This study examined how perceived opinions of others can influence confidence levels. Participants were split into three groups: one where confederates supported their answers, one where confederates refuted their answers, and a control group. All groups answered optical illusion questions. Those supported showed increased confidence, while those refuted showed decreased confidence, though results were limited by the small sample size and lack of understanding participants. The study aimed to directly explore how perceived opinions can impact confidence, building on prior research showing conformity effects.
The document discusses several theories related to self-perception and self-presentation, including self-concept theory, self-efficacy, social cognitive theory, social learning theory, and attribution theory. It explains that self-concept is how people see themselves, developing through social interactions and reflections of how others see them. Self-efficacy refers to people's beliefs about their ability to succeed or accomplish tasks. The document also discusses how social and family influences, culture, and media shape self-perception, and describes different motivations and strategies for self-presentation.
The document summarizes key concepts in social psychology related to social thinking, attribution, attitudes, conformity, obedience, and prejudice. It discusses how people make attributions about others' behaviors, the fundamental attribution error, how attitudes can influence actions, and studies on conformity, obedience, and prejudice. Social psychology aims to understand how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
This document discusses 5 key concepts in social psychology: intrinsic motivation which involves engaging in behaviors driven from within, persuasion which is influencing attitudes or behaviors through communication, confirmation bias which is favoring information that confirms existing beliefs, stereotyping which are fixed overgeneralized beliefs about people, and counterfactual thinking which involves imagining alternatives to events that have occurred. Photos are provided as examples for each concept.
1) The document provides an introduction to motivation and emotion from different theoretical perspectives including psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive, humanistic, and evolutionary approaches.
2) Motivation is discussed in the context of eating, sexual motivation, and psychosocial motives including the need for achievement and relatedness.
3) Theories of emotion are explored from physiological, subjective, and neural perspectives.
This document summarizes key concepts from social psychology including person perception, attitudes, conformity, group dynamics, and interpersonal attraction. It discusses how people form quick judgments of others based on appearance and stereotypes. Factors that influence attitudes include mere exposure effect, persuasive communicators, and cognitive dissonance. Conformity studies show people tend to comply with group norms. Group dynamics examine social loafing, polarization, and groupthink. Interpersonal attraction is influenced by similarity, self-disclosure, and cultural mating priorities.
Social influences can lead to conformity as people seek reassurance from others and adopt average positions rather than fringe positions. Experiments show that conformity rates increase with group size up to 3-5 members, and unanimity increases conformity. There are three main processes of conformity: informational influence to be correct, normative influence for social approval, and referent informational influence to follow in-group norms. Minority influences can create social change through consistent behavior, investment, and autonomy to negotiate influence with the majority.
Human: Thank you for the summary. Here is another document for you to summarize:
[DOCUMENT]
Social influence is the change in an individual's thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors that results from
This document summarizes key social psychology experiments on group pressure and obedience to authority conducted in the mid-20th century. Solomon Asch's conformity experiments from 1955 found that participants conformed to an incorrect group majority about a third of the time. Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments from the 1960s demonstrated that people often obeyed an authority figure's order to administer seemingly harmful electric shocks. While these studies raised ethical concerns, they revealed how situational forces can influence individual decision-making and behavior. However, not all individuals succumb to group pressure, and personal values may allow people to resist conformity and disobey unjust authorities. More research is still needed on factors like personality and culture that determine responses to social influence.
There are several techniques that can influence compliance, according to social psychology research. The foot-in-the-door technique involves getting a person to agree to a small request first before asking a larger request, taking advantage of the desire to maintain a self-image of being agreeable. Low-balling sets an artificially low price to get agreement, then later reveals hidden costs. The door-in-the-face technique starts with an extremely large request that will be rejected, making a subsequent real but smaller request seem reasonable by comparison. Cultural and gender norms also influence levels of obedience and assertiveness.
The document discusses several theories related to self-perception and self-presentation, including self-concept theory, self-efficacy, social cognitive theory, social learning theory, and attribution theory. It explains that self-concept is how people see themselves, developing through social interactions and reflections of how others see them. Self-efficacy refers to people's beliefs about their ability to succeed or accomplish tasks. The document also discusses how social and family influences, culture, and media shape self-perception, and describes different motivations and strategies for self-presentation.
The document summarizes key concepts in social psychology related to social thinking, attribution, attitudes, conformity, obedience, and prejudice. It discusses how people make attributions about others' behaviors, the fundamental attribution error, how attitudes can influence actions, and studies on conformity, obedience, and prejudice. Social psychology aims to understand how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
This document discusses 5 key concepts in social psychology: intrinsic motivation which involves engaging in behaviors driven from within, persuasion which is influencing attitudes or behaviors through communication, confirmation bias which is favoring information that confirms existing beliefs, stereotyping which are fixed overgeneralized beliefs about people, and counterfactual thinking which involves imagining alternatives to events that have occurred. Photos are provided as examples for each concept.
1) The document provides an introduction to motivation and emotion from different theoretical perspectives including psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive, humanistic, and evolutionary approaches.
2) Motivation is discussed in the context of eating, sexual motivation, and psychosocial motives including the need for achievement and relatedness.
3) Theories of emotion are explored from physiological, subjective, and neural perspectives.
This document summarizes key concepts from social psychology including person perception, attitudes, conformity, group dynamics, and interpersonal attraction. It discusses how people form quick judgments of others based on appearance and stereotypes. Factors that influence attitudes include mere exposure effect, persuasive communicators, and cognitive dissonance. Conformity studies show people tend to comply with group norms. Group dynamics examine social loafing, polarization, and groupthink. Interpersonal attraction is influenced by similarity, self-disclosure, and cultural mating priorities.
Social influences can lead to conformity as people seek reassurance from others and adopt average positions rather than fringe positions. Experiments show that conformity rates increase with group size up to 3-5 members, and unanimity increases conformity. There are three main processes of conformity: informational influence to be correct, normative influence for social approval, and referent informational influence to follow in-group norms. Minority influences can create social change through consistent behavior, investment, and autonomy to negotiate influence with the majority.
Human: Thank you for the summary. Here is another document for you to summarize:
[DOCUMENT]
Social influence is the change in an individual's thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors that results from
This document summarizes key social psychology experiments on group pressure and obedience to authority conducted in the mid-20th century. Solomon Asch's conformity experiments from 1955 found that participants conformed to an incorrect group majority about a third of the time. Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments from the 1960s demonstrated that people often obeyed an authority figure's order to administer seemingly harmful electric shocks. While these studies raised ethical concerns, they revealed how situational forces can influence individual decision-making and behavior. However, not all individuals succumb to group pressure, and personal values may allow people to resist conformity and disobey unjust authorities. More research is still needed on factors like personality and culture that determine responses to social influence.
There are several techniques that can influence compliance, according to social psychology research. The foot-in-the-door technique involves getting a person to agree to a small request first before asking a larger request, taking advantage of the desire to maintain a self-image of being agreeable. Low-balling sets an artificially low price to get agreement, then later reveals hidden costs. The door-in-the-face technique starts with an extremely large request that will be rejected, making a subsequent real but smaller request seem reasonable by comparison. Cultural and gender norms also influence levels of obedience and assertiveness.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals are influenced by and influence society through social interactions. It examines topics like conformity, obedience, and persuasion through experimental research methods. Unlike other fields of psychology, social psychology focuses on individuals rather than making broad generalizations. It seeks to understand how social and cultural systems shape human cognition and behavior. While sociology examines society on a large scale, social psychology analyzes how social groups and relationships impact individuals. Common research methods in social psychology include surveys, observations, and correlation research to better understand relationships between variables.
The Michelangelo Phenomenon got its name from the famous sculptor as “the self becomes a reflection of the interdependence reality created by the partner” (Drigotas et al., 1999, p. 294).
