Zoos play an important role in conserving biodiversity by holding threatened species in captivity. Roughly one in seven threatened terrestrial vertebrate species are represented in zoos worldwide according to the International Species Information System database. While zoos are concentrated in temperate regions, most threatened species are found in tropical areas, highlighting a mismatch. Zoos collectively hold sizable populations of certain threatened species and their long-term data on reproduction and survival could help parameterize models to aid conservation efforts. However, zoos must strive to ensure populations are self-sustaining in the long-run and increase participation from regions with high biodiversity.
Captive Breeding: Genetic and Demographic ManagementDrPrincelinaBora
It is a presentation about the genetic and population management of captive stock of wild animals which can be eventually reintroduced into the wild. It covers basically the aspects of setting genetic and demographic goal before starting a captive stock and also measures to reduce adaptation to captive environment which is detrimental in the wild. At the end some success stories have been added basically for captive programs conducted in India. All the references from where the data have been taken are given with the file.
Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system and sustainable development can be classified as development that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation.
Captive Breeding: Genetic and Demographic ManagementDrPrincelinaBora
It is a presentation about the genetic and population management of captive stock of wild animals which can be eventually reintroduced into the wild. It covers basically the aspects of setting genetic and demographic goal before starting a captive stock and also measures to reduce adaptation to captive environment which is detrimental in the wild. At the end some success stories have been added basically for captive programs conducted in India. All the references from where the data have been taken are given with the file.
Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system and sustainable development can be classified as development that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation.
Wildlife management techniques and methods of wildlife conservationAnish Gawande
Wildlife Conservation is the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitat. Wildlife plays an important role in balancing the environment and provides stability to different natural processes of nature. The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure that nature will be around for future generations to enjoy and also to recognize the importance of wildlife and wilderness for humans and other species alike. Many nations have government agencies and NGO's dedicated to wildlife conservation, which help to implement policies designed to protect wildlife. Numerous independent non-profit organizations also promote various wildlife conservation causes.
Wildlife conservation has become an increasingly important practice due to the negative effects of human activity on wildlife. An endangered species is defined as a population of a living species that is in the danger of becoming extinct because the species has a very low or falling population, or because they are threatened by the varying environmental or prepositional parameters.
Importance of study of immature stages of insects in agricultureSanju Thorat
The type of life cycle will vary with the insect-pest. However, most pests have certain weak points during their life cycle when they are the most vulnerable to manage. Some insect are predators, either as larvae or in both larval and adult stages. The decomposition of organic waste, such as dung and manures are an important ecosystem process which is largely provided by insects. Insect as food for animals and human being. The knowledge regarding immature stages of insect-pests and understand site of oviposition, site of pupation and larval behaviour can allow for timely and effective management, thus we can reduction in the qualitative and quantitative losses of yield and increase the profit.
Abstract— The indiscriminate use of agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers e and synthetic pesticides, can cause high levels of toxic residues in food, biological imbalance, environmental contamination, intoxication of humans and animals, and other direct and indirect effects. The use of plant extracts as alternative insecticides is a way to minimize the problems caused by synthetic insecticides. Insecticides are in the second position in the trading market of agrotoxics in Brazil. The species Tagetes erecta L. and Tagetes patula L. have antioxidant properties, larvicidal, fungicidal, antimicrobial, nematicide and insecticide. In order to verify the possibility of Tagetes sp. extracts be suitable alternative to the use of synthetic insecticides, the bioassays laboratorial were designed through of insect mortality test of Sitophilus zeamais. We evaluated the antioxidant activity by the test of DPPH, in addition to screen the chromatographic profile of the extracts. It is concluded that the extracts evaluated are efficient in insect mortality, checking still considerable amount of antioxidant compounds, as identified also flavonoids, terpenes and alkaloids in extracts. According to these results we conclude that T. erecta and T. patula has phytotoxic compounds that can promote and expand its use as a natural insecticide.
