Ages, The Free Press.