Individuals are motivated to move their actual self closer to their ideal self because it increases well-being.
Partners can help or hinder this process by either showing affirmation or disaffirming their partners.
The Michelangelo Phenomenon explains the process of how close relationship partners (i.e. the sculptor) can affirm or disaffirm the target’s (i.e. the sculpted) ideal self and how the affirmation influences movement toward the target’s ideal self.
Humanistic, Existential, and Positive Aspects of Personality focuses on the meaning of human existence. Existentialism argues that people cannot be defined by fixed laws and emphasizes subjective experience and personal responsibility. Key figures like Rogers, Maslow, and Frankl viewed people as inherently driven towards growth, self-actualization, and finding purpose and meaning. Positive psychology later emerged to scientifically study subjective well-being, happiness, and human flourishing.
1) Conformity involves changing one's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to fit in with a group. It can occur due to real or imagined social pressure.
2) Early studies on conformity include Sherif's autokinetic effect experiment in 1935 and Asch's line judgment experiment in 1951. Both found high rates of conformity.
3) There are two main types of conformity - informational conformity, which occurs when one lacks knowledge and looks to the group, and normative conformity, which involves fitting in socially.
Similarity and interpersonal attraction refers to the theory that people are more attracted to others who are similar to them in looks, opinions, values, etc. Early communication researchers first developed this theory as a foundation for understanding communication. A key finding is that communicators have a better chance of persuading audiences who perceive more similarities between them. However, some criticize studies for failing to truly assess depth of similarity beyond surface levels.
This is a paper I wrote on the subject of Motivation and Emotions as part of my Term 1 submission for Micro-OB. Students of Organization Behavior and HR may find it useful. In case you find it useful please drop some feedback so that I can improve my skills. Thanks!
Conformity is yielding to group pressure and changing one's beliefs or behaviors to fit in. There are three types of conformity: compliance, where one publicly conforms but privately disagrees; identification, conforming to be like someone admired; and internalization, genuinely believing the group's norms. Asch's experiments showed that about 75% of subjects conformed to an incorrect group at least once. Obedience involves responding to direct orders, and Milgram found obedience was highest when commands came from authorities in prestigious settings. In extreme situations, people justify harmful obedience by assigning responsibility to authorities.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in social psychology including attribution theory, the fundamental attribution error, cognitive dissonance theory, conformity, norms, social influence, group polarization, prejudice, aggression, conflict, attraction, love, and bystander effects. It discusses classic studies that helped establish these concepts, such as Asch's conformity experiments and Milgram's obedience experiments.
The Midterm will cover the following topics:
- The history of psychology and major schools of thought including structuralism, functionalism, gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism.
- Key perspectives in psychology including the ongoing debates around nature vs nurture, stability vs change, and continuity vs discontinuity.
- Research methods and statistics, neuropsychology, human development across the lifespan, learning, and famous influential figures in the field of psychology.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. Key concepts include attribution theory, which examines how we explain other people's behavior, and social thinking, which is affected by both internal attitudes and external social influences. Social influence can result in conformity, obedience, and norms. Prejudice involves unjustified negative attitudes toward social groups, while relationships are impacted by similarity, proximity, and social exchange. Conflict arises from perceived incompatibilities, but can be reduced through strategies like superordinate goals and graduated reciprocity in tension reduction.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others. Attitudes are learned evaluations that influence thought and action. The cognitive dissonance theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce inconsistencies between their attitudes and behaviors. Attitudes have cognitive, affective, and behavioral components and are acquired through social learning, social comparison, genetics, and self-experience. Groups influence individuals through conformity, groupthink, social facilitation, and de-individuation. Compliance results from persuasion techniques like reciprocity and the foot-in-the-door technique.
People influence each other constantly, in a variety of different ways.Social Influence Strategies are the foot-in-the-door technique (see the “Attitudes” presentation for a complete explanation), manipulating the reciprocity norm, the lowball technique, and feigned scarcity.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in social psychology related to conformity and obedience. It defines conformity as a change in behavior or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. There are two types of conformity: compliance, where one privately disagrees but conforms publicly; and internalization, where one's private beliefs change to accept the group's views. Explanations for conformity include normative influence, conforming to gain approval, and informational influence, conforming because others provide information about appropriate behavior. Major studies discussed include Asch's line judgment experiment, which found 32% of participants conformed to an incorrect group, and Milgram's obedience study, which found 65% of participants were willing to administer electric shock
Chapter 7 social influence and persuasionMaicaGuce
Social influence occurs when one person causes another to behave differently than they otherwise would through persuasion, threats, promises, or orders. There are many forms of open and covert social influence. Persuasion aims to change beliefs and attitudes through communication, while compliance involves gaining agreement through threats or promises. Extensive research on obedience to authority has found that people are highly compliant with orders from figures of authority, especially when the authority is nearby and insists they continue a troubling task.
The concept of motivation focuses on explaining what ‘moves’ behavior
It was derived from a Latin word ‘movere’ meaning movement
Motivation is one of the determinants of behavior
Instincts, derives, needs, goals and incentives come under the broad cluster of motivation.
The document summarizes key concepts about social cognition and conformity from Elliot Aronson's book "The Social Animal". It discusses how conformity is influenced by group dynamics, accountability, commitment, and unanimity. It also covers persuasion techniques like emotional appeals, fear arousal, and inoculation theory. Finally, it examines social cognition heuristics people use to make judgments, including the representative heuristic, availability heuristic, and attitude heuristic.
Conformity involves changing your behaviors in order to "fit in" or "go along" with the people around you. In some cases, this social influence might involve agreeing with or acting like the majority of people in a specific group, or it might involve behaving in a particular way in order to be perceived as "normal" by the group.
This document provides a summary of the key topics covered in a social psychology lecture, including:
1. An introduction to social psychology and how human behavior is influenced by others.
2. Exploration of the social self and how people develop social identities and play social roles.
3. Examination of social thinking processes like attribution theory, cognitive dissonance, and social comparison.
4. Discussion of prejudices and how stereotypes form despite efforts to reduce them.
The document discusses several explanations for media influences on pro-social and anti-social behaviour. It summarizes research on how viewing pro-social models on TV can increase helpful behaviours in children. It also discusses how viewing violent media can lead to increased aggression through excitation transfer and emotional desensitization. The document also reviews theories of persuasion, celebrity attraction, and extreme fan behaviour.
Robert Helmkamp II earned a Bachelor of Science in Environmental Studies from Northern Arizona University in December 2013. He attended Coconino County Community College prior to transferring to NAU. At NAU, he took courses in environmental science, biology, anthropology, and sustainability-related topics. His transcript shows that he maintained good academic standing throughout his undergraduate career.
Timothy Allore is seeking a position utilizing his customer service, computer repair, and printer repair skills. He has over 13 years of experience in customer service roles and is A+, Network+, and Dell certified. His experience includes servicing government agencies and large corporations while contracted through various IT support companies.
Big Data Mining Keynote presentation Sept 2013 09012013Julio Da Silva
Newmont Mining Corporation is one of the world's largest gold producers, with operations across several countries. It is collecting increasing amounts of data from sources like sensors, mobile devices, and social media. This "big data" presents opportunities to improve areas like asset management, logistics, and understanding social impacts. However, big data projects require the right skills and must be driven by business needs rather than technology alone. Newmont will need data scientists, technical skills, and partnerships to successfully harness big data analytics.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals are influenced by and influence society through social interactions. It examines topics like conformity, obedience, and persuasion through experimental research methods. Unlike other fields of psychology, social psychology focuses on individuals rather than making broad generalizations. It seeks to understand how social and cultural systems shape human cognition and behavior. While sociology examines society on a large scale, social psychology analyzes how social groups and relationships impact individuals. Common research methods in social psychology include surveys, observations, and correlation research to better understand relationships between variables.