ANIMAL WELFARE
Animal welfare means how an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives.
An animal is in a satisfactory state of wellbeing when it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express its innate behaviour, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear and distress.(OIE)
The welfare of an individual is its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment.An animal in good state of welfare is: -
healthy, well nourished
Comfortable, safe
Not suffering from unpleasant state such as pain, fear, and distress
Able to express natural behavior
Good AW requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter and killing.
2013 lima & antonialli junior foraging strategies of the ant ectatomma vizott...Luan Lima
Foraging activity may be limited by
temperature, humidity, radiation, wind, and other abiotic factors, all of which can affect energy costs during foraging. Ectatomma
vizottoi’s biology has only recently been studied, and no detailed information is available on its foraging patterns or diet in the field.
For this reason, and because foraging activity is an important part of the ecological success of social insects, the present study aimed
to investigate E. vizottoi’s foraging strategies and dietary habits. First, we determined how abiotic factors constrained E. vizottoi’s
foraging patterns in the field by monitoring the foraging activity of 16 colonies on eight different days across two seasons. Second,
we characterized E. vizottoi’s diet by monitoring another set of 26 colonies during peak foraging activity. Our results show that E.
vizottoi has foraging strategies that are similar to those of congeneric species. In spite of having a low efficiency index, colonies
adopted strategies that allowed them to successfully obtain food resources while avoiding adverse conditions. These strategies
included preying on other ant species, a foraging tactic that could arise if a wide variety of food items are not available in the
environment or if E. vizottoi simply prefers, regardless of resource availability, to prey on other invertebrates and especially on other
ant species.
Free Range Livestock Influence Species Richness, Occupancy, and Daily Behavio...UniversitasGadjahMada
In some developing countries, human activities in protected areas threaten wildlife populations and their habitats. This study was conducted to understand the influences of freerange livestock on the wild mammalian population in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. There were 3,852 and 1,156 cows and goats, respectively, and livestock occupied an area of approximately 55.96 km2. The species richness and probability of occupancy in areas with and without livestock were assessed, and the spatial co-occurrence and overlap of daily activity patterns among mammalian species and livestock were measured. A total of 39 camera traps were installed from August 2015 to January 2016, collecting 23,021 independent photographs. In areas with livestock, the number of mammal species (eight) was lower than in areas without livestock (11 species). The most affected species were the large herbivores Bubalus bubalis and Bos javanicus, and a large carnivore Panthera pardus, all of which were absent in areas with livestock. Regardless of the feeding guild, the probability of
occupancy of almost all species declined in areas with livestock, except the medium herbivores Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Hystrix javanica that showed a higher probability of occupancy. The species whose probability of occupancy declined were the carnivores Cuon alpinus and Prionailurus bengalensis; the herbivores Rusa timorensis, Tracypithecus auratus and Muntiacus muntjak; and the omnivore Sus scrofa. In the presence of livestock, R. timorensis and S. scrofa changed their activities from diurnal to nocturnal. Livestock affected most wild mammals in several ways, including by reducing the species richness, lessening the probability of occupancy and changing the daily activity patterns of many animals. This research recommends a significant reduction in the size of the range area for domestic livestock.
This survey was conducted on an experimental parcel of the Agronomic High School of the National Polytechnic Institute Félix HOUPHOUET- BOIGNY (ESA-INPHB) of Yamoussoukro (Côte d’Ivoire). It aims to evaluate the insecticidal effect of 2 local plants aqueous extracts on termites (Azadirachta indica and Cassia siamea) dosed at 131.25 g powder/ L compared to a chemical pesticide (Chlorpyrifos ethyl) dosed at 480 g / L. A total of 11 termite species were collected from the plots. The fungus-growers with 6 species are the most dominant group. Four soil-feeder species and one wood-boring species were also collected. Only fungus-growers are present in the areas treated with plant extracts and chlorpyrifos ethyl. It was observed a high abundance of termites in heading stage of the rice growth. In maturity stage, ie 4 months after sowing the efficiency of chlorpyrifos ethyl decreased as plant aqueous extracts remain effective. Among the two tested plants, Azadirachta indica seems to be the most effective compared to Cassia siamea against termites. Chlorpyrifos ethyl could be used as a cure for its swift action on termites while Azadirachta indica could be used preventively and for crops whose destructive action is long term.
