A 69-year-old man with a history of congestive heart failure, diabetes, hypertension, and coronary artery disease is prescribed digoxin for symptomatic relief of worsening heart failure despite maximal medical therapy. Digoxin increases cardiac output in failing hearts by increasing stroke volume. It decreases sympathetic tone and increases vagal activity. Side effects include arrhythmias, nausea, and toxicity at high levels.
There are two distinct goals of drug therapy in CHF.
Relief of congestion/ low cardiac output symptoms and restoration of cardiac performance.
Ionotropic agents, Vasodilators, Diuretics, BETA Blockers.
Arrest/reversal of disease progression and prolongation of survival.
ACE inhibitors, ARBs, Beta Blockers, Aldosterone Antagonists.
There are two distinct goals of drug therapy in CHF.
Relief of congestion/ low cardiac output symptoms and restoration of cardiac performance.
Ionotropic agents, Vasodilators, Diuretics, BETA Blockers.
Arrest/reversal of disease progression and prolongation of survival.
ACE inhibitors, ARBs, Beta Blockers, Aldosterone Antagonists.
The term inotropic state is most commonly used in reference to various drugs that affect the strength of contraction of heart muscle (myocardial contractility). However, it can also refer to pathological conditions. For example, enlarged heart muscle (ventricular hypertrophy) can increase inotropic state, whereas dead heart muscle (myocardial infarction) can decrease it.
Hello friends. In this PPT I am talking about Cardiovascular system drugs. If you like it, please do let me know in the comments section. A single word of appreciation from you will encourage me to make more of such videos. Thanks. Enjoy and welcome to the beautiful world of pharmacology where pharmacology comes to life. This video is intended for MBBS, BDS, paramedical and any person who wishes to have a basic understanding of the subject in the simplest way.
Antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure). Antihypertensive therapy seeks to prevent the complications of high blood pressure, such as stroke and myocardial infarction.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
The term inotropic state is most commonly used in reference to various drugs that affect the strength of contraction of heart muscle (myocardial contractility). However, it can also refer to pathological conditions. For example, enlarged heart muscle (ventricular hypertrophy) can increase inotropic state, whereas dead heart muscle (myocardial infarction) can decrease it.
Hello friends. In this PPT I am talking about Cardiovascular system drugs. If you like it, please do let me know in the comments section. A single word of appreciation from you will encourage me to make more of such videos. Thanks. Enjoy and welcome to the beautiful world of pharmacology where pharmacology comes to life. This video is intended for MBBS, BDS, paramedical and any person who wishes to have a basic understanding of the subject in the simplest way.
Antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure). Antihypertensive therapy seeks to prevent the complications of high blood pressure, such as stroke and myocardial infarction.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
HOT NEW PRODUCT! BIG SALES FAST SHIPPING NOW FROM CHINA!! EU KU DB BK substit...GL Anaacs
Contact us if you are interested:
Email / Skype : kefaya1771@gmail.com
Threema: PXHY5PDH
New BATCH Ku !!! MUCH IN DEMAND FAST SALE EVERY BATCH HAPPY GOOD EFFECT BIG BATCH !
Contact me on Threema or skype to start big business!!
Hot-sale products:
NEW HOT EUTYLONE WHITE CRYSTAL!!
5cl-adba precursor (semi finished )
5cl-adba raw materials
ADBB precursor (semi finished )
ADBB raw materials
APVP powder
5fadb/4f-adb
Jwh018 / Jwh210
Eutylone crystal
Protonitazene (hydrochloride) CAS: 119276-01-6
Flubrotizolam CAS: 57801-95-3
Metonitazene CAS: 14680-51-4
Payment terms: Western Union,MoneyGram,Bitcoin or USDT.
Deliver Time: Usually 7-15days
Shipping method: FedEx, TNT, DHL,UPS etc.Our deliveries are 100% safe, fast, reliable and discreet.
Samples will be sent for your evaluation!If you are interested in, please contact me, let's talk details.