The Michelangelo Phenomenon got its name from the famous sculptor as “the self becomes a reflection of the interdependence reality created by the partner” (Drigotas et al., 1999, p. 294).
Individuals are motivated to move their actual self closer to their ideal self because it increases well-being.
Partners can help or hinder this process by either showing affirmation or disaffirming their partners.
The Michelangelo Phenomenon explains the process of how close relationship partners (i.e. the sculptor) can affirm or disaffirm the target’s (i.e. the sculpted) ideal self and how the affirmation influences movement toward the target’s ideal self.
Humanistic, Existential, and Positive Aspects of Personality focuses on the meaning of human existence. Existentialism argues that people cannot be defined by fixed laws and emphasizes subjective experience and personal responsibility. Key figures like Rogers, Maslow, and Frankl viewed people as inherently driven towards growth, self-actualization, and finding purpose and meaning. Positive psychology later emerged to scientifically study subjective well-being, happiness, and human flourishing.
1) Conformity involves changing one's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to fit in with a group. It can occur due to real or imagined social pressure.
2) Early studies on conformity include Sherif's autokinetic effect experiment in 1935 and Asch's line judgment experiment in 1951. Both found high rates of conformity.
3) There are two main types of conformity - informational conformity, which occurs when one lacks knowledge and looks to the group, and normative conformity, which involves fitting in socially.
Similarity and interpersonal attraction refers to the theory that people are more attracted to others who are similar to them in looks, opinions, values, etc. Early communication researchers first developed this theory as a foundation for understanding communication. A key finding is that communicators have a better chance of persuading audiences who perceive more similarities between them. However, some criticize studies for failing to truly assess depth of similarity beyond surface levels.
This is a paper I wrote on the subject of Motivation and Emotions as part of my Term 1 submission for Micro-OB. Students of Organization Behavior and HR may find it useful. In case you find it useful please drop some feedback so that I can improve my skills. Thanks!
Conformity is yielding to group pressure and changing one's beliefs or behaviors to fit in. There are three types of conformity: compliance, where one publicly conforms but privately disagrees; identification, conforming to be like someone admired; and internalization, genuinely believing the group's norms. Asch's experiments showed that about 75% of subjects conformed to an incorrect group at least once. Obedience involves responding to direct orders, and Milgram found obedience was highest when commands came from authorities in prestigious settings. In extreme situations, people justify harmful obedience by assigning responsibility to authorities.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in social psychology including attribution theory, the fundamental attribution error, cognitive dissonance theory, conformity, norms, social influence, group polarization, prejudice, aggression, conflict, attraction, love, and bystander effects. It discusses classic studies that helped establish these concepts, such as Asch's conformity experiments and Milgram's obedience experiments.
The Midterm will cover the following topics:
- The history of psychology and major schools of thought including structuralism, functionalism, gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism.
- Key perspectives in psychology including the ongoing debates around nature vs nurture, stability vs change, and continuity vs discontinuity.
- Research methods and statistics, neuropsychology, human development across the lifespan, learning, and famous influential figures in the field of psychology.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. Key concepts include attribution theory, which examines how we explain other people's behavior, and social thinking, which is affected by both internal attitudes and external social influences. Social influence can result in conformity, obedience, and norms. Prejudice involves unjustified negative attitudes toward social groups, while relationships are impacted by similarity, proximity, and social exchange. Conflict arises from perceived incompatibilities, but can be reduced through strategies like superordinate goals and graduated reciprocity in tension reduction.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others. Attitudes are learned evaluations that influence thought and action. The cognitive dissonance theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce inconsistencies between their attitudes and behaviors. Attitudes have cognitive, affective, and behavioral components and are acquired through social learning, social comparison, genetics, and self-experience. Groups influence individuals through conformity, groupthink, social facilitation, and de-individuation. Compliance results from persuasion techniques like reciprocity and the foot-in-the-door technique.
People influence each other constantly, in a variety of different ways.Social Influence Strategies are the foot-in-the-door technique (see the “Attitudes” presentation for a complete explanation), manipulating the reciprocity norm, the lowball technique, and feigned scarcity.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in social psychology related to conformity and obedience. It defines conformity as a change in behavior or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. There are two types of conformity: compliance, where one privately disagrees but conforms publicly; and internalization, where one's private beliefs change to accept the group's views. Explanations for conformity include normative influence, conforming to gain approval, and informational influence, conforming because others provide information about appropriate behavior. Major studies discussed include Asch's line judgment experiment, which found 32% of participants conformed to an incorrect group, and Milgram's obedience study, which found 65% of participants were willing to administer electric shock
Chapter 7 social influence and persuasionMaicaGuce
Social influence occurs when one person causes another to behave differently than they otherwise would through persuasion, threats, promises, or orders. There are many forms of open and covert social influence. Persuasion aims to change beliefs and attitudes through communication, while compliance involves gaining agreement through threats or promises. Extensive research on obedience to authority has found that people are highly compliant with orders from figures of authority, especially when the authority is nearby and insists they continue a troubling task.
The concept of motivation focuses on explaining what ‘moves’ behavior
It was derived from a Latin word ‘movere’ meaning movement
Motivation is one of the determinants of behavior
Instincts, derives, needs, goals and incentives come under the broad cluster of motivation.
The document summarizes key concepts about social cognition and conformity from Elliot Aronson's book "The Social Animal". It discusses how conformity is influenced by group dynamics, accountability, commitment, and unanimity. It also covers persuasion techniques like emotional appeals, fear arousal, and inoculation theory. Finally, it examines social cognition heuristics people use to make judgments, including the representative heuristic, availability heuristic, and attitude heuristic.
Conformity involves changing your behaviors in order to "fit in" or "go along" with the people around you. In some cases, this social influence might involve agreeing with or acting like the majority of people in a specific group, or it might involve behaving in a particular way in order to be perceived as "normal" by the group.
This document provides a summary of the key topics covered in a social psychology lecture, including:
1. An introduction to social psychology and how human behavior is influenced by others.
2. Exploration of the social self and how people develop social identities and play social roles.
3. Examination of social thinking processes like attribution theory, cognitive dissonance, and social comparison.
4. Discussion of prejudices and how stereotypes form despite efforts to reduce them.
The document discusses several explanations for media influences on pro-social and anti-social behaviour. It summarizes research on how viewing pro-social models on TV can increase helpful behaviours in children. It also discusses how viewing violent media can lead to increased aggression through excitation transfer and emotional desensitization. The document also reviews theories of persuasion, celebrity attraction, and extreme fan behaviour.
Robert Helmkamp II earned a Bachelor of Science in Environmental Studies from Northern Arizona University in December 2013. He attended Coconino County Community College prior to transferring to NAU. At NAU, he took courses in environmental science, biology, anthropology, and sustainability-related topics. His transcript shows that he maintained good academic standing throughout his undergraduate career.
Timothy Allore is seeking a position utilizing his customer service, computer repair, and printer repair skills. He has over 13 years of experience in customer service roles and is A+, Network+, and Dell certified. His experience includes servicing government agencies and large corporations while contracted through various IT support companies.