An Investigation on the Impact of Plant-Animal Interactions in the Conservati...DrCShanmugaPriya
The Gulf of Mannar is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean. It lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka. 20 islands are running almost parallel to the coastline of the Gulf of Mannar. Among them, Mandapam group of islands (Hare, Manoli, Manoliputti, Poomarichan, Pullivasal, Krusadai, and Shingle) are one of the richest coastal regions for biodiversity in Asia. An ecological study for the conservation of the biodiversity in these islands was done from the year 2009 to 2010. Each island has its unique characteristics, of biodiversity surrounded by coral reefs. The littoral, mangrove, tidal swamp, dry deciduous and scrubs insular forests of the islands hold a diversified faunal assemblage. The predominant existing plant species of the island are the mangroves (Rhizophora mucronate pair, Avicennia marina (Forssk.)Vierh, Ceriopstagal (perr.)Rabins) and deciduous and scrub species (Pandanus fascicularis, Thespesia populnea, Tamarindus indica, Cordia subcordata, Pithecolobium dulce, Ficus benghalensis, Pleurostylia opposite, Acacia planifrons, Salvadora persica, and Zizyphus nummularia) Pemphis acidula (Lythraceae family of flowering herb) is the note worthy endemic plant species. These floras for their propagation totally depend on the Hymenopteran and Lepidopteran diversity of insects and the sun bird for pollination and Mammals and Aves for seed dispersal. This study on the animal - plant interaction helps a lot in the formulation of action plan for biodiversity conservation in Mandapam group of islands.
Beetles in Selected Barangays of Catarman, Northern Samar, Philippinesijtsrd
This initial research effort was conducted to identify the beetle species in five selected barangays of Catarman, Northern Samar, and describe the environmental factors that affect the presence of beetles in the study area. It used the descriptive method of research, with the purposive sampling technique as the sampling procedure utilized.Due to limitations of the researcher, a total of only seventeen 17 beetle species, belonging to eleven 11 families, were found present in different sampling sites. The most abundant of the beetle species individual was Harmonia axyridis, constituting 76.14 of the total number of beetles in the study area, while the least abundant were Alaus sp., and Diphucephala sp., each with only one 1 individual present, accounting for a relative abundance of only 0.46 . The air and soil temperature range between 27oC to 29oC. Grasses, trees, shrubs, and herbs were the common vegetation present in the study sites where beetles were found. This implies that environmental factors were conducive for the beetles to thrive in the area. The presence of different beetle species indicates the study area has a diverse beetle fauna, albeit it is only a small fraction of the total beetle species listed in the country. It is imperative that conservation efforts should be strengthened by the LGU in order to conserve not only the beetle population in the study area, but other organisms, both flora and fauna, as well. Jehosaphat C. Jazmin | Abel Alejandro U. Flores, Jr. ""Beetles in Selected Barangays of Catarman, Northern Samar, Philippines"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd22937.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/22937/beetles-in-selected-barangays-of-catarman-northern-samar-philippines/jehosaphat-c-jazmin
Wildlife management techniques and methods of wildlife conservationAnish Gawande
Wildlife Conservation is the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitat. Wildlife plays an important role in balancing the environment and provides stability to different natural processes of nature. The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure that nature will be around for future generations to enjoy and also to recognize the importance of wildlife and wilderness for humans and other species alike. Many nations have government agencies and NGO's dedicated to wildlife conservation, which help to implement policies designed to protect wildlife. Numerous independent non-profit organizations also promote various wildlife conservation causes.