We specializes in exporting high quality Research chemical, medical intermediate, Pharmaceutical chemicals and so on. Products are exported to USA, Canada, France, Korea, Japan,Russia, Southeast Asia and other countries.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
2. COMPREHENSIVE QUESTION
• A 69-year-old male with a past medical history of congestive heart failure,
type II diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and coronary artery disease presents
for follow-up. Patient has had several MIs, a depressed ejection fraction (EF),
and worsening heart failure—symptoms of dyspnea, orthopnea, paroxysmal
nocturnal dyspnea, and edema despite maximal ACE inhibitor, beta blocker,
and diuretic use. Patient’s diabetes is well controlled and he has a normal
renal function. You decide to add digoxin for symptomatic relief.
• What is the effect of digoxin on the normal heart?
• What is the effect of digoxin on the failing heart?
• What neural effects does digoxin have?
• What are the side effects and toxicities of digoxin?
4. DEFINING CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE
• The onset and progression of clinically evident CHF from left ventricular
(LV) SYSTOLIC DYSFUNCTION follows a pathophysiologic sequence in
response to an initial insult to myocardial infraction.
• Reduction in output leads to CARDIAC REMODELLING
1. ACTIVATION OF RAAS
2. ACTIVATION OF SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
• perfusion of vital organs by
1. LV Preload
2. Stimulating myocardial contactability
3. arterial tone
5. Contd.
• Acutely these mechanisms sustain
cardiac output by allowing heart to
operate at
Elevated end diastolic volume
Peripheral vasoconstriction
6. FATE OF MECHANISMS
• Compensatory mech over time propagate disease progression .
• Intravascular volume expansion increases diastolic and systolic wall stress
causes pathological LV hypertrophy.
• By increasing LV afterload ,peripheral arterial vasoconstriction also
adversely affects diastolic ventricular wall stress, thereby increasing O2
demand.
• Neurohumoral effects such as NE and angiotensin II are associated with
Myocardial apoptosis
Abnormal myocyte gene expression
Pathological change in extracellular matrix that causes LV
stiffness
7. ACTUAL DEFINITION
Congestive heart failure is the
pathophysiologic state in which the heart is
unable to pump blood at a rate commensurate
with the requirements of metabolizing
tissues, or can do so only from an elevated
filling pressure
12. MECHANISM OF ACTION
• DIURETICS PROMOTE SALT AND WATER EXCRETION
CIRCULATING VOLUME
PRELOAD
• IMPROVE CARDIAC FUNCTION
• DECRESE DYSPNOEA AND ODEMA
• RELIEF OF SYMPTOMS OF CONGESTION
16. CAUSES OF DIURETIC RESISTANCE
• NON COMPLIANCE WITH MEDICAL REGIMEN
• EXCESS Na +
INTAKE
• DECREASED PERFUSION
• NSAID
• 10 𝑅𝐸𝑁𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝐴𝑇𝐻𝑂𝐿𝑂𝐺𝑌
17. COMPREHENSIVE QUESTION
• A 55 Year old man consults a physician because of episodic weakness and
paresthesia. On one occasion he experienced transient paralysis. He
experiences polyuria,polydipsia, vital are 140/100 mmhg with no edema.
• Serum 𝑘+
= 2.1 Meq/L , SCAN SHOWS SMALL ADRENAL MASS.
• What is the pharmacotherapy?
ANS: SPIRONOLACTONE
18. COMPREHENSIVE QUESTION
• A 79 YR old woman with hypertension, D.M.,CAD, rheumatoid arthritis came to
OPD. Her medications were
𝑅𝑥 SPIRONOLACTONE,AMILORIDE,NPHINSULIN,ASPIRIN,PREDNISONE,
KETOROLAC.
• TEMP 𝟑𝟕𝟎
𝑪 . 𝑩𝑷 =
𝟗𝟗
𝟓𝟔
𝒎𝒎𝒉𝒈; Pulse:58/min ;
Respiration = 19/MIN ; ECG shows sinus rhythm & non specific
ST RHYTHM & T ABNORMALITY. 𝑵𝒂+
= 136 MEq/L; 𝑲+
= 5.8 MEq/L ;
HER 𝑲+
was increasing for 6 months . WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE
MANAGEMENT?
ANS: TO DISCONTINUE AMILORIDE/SPIRONOLACTONE
26. Pharmacology of the Cardiac Glycosides
DEFINITIONS
• Cardiac glycosides:
The cardenolides include digitalis, digoxin, digitoxin, and ouabain. Digoxin is the only
preparation approved in the United States.
• Inotropic: Affecting myocardial contractility.