Big Data Mining Keynote presentation Sept 2013 09012013Julio Da Silva
Newmont Mining Corporation is one of the world's largest gold producers, with operations across several countries. It is collecting increasing amounts of data from sources like sensors, mobile devices, and social media. This "big data" presents opportunities to improve areas like asset management, logistics, and understanding social impacts. However, big data projects require the right skills and must be driven by business needs rather than technology alone. Newmont will need data scientists, technical skills, and partnerships to successfully harness big data analytics.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Pre meeting interactive learning carousel may-21_2015_six per slideyzheng11
Several attendees shared why they were at the event. Common reasons included wanting to learn about new resources for transitioning individuals, exchange ideas with others, and gain knowledge to help facilitate smoother transitions. When asked what supports successful transitions, many cited good communication between teams, addressing the individual's goals, and having a supportive system in place. Barriers mentioned were lack of resources like housing and transportation, limited availability of community services, and lack of communication between facilities and community providers. Emerging principles discussed were keeping the individual and family's needs and goals at the center, being creatively flexible, and providing optimistically honest information.
The document discusses the history and development of CamScanner, an app that allows users to scan documents and convert them into digital PDF or JPG files using a mobile device camera. It started as a student project in 2011 and has grown significantly since then, with over 500 million downloads worldwide to date. The document outlines some of CamScanner's key features and capabilities that have made it popular with users, such as the ability to edit, share, and organize scanned files.
Joel Haynes is an experienced engineer with over 20 patents awarded and 3 pending. He has expertise in research and development, product commercialization, project management, and team leadership. His experience includes founding his own company, Flo-Onics Systems, where he designed and patented liquid level sensors and controls. He has also held engineering roles at companies such as Delta Sonics and Genisco, and has consulted independently on projects such as new water desalination technology. Haynes holds a BS in Electronic Engineering and has extensive skills in engineering software and presentations.
This document contains credits for the photographers of 10 photos used in a Haiku Deck presentation on SlideShare. The photos are credited to atomicshark, Timmy Toucan, derpunk, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service - Northeast Region, Jez Page, ...Í]Ý‚¥ aikawake, emerille, tadolo, TC Morgan, and Ben McLeod. The document encourages the reader to get started creating their own Haiku Deck presentation.
Pre meeting interactive learning carousel may-22yzheng11
Veterans and newbies in transition work discussed several topics. Veterans emphasized involving families from the beginning and networking to learn from others. Newbies stressed being prepared, taking advantage of education, and ensuring communication between all parties, especially primary care providers. Regarding education, veterans suggested annual conferences on topics like assistive technology while newbies recommended foundational training on topics like Medicaid. Good discharge planning requires collaborating across disciplines, ensuring follow-up care, and cultivating natural supports.
Viviana Esthefania Martinez Iguasnia es una estudiante del primer año de la sección J. Ella está estudiando Informática y su tema es una autobiografía.
Pre meeting interactive learning carousel may-21_2015yzheng11
This document summarizes responses from participants at different stations of a pre-meeting interactive learning activity. At Station 1, participants shared reasons for attending the meeting, which largely centered around learning about new resources, strategies, and ideas to help facilitate better transitions for individuals into the community. At Station 2, facilitators of transition efforts mentioned included coordination, communication, supportive services and families, and addressing individual needs and goals. Barriers to transition efforts listed at Station 3 included lack of resources like housing, transportation, and staff knowledge of community options as well as organizational policies and limited funding. Station 4 prompted discussion of emerging principles but no responses were included.
Weekly Outlook for Nifty IT and its main components (November 07, 2016 to Nov...Jagrut Shah
Nifty IT index ended the week on negative note losing around 1.60%.
As we have mentioned last week that minor resistance for the index lies in the zone of 10200 to 10300. Resistance for the index lies around 10500 to 10600 from where the index has broken down from the double bottom pattern and short term moving averages are lying. If the index manages to close above these levels then the index can move to the levels of 10900 to 11000 where long term moving averages are lying. During the week the index manages to hit a high of 10109 and close the week around the levels of 9924.
The index has closed below the major support zone of 10000 to 10100 from where the index has bounced in the month of February - 2016. The index has seen a major breakdown and no support is visible. If the index manages to close below these levels then the index can drift to the levels of 9500 to 9600.
Resistance for the index lies in the zone of 10000 to 10200 from where the index has broken down from the February - 2016 lows. If the index manages to close above these levels then the index can move to the levels of around 10500 to 10600 from where the index has broken down from the double bottom pattern.
Broad range for the index in the coming week is seen from 9700 to 9750 on downside to 10200 to 10300 on upside.
Weekly Outlook for NIFTY FMCG and its main components (November 07, 2016 - No...Jagrut Shah
Nifty FMCG index closed the week on positive note gaining around 0.80%.
As we have mentioned last week that support for the index lies in the zone of 21100 to 21300 from where the index has broken out of the top of June - 2016. If the index manages to close below these levels then the index can drift to the levels of 20500 where 200 Daily SMA is lying and trend-line joining lows of March - 2016 and May - 2016 is lying. During the week the index manages to hit a low of 21084 and close the week around the levels of 21659.
Support for the index lies in the zone of 21100 to 21300 from where the index has broken out of the top of June - 2016. If the index manages to close below these levels then the index can drift to the levels of 20500 where 200 Daily SMA is lying and trend-line joining lows of March - 2016 and May - 2016 is lying.
Minor resistance for the index lies in the zone of 21700 to 21900 from where the index has broken down from the lows of July - 2016 and August - 2016. If the index manages to close above these levels then the index can move to the levels of 22300 to 22500.
Broad range for the index in the coming week is seen from 20800 to 20900 on downside to 22000 to 22100 on upside.
How We Hacked LinkedIn and What Happened Next | JFall 2016Ruben van Vreeland
Blog: https://bitsensor.io/blog/jfall-2016-in-depth-secure-coding-patterns
We're going deep into XSS attacks with actual examples from LinkedIn, eBay and IndieGoGo. Starting with an attack that uses CSS selectors to fool users, then going into building XSS with interactions, such as local portscans, using BeEF.
After showing why XSS is dangerous, I'm suggesting that we should take our coding paradigms such as Unit Testing, Integration Testing, Design Patterns, Clean Code, Logging and Paging, and apply that to security vulnerabilities.
We finish with a maturity level in our security where we don't even have to get up at night when we're paged, we've just automated the response and mitigated the risk using HAProxy and isolated the attacker to a sandboxed version of our container. We will do this by only using opensource components on the Vamp platform, with ElastAlert and the opensource BitSensor plugin.
Charlie Williams is seeking a position in an oil and gas company that prioritizes safety. He has over 10 years of experience in various safety and supervisory roles in the industry, including as a well service rig pusher, safety representative, HS&E manager, and workover supervisor. His experience covers responsibilities like conducting inspections, facilitating safety meetings, ensuring regulatory compliance, and overseeing rig operations and safety programs. He is certified in various safety trainings and takes pride in his career safety record and passion for maintaining a safe working environment.
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The Power of Conformity Essay
This document summarizes a research paper on conformity. It explains that conformity is when one thinks or acts similarly to others in a social group in order to fit in. Conformity can be subtle and unconscious or come from social pressure. Motivators for conformity include normative influence of fitting in and informational influence of being told what is normal by society. Both men and women will conform to a relevant social group for acceptance.
This document provides a study guide for Test #1 in Comm 4331 Essays. It includes definitions of key terms like beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, values, and persuasion. It discusses cultural differences between individualist and collective cultures. It also covers topics like audience analysis, target audiences, gender differences in persuasion, and central and peripheral routes to persuasion.
Social identity theory proposes that people derive part of their self-concept from group memberships. It explains how social categorization and comparisons between in-groups and out-groups impact behavior. Several studies discussed provide evidence for this, such as Tajfel's finding that random groupings led to in-group favoritism, and research showing that threats to social identity increase stress levels and derogation of out-groups. However, the theory also has limitations, as some studies had low ecological validity or did not fully account for factors like poverty. Overall, social identity theory effectively explains phenomena like in-group bias, conformity, and intergroup conflict, though more research is still needed.
This document discusses theories and concepts related to persuasion and attitude change. It covers:
1) Key factors in persuasion including the communicator, communication/message, and audience. Attitude change can occur through persuasion or counter-attitudinal acts.