Wildlife conservation has become an increasingly important practice due to the negative effects of human activity on wildlife. An endangered species is defined as a population of a living species that is in the danger of becoming extinct because the species has a very low or falling population, or because they are threatened by the varying environmental or prepositional parameters.
Importance of study of immature stages of insects in agricultureSanju Thorat
The type of life cycle will vary with the insect-pest. However, most pests have certain weak points during their life cycle when they are the most vulnerable to manage. Some insect are predators, either as larvae or in both larval and adult stages. The decomposition of organic waste, such as dung and manures are an important ecosystem process which is largely provided by insects. Insect as food for animals and human being. The knowledge regarding immature stages of insect-pests and understand site of oviposition, site of pupation and larval behaviour can allow for timely and effective management, thus we can reduction in the qualitative and quantitative losses of yield and increase the profit.
Abstract— The indiscriminate use of agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers e and synthetic pesticides, can cause high levels of toxic residues in food, biological imbalance, environmental contamination, intoxication of humans and animals, and other direct and indirect effects. The use of plant extracts as alternative insecticides is a way to minimize the problems caused by synthetic insecticides. Insecticides are in the second position in the trading market of agrotoxics in Brazil. The species Tagetes erecta L. and Tagetes patula L. have antioxidant properties, larvicidal, fungicidal, antimicrobial, nematicide and insecticide. In order to verify the possibility of Tagetes sp. extracts be suitable alternative to the use of synthetic insecticides, the bioassays laboratorial were designed through of insect mortality test of Sitophilus zeamais. We evaluated the antioxidant activity by the test of DPPH, in addition to screen the chromatographic profile of the extracts. It is concluded that the extracts evaluated are efficient in insect mortality, checking still considerable amount of antioxidant compounds, as identified also flavonoids, terpenes and alkaloids in extracts. According to these results we conclude that T. erecta and T. patula has phytotoxic compounds that can promote and expand its use as a natural insecticide.
ANIMAL WELFARE
Animal welfare means how an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives.
An animal is in a satisfactory state of wellbeing when it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express its innate behaviour, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear and distress.(OIE)
The welfare of an individual is its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment.An animal in good state of welfare is: -
healthy, well nourished
Comfortable, safe
Not suffering from unpleasant state such as pain, fear, and distress
Able to express natural behavior
Good AW requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter and killing.
2013 lima & antonialli junior foraging strategies of the ant ectatomma vizott...Luan Lima
Foraging activity may be limited by
temperature, humidity, radiation, wind, and other abiotic factors, all of which can affect energy costs during foraging. Ectatomma
vizottoi’s biology has only recently been studied, and no detailed information is available on its foraging patterns or diet in the field.
For this reason, and because foraging activity is an important part of the ecological success of social insects, the present study aimed
to investigate E. vizottoi’s foraging strategies and dietary habits. First, we determined how abiotic factors constrained E. vizottoi’s
foraging patterns in the field by monitoring the foraging activity of 16 colonies on eight different days across two seasons. Second,
we characterized E. vizottoi’s diet by monitoring another set of 26 colonies during peak foraging activity. Our results show that E.
vizottoi has foraging strategies that are similar to those of congeneric species. In spite of having a low efficiency index, colonies
adopted strategies that allowed them to successfully obtain food resources while avoiding adverse conditions. These strategies
included preying on other ant species, a foraging tactic that could arise if a wide variety of food items are not available in the
environment or if E. vizottoi simply prefers, regardless of resource availability, to prey on other invertebrates and especially on other
ant species.