• Chronotropic: Affecting heart rate.
• Congestive heart failure: A syndrome with multiple causes that may affect either
systole or diastole. Left heart failure leads to pulmonary congestion and reduced
cardiac output and appears in patients with MI, aortic and mitral valve disease, and
hypertension. Right heart failure leads to peripheral edema and ascites and appears in
patients with tricuspid valve disease, cor pulmonale, and prolonged left heart failure.
• The New York Heart Association classification of congestive heart failure includes
class I (mild disease) to class IV (severe disease).
34. A 69-year-old male with a past medical history of congestive heart failure, type
II diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and coronary artery disease presents for
follow-up. Patient has had several MIs, a depressed ejection fraction (EF), and
worsening heart failure—symptoms of dyspnea, orthopnea, paroxysmal
nocturnal dyspnea, and edema despite maximal ACE inhibitor, beta blocker,
and diuretic use. Patient’s diabetes is well controlled and he has a normal renal
function. You decide to add digoxin for symptomatic relief.
• What is the effect of digoxin on the normal heart?
• What is the effect of digoxin on the failing heart?
• What neural effects does digoxin have?
• What are the side effects and toxicities of digoxin?
35. Summary: A 69-year-old man with congestive heart failure, hypertension, and
diabetes mellitus has a markedly low EF and is prescribed digoxin.
• Effect on a normal heart: Increased systemic vascular resistance and
constriction of smooth muscle in veins, which may decrease cardiac output.
• Effect on a failing heart: Increased stroke volume and increased cardiac
output.
• Neural effects: Decreased sympathetic tone and increased vagal activity,
resulting in inhibition of sinoatrial (SA) node and delayed conduction through
atrioventricular (AV) node.
• Side effects and toxicities: Induction of arrhythmias, loss of appetite, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, disorientation, generalized fatigue, and visual
disturbances.
40. SYMPATHOMIMETICS
Dopamine. Dopamine is an endogenous catecholamine with only limited utility
in the treatment of most patients with cardiogenic circulatory failure.
The pharmacologic and hemodynamic effects of dopamine are concentration
dependent. Low doses (≤2 μg/kg lean body mass/min) induces cyclic AMP–dependent
vascular smooth muscle vasodilation.
In addition, activation of D2 receptors on sympathetic nerves in the peripheral
circulation at these concentrations also inhibits NE release and reduces α
adrenergic stimulation of vascular smooth muscle, particularly in splanchnic and
renal arterial beds.
Therefore, low- dose dopamine infusion often is used to increase renal blood flow
and thereby maintain an adequate glomerular filtration rate in hospitalized CHF
patients with impaired renal function refractory to diuretics.
Dopamine also exhibits a pro- diuretic effect directly on renal tubular epithelial
cells that contributes to volume reduction
41. DOBUTAMINE : Dobutamine is the β agonist of choice for the
management of CHF patients with systolic dysfunction.
• In the formulation available for clinical use, dobutamine is a
racemic mixture that stimulates both β1 and β2 receptor subtypes.
• In addition, the (–) enantiomer is an agonist for α adrenergic
receptors, whereas the (+) enantiomer is a weak, partial agonist. At
infusion rates that result in a positive inotropic effect in humans,
the β1 adrenergic effect in the myocardium predominates.
• In the vasculature, the α adrenergic agonist effect of the (–)
enantiomer appears to be offset by the (+) enantiomer and
vasodilating effects of β2 receptor stimulation.
• Thus, the principal hemodynamic effect of dobutamine is an
increase in stroke volume from positive inotropy, although β2
receptor activation may cause a decrease in systemic vascular
resistance and, therefore, mean arterial pressure.
42. • Despite increases in cardiac output, there is relatively little chronotropic
effect.
• Continuous dobutamine infusions are typically initiated at 2-3 μg/kg/min
without a loading dose and uptitrated until the desired hemodynamic
response is achieved.
• Pharmacologic tolerance may limit infusion efficacy beyond 4 days, and,
therefore, addition or sub- stitution with a class III PDE inhibitor may be
necessary to maintain adequate circulatory support.
• The major side effects of dobutamine are tachycardia and
supraventricular or ventricular arrhythmias, which may require a
reduction in dosage. Recent β receptor antagonist use is a common cause
of blunted clinical responsiveness to dobutamine.