2) Yale's communications theory examines who says what to whom with what effect, studying communicator, message, and audience variables.
3) Dual-process models of persuasion including the Elaboration Likelihood Model and Heuristic-Systematic Model which describe central and peripheral routes to persuasion.
This document defines attitudes and prejudice, discusses their history and formation, and examines factors that influence them. It notes that attitudes are made up of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components and can be either positive or negative. Prejudice involves negatively judging others without fully understanding them. Theories on attitude formation include cognitive dissonance theory, self-perception theory, and the elaboration likelihood model. Reducing prejudice requires addressing its cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects.
This document discusses social psychology and how it has evolved over time. It describes some of the early contributors to social psychology, such as Norman Triplett who studied competitive behavior, and Gordon Allport who studied attitudes and the self. Kurt Lewin was also influential in developing the idea that behavior is a function of both the person and the situation. The document then discusses how social psychology developed in the 1950s with the emergence of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. It continues by outlining how social psychology has expanded our understanding of social behaviors and influences through the study of topics like group dynamics and social norms.
Cultural Stereotypes and the Self A Closer Examination ofIm.docxannettsparrow
Cultural Stereotypes and the Self: A Closer Examination of
Implicit Self-Stereotyping
Janetta Lun
University of Virginia
Stacey Sinclair
Princeton University
Courtney Cogburn
University of Michigan
Recent research and theory on implicit self-stereotyping suggests that individuals
nonconsciously incorporate stereotypes about their social groups into the self-concept;
however, evidence as to whether this holds true for negative stereotypes remains limited.
Using a subliminal priming measure, the current research found that women (Experi-
ment 1) and White Americans (Experiment 2) implicitly associated the self with in-group
stereotypic traits but not out-group stereotypic traits. Of importance, both groups
implicitly self-stereotyped on negative in-group traits to a similar extent as they did
on positive in-group traits. Moreover, exploratory analysis showed that the degree to
which White Americans associated positive, but not negative, in-group stereotypes with
the self was related to higher self-esteem. Implications of implicit self-stereotyping on
self-esteem and stereotype-consistent behavior are discussed.
Cultural stereotypes are widely known beliefs
(Devine, 1989; Devine & Elliot, 1995; Katz & Braly,
1933) that broadly influence how individuals are
evaluated and treated (Fiske, 1998; Hamilton, Sherman,
& Ruvolo, 1990; Hilton & von Hippel, 1996; Macrae &
Bodenhausen, 2000). Because of the pervasiveness of
these beliefs, targets of stereotypes live in a world where
they are frequently assumed to have stereotypic traits or
behave in a stereotype-consistent manner (Bargh &
Pietromonaco, 1982; Darley & Gross, 1983; Devine,
1989; Fiske, Lin, & Neuberg, 1999; Srull & Wyer,
1979). Moreover, people who hold stereotypic expecta-
tions can elicit behavior from targets that confirms these
expectancies (e.g., Olivier & Snyder, 2003; Word,
Zanna, & Cooper, 1974).
Influential theory and research suggests that
continuous exposure to, being evaluated in terms of,
and occasionally behaving in a manner consistent with
stereotypes may lead targets to incorporate stereotypic
beliefs about their social groups into their own self-
concept (Allport, 1954=1979; Cooley, 1902; Mead,
1934; Tice & Wallace, 2003), even those aspects of the
self-concept that are less available for conscious intro-
spection (i.e., implicit; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; see
Devos & Banaji, 2003, for a review). We refer to the
nonconscious incorporation of in-group stereotypes into
the self-concept as implicit self-stereotyping.
The unified theory of implicit cognition, a prominent
theoretical explanation of implicit self-stereotyping, sug-
gests that members of a given social group, on average,
ought to implicitly associate stereotypes of their group
with the self (Greenwald et al., 2002). According to this
perspective, individuals will implicitly associate in-group
stereotypes with the self to the extent that they also
implicitly associate the self with the group identity and
C.
It is possible for prejudice to be expressed or felt since it entails particular cognitive beliefs and critical social attitudes, adverse expression effect or the display of discriminative behavior directed to followers of a group on account of them being members of that group.
The document discusses several theories related to audiences and media effects:
1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs categorizes human motivations into five tiers ranging from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.
2. Early theories viewed audiences as passive and easily influenced, like the "hypodermic needle" theory. More recent views see audiences as active interpreters who make meaning based on their own experiences.
3. Cultivation theory suggests repeated exposure to media messages can influence perceptions of social reality over time. However, this effect has been challenged.
4. The two-step flow theory and active audience theory recognize the role of opinion leaders in spreading ideas to more passive audiences. Audiences also actively
The theory talks about the relationship between minority and majority of people and how they express themselves. It proves minority people keep silent on their views on any particular subject.
This document discusses how social psychology can be seen in everyday life through an experience the author had during a "spend a day" visit at a high school they were applying to. The author describes being given a tour of the school and attending classes with a current student to get a sense of what it would be like to attend that school. They note that the majority of students at the private school were white. The summary discusses an everyday experience that demonstrates principles of social psychology.
This document discusses several key concepts in social psychology including attribution theory, the fundamental attribution error, cognitive dissonance, conformity, obedience, and prejudice. It provides examples of studies such as Milgram's obedience experiment and Asch's conformity studies. It explains how attribution theory suggests we explain others' behaviors based on their disposition or the situation. The fundamental attribution error is over-attributing behaviors to dispositions rather than situations. Cognitive dissonance theory posits that inconsistent attitudes and behaviors create tension, leading attitudes to change to align with behaviors. Conformity and obedience experiments show people conform to group norms and obey authority figures. Prejudice involves unjustified negative attitudes towards social groups.
Zoe Kan took social psychology course and wrote journals about topics they learned. Journal 4 discusses the three components of attitudes - cognitive, affective, behavioral. Journal 5 is about conformity and how norms influence people to conform to group behaviors and pressures. Journal 6 discusses factors that increase liking between people, including proximity, familiarity, and similarity.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. It examines how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. The focus of social psychology is on understanding how individuals are shaped by their social environments and how individuals shape those environments in turn.
This document discusses social influence and the dynamics between minorities and majorities. It covers research on conformity, obedience, and minority influence. Some key points:
- Majority influence, known as conformity, occurs when an individual yields to group pressures and norms. Minority influence can also influence majorities under certain conditions.
- Obedience research showed people often comply with authority figures, as seen in the Milgram and Stanford prison experiments. Unanimity among the influencing group increases its power.
- Social influence comes from informational influence, looking to others for guidance, and normative influence, wanting to be liked or avoid rejection. Strength, immediacy and size of the influencing group impact its effects.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 13 of the psychology textbook. It covers topics related to social perception, social influence, and social relations. Some main points include how social perception involves making attributions about others' behaviors and the fundamental attribution error. It also discusses conformity to group norms, obedience to authority, and factors that influence persuasion and attitude change. Group processes like social facilitation, social loafing, and groupthink are summarized. The chapter concludes with sections on aggression, altruism, and the bystander effect.
Social psychology is the study of how people relate to and influence each other. Key topics covered include person perception, stereotyping and prejudice, aggression and prosocial behavior, attribution theory, interpersonal attraction, and attitude formation and change. Social cognition involves making quick judgments and inferences about others based on appearance and behaviors. Attribution theory examines how people explain the causes of behaviors as either internal or external factors.
Conformity Topic In Social Psychology.pptxNurVural3
Sherif found that when individuals in a group were unsure of the correct answer to a perception task, they would conform to the estimates of others in the group over time. This showed that people conform due to informational social influence when they lack information to make their own judgment. Asch also found high rates of conformity, with participants agreeing with an intentionally wrong group even when the correct answer was obvious, showing normative social influence. Both studies demonstrate the powerful effect of social influence and conformity in groups.