Free Range Livestock Influence Species Richness, Occupancy, and Daily Behavio...UniversitasGadjahMada
In some developing countries, human activities in protected areas threaten wildlife populations and their habitats. This study was conducted to understand the influences of freerange livestock on the wild mammalian population in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. There were 3,852 and 1,156 cows and goats, respectively, and livestock occupied an area of approximately 55.96 km2. The species richness and probability of occupancy in areas with and without livestock were assessed, and the spatial co-occurrence and overlap of daily activity patterns among mammalian species and livestock were measured. A total of 39 camera traps were installed from August 2015 to January 2016, collecting 23,021 independent photographs. In areas with livestock, the number of mammal species (eight) was lower than in areas without livestock (11 species). The most affected species were the large herbivores Bubalus bubalis and Bos javanicus, and a large carnivore Panthera pardus, all of which were absent in areas with livestock. Regardless of the feeding guild, the probability of
occupancy of almost all species declined in areas with livestock, except the medium herbivores Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Hystrix javanica that showed a higher probability of occupancy. The species whose probability of occupancy declined were the carnivores Cuon alpinus and Prionailurus bengalensis; the herbivores Rusa timorensis, Tracypithecus auratus and Muntiacus muntjak; and the omnivore Sus scrofa. In the presence of livestock, R. timorensis and S. scrofa changed their activities from diurnal to nocturnal. Livestock affected most wild mammals in several ways, including by reducing the species richness, lessening the probability of occupancy and changing the daily activity patterns of many animals. This research recommends a significant reduction in the size of the range area for domestic livestock.
This survey was conducted on an experimental parcel of the Agronomic High School of the National Polytechnic Institute Félix HOUPHOUET- BOIGNY (ESA-INPHB) of Yamoussoukro (Côte d’Ivoire). It aims to evaluate the insecticidal effect of 2 local plants aqueous extracts on termites (Azadirachta indica and Cassia siamea) dosed at 131.25 g powder/ L compared to a chemical pesticide (Chlorpyrifos ethyl) dosed at 480 g / L. A total of 11 termite species were collected from the plots. The fungus-growers with 6 species are the most dominant group. Four soil-feeder species and one wood-boring species were also collected. Only fungus-growers are present in the areas treated with plant extracts and chlorpyrifos ethyl. It was observed a high abundance of termites in heading stage of the rice growth. In maturity stage, ie 4 months after sowing the efficiency of chlorpyrifos ethyl decreased as plant aqueous extracts remain effective. Among the two tested plants, Azadirachta indica seems to be the most effective compared to Cassia siamea against termites. Chlorpyrifos ethyl could be used as a cure for its swift action on termites while Azadirachta indica could be used preventively and for crops whose destructive action is long term.
An Investigation on the Impact of Plant-Animal Interactions in the Conservati...DrCShanmugaPriya
The Gulf of Mannar is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean. It lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka. 20 islands are running almost parallel to the coastline of the Gulf of Mannar. Among them, Mandapam group of islands (Hare, Manoli, Manoliputti, Poomarichan, Pullivasal, Krusadai, and Shingle) are one of the richest coastal regions for biodiversity in Asia. An ecological study for the conservation of the biodiversity in these islands was done from the year 2009 to 2010. Each island has its unique characteristics, of biodiversity surrounded by coral reefs. The littoral, mangrove, tidal swamp, dry deciduous and scrubs insular forests of the islands hold a diversified faunal assemblage. The predominant existing plant species of the island are the mangroves (Rhizophora mucronate pair, Avicennia marina (Forssk.)Vierh, Ceriopstagal (perr.)Rabins) and deciduous and scrub species (Pandanus fascicularis, Thespesia populnea, Tamarindus indica, Cordia subcordata, Pithecolobium dulce, Ficus benghalensis, Pleurostylia opposite, Acacia planifrons, Salvadora persica, and Zizyphus nummularia) Pemphis acidula (Lythraceae family of flowering herb) is the note worthy endemic plant species. These floras for their propagation totally depend on the Hymenopteran and Lepidopteran diversity of insects and the sun bird for pollination and Mammals and Aves for seed dispersal. This study on the animal - plant interaction helps a lot in the formulation of action plan for biodiversity conservation in Mandapam group of islands.