Comparing And Contrasting Qualitative And Quantitative...Ashley Fisher
This document discusses the history and evolution of social research on natural disasters. It began during the Cold War when governments wanted to understand how citizens would react during crises like a nuclear attack. Researchers studied natural disasters to learn about social behavior under extreme conditions. The Disaster Research Center was founded to conduct qualitative studies through interviews and observations after disasters. While foundational, the document argues this research is now at a threshold where it needs to evolve to address modern challenges.
Similar to Conformity - Perception of Opinion and its Effects on Confidence of Reasoning and Behavior (20)
Comparing And Contrasting Qualitative And Quantitative...
Conformity - Perception of Opinion and its Effects on Confidence of Reasoning and Behavior
1. Running Head: PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 1
Conformity: Perception of Opinion and Its Effects on Confidence of Reasoning and Behavior
Varun S. Murugesan
University of Minnesota
2. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 2
Abstract
Previous research in the areas of conformity have studied how the majority has influenced the
minority, when the distinction between the two is clear and present. This study aims to see if
the blurriness between the two groups can affect a person’s behavior, and in essence, their
confidence levels in those behaviors. Participants were split into two groups, where in one a
participant had their ideas verbally supported, or verbally refuted by confederates. After shown
a series of optical illusions, the participants were asked to rate their own self-confidence, about
answers to optical illusion questions. It was found that that their confidence levels would
increase (if in the supported group) or decrease (if in the refuted group. However, because of a
small sample size, as well as lack of fully understanding the participants, such results are not
generalizable, and only apply to the 12 participants.
3. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 3
Conformity: Perception of Opinion and Its Effects on Confidence of Reasoning and Behavior
Throughout history, some of the greatest social movements have been the minority
influencing the majority, through social changes. These movements could be positive or
negative (ex. Civil rights movement, Hitler youth, gay rights movement, ISIS) but all stem from
ideas and people’s perception of them. These types of influential shifts arise from positive
reinforcement or positive punishment, allowing for the fostering or eradication of thoughts
and ideals. Through such ways, conformity occurs, creating a uniform group of citizens.
Before continuing, it is important to identify some of the terms and concepts that will be
used to explain this study. First, conformity is a change in thinking, feeling or acting following
pressure, real or imaginary, exercised by the group (Bocciaro & Zamperini, 2012) One of the
most pivotal studies in conformity was performed by Asch (Asch, 1951). Asch studied whether a
group could pressure a lone subject into selecting an incorrect answer. The results showed that
people were willing to forsake the correct answer for being accepted by the group. This is
known as normative social influence (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955). This study helps to exemplify
the thinking that another person’s opinion or the perception of another person’s opinion can
yield changes in a person’s behavior. In Asch’s study, the subject believed that they were
incorrect, based on the attitudes of those around them. Also, this study helps to show another
form of social influence, called informational social influence. Informational social influence
happens people’s beliefs about what is true or correct (or false/incorrect) is shaped by the
perceptions of other people’s beliefs. This is also where someone will conform to the group to
be correct (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955). In the Asch study, it just so happens that the incorrect
4. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 4
answer made someone accepted in the group.
Secondly, on the whole, conformity tends to be mostly informational social influence.
Most people tend to conform because we see other people as a source of information
(Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2007). .This is because we use other people’s attitude, behaviors
and beliefs as markers for understanding the world around us. An example of how other
people’s behaviors can be used as information can be seen in Sheriff’s autokinetic study. A
group of subjects were asked to judge how far a light moved in a dark room (it is to be noted
that the light never moved, but was only perceived to move, due to the autokinetic effect) by
themselves or in a group. It was found that the subjects tended to judge the light movement
similar to the group, even if they had extreme answers by themselves (Sheriff, 1935). This study
showed that group norms are created when people interact, leading to a consensus, while
reducing outlier opinions. Sheriff’s study further helps to lay the groundwork for the idea that
another person’s opinion can change a person’s beliefs or attitudes.
A key example of how opinions or perception of opinions can change beliefs is through
the rise of Hitler and the Hitler youth. In a depressed and failing Germany, Hitler became a
beacon of hope and power for all his people, promising reform and economic growth. After he
rose to the top of government, he established Hitler Youth, which was a youth organization
within the Nazi Party in Germany, and consisted of boys and girls, from ages 10 up. The news
of children being taught almost religiously the views of Adolf Hitler spread through the world,
causing much disgust and concern. However, this horror and adoration of this movement is
exactly where much insight was gained. In Germany, Hitler was viewed as a hero, largely
thanks to conformity and the perception of his actions. The people were shown and taught of
5. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 5
the good that he was doing, which they in turn explained or told to others. As his ‘greatness
spread’, having respect for Adolf Hitler became the norm, or the in-group in Germany. Those
who did not conform to such perceptions fled for mainly two reasons: one, they were Jewish
(or another targeted group by the Nazi regime) or two, they did not perceive Hitler to be the
great leader that he was shown to be. As he gained followers, there was almost a complete
identification with the in-group (Watson, 1974). However, it was when Hitler started to
promote his Hitler youth did perceptions start to change. A chancellor tried to ban the group in
itself, but failed, largely thanks to how many Germans started to identify with Hitler’s views
and Hitler Youth. It had also gotten so bad that people were fearful of their neighbors, because
it was said that those who did not adore the Nazi regime and Adolf Hitler were exposed to the
SS, a Nazi-based secret police organization. This in-group identification became strongly tied
with normative social influence. As more and more people started to identify with Hitler and
his views, those who did not, started to change their behavior because of the opinion of
themselves not being in the in-group. This shows how a person’s (or in this case, a large
majority of a country) perception of a belief can be changed, based on the opinions of others.
Another reason for Hitler and Hitler Youth was the support that he got from those
around him. Much of Germany and his followers were giving Hitler a form of positive
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is the addition of a stimulus that helps to increase the
frequency or probability of a desired behavior (Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2007). In Hitler’s
case, every time he came out with new policies to help improve Germany, he was met with
widespread approval, from citizens and government officials alike. This sort of support was the
positive stimulus that helped reinforce his behavior. As more people approved and reinforced
6. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 6
the path that Hitler was leading them on, the more confident and bold he got in his actions
(Kohl, 2011).
Lastly, the concept of confidence. Confidence is defined as self-assurance in one’s
personal judgment, ability or power (Bocchiaro & Zamperini, 2012). A lot of a person’s
beliefs tend to stem from the confidence and vigor in which they not hold in those beliefs,
but how often how they exercise those beliefs. If a person is more confident in their
beliefs, then such beliefs are much more rooted within that person. However, as we have
seen indirectly through the studies of Asch, Sheriff, and Kohl, a person’s confidence in
their beliefs may be challenged by outside opinions. That is what this study attempted to
explore directly.
If a person perceives others as having an opinion of their behavior that is different than
their own, then the confidence in certain behaviors of that person will change. Through the
use of positive punishment (which is the addition of a stimulus to decrease the frequency of
an undesired behavior), it was studied to see if certain beliefs, attitudes and behaviors will
become more salient, increasing confidence in performing and rationalizing those behaviors.
In this study, participants were randomly put into one of three groups: a group where
confederates supported the subject’s answer, a group that went against the subject’s answers,
or a group where the confederates answered questions based on their own thinking (which was
the control group). All three groups were shown optical illusions, with questions for each. The
subject was always asked to go first to select an answer and rationalize their thinking. Based on
what group the subject was in, the confederates would either support, go against or answer
based on their volition, regardless of what the subject said. After each trial, a small
7. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 7
questionnaire was given, asking participants to quantify how confident they were in their
answers. Based on the studies associated with conformity and perception of opinions, we
hypothesized that the subjects that had their answers openly supported would see a general
increase in their confidence levels, the subjects who had their answers openly refuted would
see a general decrease in their confidence levels and those in the control group would not
provide a clear pattern.
Method
Participants
12 participants, 6 female and 6 male, were involved in the study. All of the students
were full-time undergraduate students enrolled at the University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, of
differing socioeconomic backgrounds and majors. These participants were gathered through
convenience sampling, as in those who knew the researchers and wanted to take part in a
psychology study were taken. The ages of the participants ranged from ages 18 to 24 (M = 20.5,
SD = 0.707). Of the participants, 25% identified as Caucasian, 16.7% as African American, 33% as
Asian or Pacific Islander, and 16.7% as Hispanic / Latino. There was no compensation offered
for participating in the study.
Materials
The entire study was focused on how the group’s support or undermining of the
participant’s answers, so it was crucial that the participant be not able to detect this. To do so,
the participants were shown a series of optical illusions (see Appendix A) and asked to fill out a
small questionnaire (see Appendix B). These optical illusions ranged from simple line illusions to
8. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 8
more complex unstable illusions. All of the illusions were shown on a computer screen, with the
participant (and the other confederates) sitting in a straight-line, facing the screen. Each of the
5 illusions was shown until each participant answered the question posed by each illusion. The
questions asked had had a huge scope, to once again stop the participant from detecting the
true nature of the experiment. All of the illusions had verbal questions that ranged from “What
do you see here?” or “How many lines are there?” followed up with asking each participant to
explain their reasoning for their answer. On the questionnaire, there was a smaller scope of
questioning. There were about 7 questions in the questionnaire that followed the verbal
questions. The key question (“How confident were you in answering the question for this
illusion?”) was placed about 2/3 of the way down on the questionnaire, to once again, avoid
detection. This question was answered on a 10 point scale, with “1” being not confident at all
about their answer to the illusion question in front of the others to “10” being the most
confident about their answer to the illusion question in front of the others. On the first trial,
there were 11 questions, with the last four gathering demographic information about gender,
race, age and major. This was used to simply understand more about the participants.
Complete copies of the 5 optical illusions, the verbal questions asked for each illusion, and the
questionnaire can be seen attached in Appendices A and B.
Procedure
Participants were randomly put into one of three groups: a group where confederates
supported the subject’s answer, a group that went against the subject’s answers, or a group
where the confederates answered questions based on their own thinking (which was the
control group). All three groups were shown optical illusions, with questions specifically asked
9. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 9
for each illusion. Such groups were based on when a participant agreed to partake in the
experiment. In essence, the first participant to agree was in the supported answer group, the
second was in the contradictory group and the third participant was in the control group. This
was repeated until there were 4 participants in each of the 3 groups.
The times to meet with the participants, confederates and researchers were identified.
A room in Northrop Auditorium was used as the testing room. Once all of the participants and
researchers were in the testing room, the participant was sat intentionally at the very right-end
of the row of seats (to ensure that they spoke first, so that they confederates could either
support or undermine the participant’s answer). The confederates took their seats to the left of
the participant, in no particular order. All of the participants were given a small informed
consent sheet and were talked through what was going to happen in the study (see Appendix C
for informed consent).This study used verbal consent, in that the informed consent was read
out loud to the participants and verbally the participants had to either agree or to disagree to
partake in the experiment.
After the informed consent process, the first illusion was shown on the computer
screen. The subject was asked a select question and then asked to explain their reasoning out
loud to the group. Next, based on what group the subject was in, the group would support,
undermine or be neutral to the subject’s answer. After each participant explained their
reasoning, the small questionnaire was given and filled out. This process was repeated until all
5 of the optical illusions, their questions and their questionnaires were filled out.
10. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 10
At the end of the experiment, there was a small debriefing. This explained what the
experiment was about and thanked the participants for their time. This debriefing can be seen
in Appendix D.
Results
Before running any tests on the data, the data were coded in the following way: all of
the data for condition A (in which the participant’s answers were vocally supported) and for
condition B (in which of the participant’s answers were vocally refuted) were split up. All of the
data for each condition was placed into three groups; a confidence level score column, a
question number column, and a participant number column. This allowed for easy input into an
analytic software. For each condition, a within group ANOVA test was run. For condition A,
analyses showed that there was a significant effect of condition (supporting a participant’s
answer) on the self-reported confidence levels F (2, 24) = 6.04, p < 0.001. For condition B
(refuting a participant’s answers), analyses also showed that there was a significant effect of
condition on the self-reported confidence levels F (5, 24) = 5.59, p <0.05. These significant
effects were found within the groups. Thus, those who were in condition A (M= 6.73, SD= 2.66)
and those who were in condition B (M= 6.67, SD= 2.07), all scored at significant levels indicating
the effect of vocal support or refute on confidence. The direction of this effect was non-
directional, in that Condition A showed confidence levels rising, while Condition B showed
confidence levels falling, although both groups had the same median confidence levels. The
Tukey’s HSD test was not performed because the data was simply used to show that there was
an effect, not as to where the effect took place within the group. Seeing how one person differs
from another within a condition would not demonstrate an effect of the condition on self-
11. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 11
reported confidence levels. The distribution of confidence level answers can be found in figure
1.
Discussion
The original hypothesis was supported. Our results do suggest that if a person perceives
others as having an opinion of their behavior that is different than their own, then the
confidence in certain behaviors of that person will change.
The results of this study do agree with other research done on similar topics. Asch found
in his 1951 classic conformity study, that a group could pressure a lone participant into
selecting an incorrect answer; this study helps prove why. If the participant can hear the group
not only pick the wrong answer, but explain why they think that their answer is the best and
explain why the participant is wrong, then a decrease in the participant’s confidence level can
be seen.
This change in confidence suggests that the concept of normative social influence is not
fully developed. Normative social influence asserts that people are willing to pick the wrong
answer, as long as it means that the group will favor them (Deutsch &Gerard, 1955). In this
study, the participant had no idea that they had picked an incorrect answer, until the
confederates were going against the participant’s answer choice. While this did not have an
effect on their verbal reasoning for answering a question a certain way, it was, however,
detected in the survey that each participant was required to fill out after they and the
confederates answered the illusion question out loud. This detection was in the form of
confidence scores going higher (in condition A) or going lower (in condition B).
12. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 12
While normative social influence could not have played a part in participant’s responses
(because the confidence level ratings were offered privately), it can be reasonably inferred that
confidence level ratings serve as a direct index of informational social influence. Deustch and
Gerard found in 1955, that this influence is when someone will conform to a group for the sake
of being correct. At one point, it is very possible that participants felt that their answers were
constantly being rejected. It was when a participant got discouraged and offered broader
answers, instead of specifics while answering a question. This helps to show that another
person’s opinion or perception of another person’s opinion can change someone’s behavior.
Conversely, when the participant’s answers were vocally supported, the research on
positive reinforcement stands to illustrate the results. As a person’s answers were praised more
as the experiment went on, there was a detectable rise in that person’s confidence levels. The
previous research done on this topic helps to explain that rise: every time a person answered,
and the confederates supported it, this support acted as a positive stimulus to reinforce the
participant’s behavior. While the participant did not start proposing wild and outrageous
answers to each illusion’s question, their confidence in their own answering abilities did
increase. This same kind of confidence was found in an analysis done of Hitler’s rise to power
(Kohl, 2011).