Beetles in Selected Barangays of Catarman, Northern Samar, Philippinesijtsrd
This initial research effort was conducted to identify the beetle species in five selected barangays of Catarman, Northern Samar, and describe the environmental factors that affect the presence of beetles in the study area. It used the descriptive method of research, with the purposive sampling technique as the sampling procedure utilized.Due to limitations of the researcher, a total of only seventeen 17 beetle species, belonging to eleven 11 families, were found present in different sampling sites. The most abundant of the beetle species individual was Harmonia axyridis, constituting 76.14 of the total number of beetles in the study area, while the least abundant were Alaus sp., and Diphucephala sp., each with only one 1 individual present, accounting for a relative abundance of only 0.46 . The air and soil temperature range between 27oC to 29oC. Grasses, trees, shrubs, and herbs were the common vegetation present in the study sites where beetles were found. This implies that environmental factors were conducive for the beetles to thrive in the area. The presence of different beetle species indicates the study area has a diverse beetle fauna, albeit it is only a small fraction of the total beetle species listed in the country. It is imperative that conservation efforts should be strengthened by the LGU in order to conserve not only the beetle population in the study area, but other organisms, both flora and fauna, as well. Jehosaphat C. Jazmin | Abel Alejandro U. Flores, Jr. ""Beetles in Selected Barangays of Catarman, Northern Samar, Philippines"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd22937.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/22937/beetles-in-selected-barangays-of-catarman-northern-samar-philippines/jehosaphat-c-jazmin
The Assessment of Human-Snake Interaction and its Outcome in the City of KumbaAI Publications
Throughout history humans have had an uneasy relationship with serpents. Snakes are animals that fascinate many people while frightening others, good or bad, most people have strong feelings about snakes, but few people remain neutral. Most human-snake interactions had lead to the destruction of snakes due to human inability to control fear and panic. The indiscriminate killing of snakes for presumed human safety has drastically reduced the population of many snake species to the level of extirpation. The objective of this, however, is to examine the human interaction with snakes in city of Kumba. To get this survey done, a total number of two hundred and fifty questionnaires were administered to a randomly selected population sample in the study area. The results of the survey revealed that the prevention of snake attacks and the opinion of people on snake population management is significantly related (X2 = 11.069 df=4, P<0.05).The importance of snakes and their medical need for snake venom has showed a significant agreement (X2 = 12.045 df=2, P<0.05). Also, the prevention of snake attacks and the area snakes are easily sighted showed a significant association (X2 = 29.205 df=4, P<0.05). In addition, there is a significant link between the snake-bite treatment and its prevention (R2 = 0.312, P<0.05). Moreso, a respondent score of 39.30% is recorded upon the knowledge of venomous snakes. Furthermore, the study recorded a respondent score of 39.30% on the preferable use of traditional treatment on snake-bite victim than the expected medical treatment (31.84%), creating an understanding that the people of Kumba are still very much dependent on the ancient methods of treating snake-bite victims. The Kumba city dwellers need education on the snake behaviour, venomous and non venomous species around their area and the ecological and medical importance of snakes.
O Jardim Botânico do Recife informa a lista dos aprovados no 3º Curso de Capacitação em Técnicas Profissionais de Jardinagem. Foram selecionadas 30 pessoas, que devem comparecer ao jardim, na terça-feira, 1º de setembro de 2015, às 8h, no km 7,5 da BR-232, bairro do Curado, no Recife, munidas de documento de identificação.
O curso terá duração de dois meses e meio, sendo exigidos frequência e aproveitamento mínimos em pelo menos 75% das aulas. Os módulos acontecerão de segunda a sexta-feira, das 8h às 12h. Ao final, será conferido certificado.
1. POLICYFORUM UNTIL 2:00 PM US ET THURSDAY, 17 MARCH 2011
EMBARGOED
CONSERVATION
An Emerging Role of Zoos Roughly one in seven threatened terrestrial
vertebrate species are held in captivity,
to Conserve Biodiversity
a resource for ex situ conservation efforts.