While a detectable change in confidence levels were found in both conditions, there are
some problems and limitations to the results presented. First, the sample size. It was extremely
small, with a sample size of only 12 participants. However, this limitation can be explained by
the fact that there was limited time and resources to actively collect the data and the
responding population to take part in the study was rather low. Second, we did not take into
13. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 13
account the personality types of each participant. Different people are affected by other’s
opinions, in drastically different ways. Some people become more confident when a person or
the group disagrees with their opinions while others become much less confident (Minghui &
Fengning, 2006). Third, the inherent variability in the response variable is high. Our response
variable (or the dependent variable) was confidence level. We never broke down what the
numbers mean, beyond a “1” is not confident and a “10” is very confident. It is extremely likely
that the participants could not adequately know the difference between a confidence level of a
“5” and a “7”, which can skew our results. These three problems can affect our data, causing us
to report an effect, when in reality; there might not have been one at all. This, in turn, affects
the generalizability of the data. Such problems affect that data and results, because random
noise may contributing participant’s responses, which make it more difficult to distinguish the
presence of absence of a true effect from random chance or variation.
Taken into account that there may be problems with a small sample size, personality
type, and variances in the dependent variable, the results reported are most likely not
generalizable for two reasons: one, the data was not collected via random sample; and two, the
12 participants are not representative of the population. To have data that is generalizable,
both of these conditions must be met. The data was collected through convenience sampling,
which is a form of nonprobability sampling, which is not generalizable to a larger population.
Also, the demographic make-up of the 12 participants is not representative of the larger
population. In this study, 33% of the participants were Asian Pacific Islander and 25% were
Caucasian, while the demographics of the larger population (in this case, the United States) are
14. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 14
actually 75% Caucasian and only 4.75% Asian Pacific Islander. This means that the results only
apply for these 12 participants, and cannot be generalized to any larger population.
For future research, doing the following would account not only for better results, but
also ensure more generalizable results: one, using only random sampling to get participants;
two, having a larger sample size, perhaps as many as 1, 000 participants; three, personality
tests should be determined, retrofitted and used on each participant; fourth, a thorough
explanation of the confidence level rating spectrum should be taught to each of the
participants; and fifth, more optical illusions should be asked, instead of just five.
One main question that this study raised, was whether the gender of the confederate
group supporting or refuting a person’s answer affect a person’s confidence level. A study in
which the two main variables are confidence and gender, would prove useful to further this
area of scientific research. Another question that was raised was if the types of questions used
affect a person’s confidence level. Optical illusions are, in their very nature, ambiguous. Using
questions with concrete answers that the participant might not know (i.e. a very complex
subject such as physics or engineering) might yield data that might correlate with the findings
here or illustrate a completely different effect. It is possible that with less ambiguous questions
participants might be more or less affected by how the confederates respond to their answer.
If a person perceives others as having an opinion of their behavior that is different than
their own, then the confidence in certain behaviors of that person will change. This simple
hypothesis was the foundation of a complex study. The data, however limited in its application,
did suggest that a person’s opinion can affect another person’s thinking, and in turn, their
confidence. History has proven this, through social movements calling out for proactive (or
15. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 15
even dangerous, in the situation with Hitler) opinions. These opinions act as small ripples, as
more and more people take part with these opinions, acting as reinforcement, causing a
greater chance for the same opinions to repeat.
16. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 16
References
Asch, S.E. (1951). Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of judgments.
Groups, leadership and men, 177–190.
Aronson, E., Wilson, T., & Akert, R. (2007). Conformity. Social Psychology, 230-231.
Retrieved from
http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AAAI/AAAI14/paper/viewFile/8391/8525
Bocchiaro, P., & Zamperini, A. (2012). Conformity, Obedience, Disobedience: The power of the
situation. Psychology, 275-294. Retrieved from http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-
wm/36456.pdf
Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influence
upon individual judgment. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636.
doi:10.1037/h0046408
Kohl, D. (2011). The presentation of “self” and “other” in Nazi propaganda. Psychology &
Society, 4, 7-26. Retrieved from
http://www.psychologyandsociety.org/__assets/__original/2011/04/2Kohl_2011_.
pdf
17. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 17
Minghu, W., & Fengning, S. (2006). Correlation studies on interpersonal confidence and
personality characteristics of college students. Journal of Clinical Psychosomatic
Diseases, 06, 112. Retrieved from http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-
LCSX200606021.htm
Sherif, M. (1935). A study of some social factors in perception. Archives of Psychology, 27, 187.
Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1936-01332-00
Watson, P. (1974). Psychology and Race, 4, 130.
18. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 18
Appendix A
Question asked:
How many legs are there on this
elephant? (Please explain your
reasoning.)
Question asked:
What do you see in this picture?
(Please explain your reasoning.)
Question asked:
Is this a level balance?
(Please explain your reasoning.)
19. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 19
Question asked:
Are the two red lines the same length?
(Please explain your reasoning.)
Question asked:
Which way is this staircase facing?
(Please explain your reasoning.)
20. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 20
Appendix B
1) Did you see this illusion easily or did it take time? Circle one: Yes No
2) What did you see in this illusion? (Briefly write down 1-2 sentences.)
3) What did other people see in this illusion? (Briefly write down 1-2 sentences.)
4) Have you seen this illusion or types of this illusion before? Circle one: Yes No
5) How confident were you in answering the question for this illusion? Circle your
confidence, with
“1” being not very confident and “10” being very confident.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
21. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 21
6) Briefly explain what perceptual confusions it caused you.
7) How do you think this illusion works? Try your best in answering. (Briefly write down 1-2
sentences.
AFTER ILLUSION ONE, THESE 4 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS WILL BE ASKED.
8) Gender: _________
9) Age: ____________
10) Race: (circle one)
Caucasian African American Asian or Pacific Islander Other
11) Major: _______________
22. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 22
Appendix C
Verbal Informed consent:
You have been asked to take part in a psychology study. The purpose of the study is to see the
how people see optical illusions and what perceptual / cognitive processes take over. We are
aiming to see how certain brain processes affect how a person consciously sees an optical
illusion.
You will be shown a set of 5 optical illusions. They will range from some simple to some harder
illusions. After each illusion, there will be a specific question for each illusion. You will be asked
to answer the question out loud and explain your reasoning. Then, after each participant has
answered the question, there will be a small questionnaire asking more in-depth questions
about the illusion. This process will be repeated 5 times. At the end, there will be a small
debriefing session.
There will be cost to you if you participate. There will be no personal benefit but the knowledge
received may be of value to perceptual science.
Your participation is voluntary. At any time you may withdraw your participation, without any
loss or benefits or rights to which you might be otherwise entitled.
23. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 23
All of the data collected will not be identified, so please do not write down your name or any
other personal identifier. All of the data collected will be confidential and your name will not be
associated with any research findings.
It is strongly recommended that you answer truthfully on the verbal questions after each
illusion and on the questionnaire. This is to ensure that the data collected is truthful and valid.
To give verbal consent, please say the following if you agree to participate: “I agree to
participate with this study.”
To not give verbal consent, please say the following if you do not agree to participate and wish
to leave the testing room: “I do not agree to participate with this study and wish to leave.”
24. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 24
Appendix D
Debriefing:
Thank you for taking part in this psychology experiment.
This study was concerned with seeing how confidence levels are subject to group approval or
disapproval. Previous studies have found that group influence is very real and this study aimed
to understand how confidence levels can be affected by group influence. Although this is was
directly explained to you, the data collected can show confidence levels as the group supports
or refutes your answer.
The other participants are confederates and were asked to either support or refute the verbal
answers that you gave, which was already predetermined. This was done to see if your
confidence levels are affected by the group opinion.
Thank you again for your participation.
25. PERCIEVED OPINION AND CONFIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR 25
FIGURES
Boxplot of Confidence Levels for
Condition A (support)
Boxplot of Confidence Levels for
Condition B (refute)
ConfidenceLevel
Figure 1. Boxplot of Confidence Level for Conditions A and B. The error bars represent the standard
deviations.
ConfidenceLevel