D. A. Conde,1* N. Flesness,2 F. Colchero,1 O. R. Jones,1 A. Scheuerlein1
A
t the October 2010 meeting of the global amphibian population declines (11). resented and 4% of amphibians. Our primary
Convention on Biological Diversity Captive breeding for reintroduction has focus is on species of conservation concern;
(CBD) in Nagoya, Japan, delegates downsides. Sociopolitical factors can deter- for mammals, roughly one-fifth to one-quar-
discussed a plan to reduce pressures on the mine the success of programs. For example, ter of threatened (19) and Near-Threatened
planet’s biodiversity. Key targets include reintroduction of Arabian oryx (Oryx leu- species are represented in ISIS zoos (see
expanding coverage of protected areas, halv- coryx) in central Oman was hampered by the figure) (table S1). With the exception of
ing the rate of loss of natural habitats, and poaching, partly because local communities Critically Endangered species, which only
preventing extinction of threatened species were insufficiently involved in conservation have a 9% representation (tables S1 and S2),
(1). For species whose habitat is severely efforts (12, 13). Furthermore, captive breed- the picture is similar for birds. For amphib-
threatened, however, the outlook is so bleak ing is costly, and technical difficulties can ians, the representation of threatened spe-
that the International Union for Conservation arise such as hybridization [breeding among cies is much lower (~3%); this is a concern
of Nature (IUCN), the U.S. Endangered Spe- different species (14), e.g., if current cryp- because amphibians are a highly threatened
cies Act, and the CBD (Article 9) recognize tic species are managed as one species, but group, with 41% of described species listed
that in situ conservation actions (i.e., in the are later split into several species according as threatened or Extinct in the Wild (EW) (5).
species’ natural habitat) will need to be com- to new taxonomic information]. The abil- The IUCN threat-level assessment for rep-
bined with ex situ approaches, such as captive ity of individuals to learn crucial skills that tiles has not been completed, so our results
breeding in zoos, aquariums, and so on (2, 3). allow them to survive in the wild (e.g., fear should be interpreted with caution, but of the
Captive breeding may be the only short- of humans or predators) may be compro- 1672 species already evaluated, zoos hold
term practical conservation option for species mised. In many cases, these difficulties have 37% of threatened and 18% of Near-Threat-
confined to dwindling habitats (4). However, been overcome by creative and species-spe- ened species.
captive breeding is absent or plays a minor cific measures. For example, it was feared Overall, zoos and aquariums hold roughly
role in the policies of most governments, con- that Puerto Rican parrots (Amazona vittata) one in seven threatened species (15%), but it
servation organizations, and multilateral insti- would be unable to escape predators in the is important to consider also the number of
tutions. To shed light on the state of captive wild, but this problem was solved with a pre- individuals held. Although individual zoos
breeding and its potential to contribute to con- release aviary-based stimulation and exercise might not have large populations of a par-
servation goals, we estimate the number of program (15). Because ex situ conservation ticular species, collectively, zoos hold siz-
threatened species already held in captivity. programs can be challenged when called into able populations of certain species, including
action at the last possible moment with only a highly threatened ones (see the figure). Zoos,
Captive Breeding few remaining individuals of a species, cap- as a global network, should strive to ensure
Although ecosystem health should be a con- tive breeding should not simply be seen as that their populations of threatened species
servation priority, a recent evaluation of the “emergency-room treatment.” It is a tool that can survive in the long term. However, each
status of the world’s vertebrates (5) noted that should be considered before the species has zoo may make a larger conservation contri-
captive breeding played a major role in the reached the point of no return. bution by specializing in breeding a few at-
recovery of 17 of the 68 species whose threat risk targeted species, rather than aiming to
level was reduced [e.g., Przewalski’s wild Counting Threatened Species in Captivity increase its species diversity, as specialization
horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) (6), black- We used the International Species Informa- increases breeding success (4).
footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) (7), and Cal- tion System (ISIS) database to estimate the Ultimately, success of conservation
ifornia condor (Gymnogyps californianus) number of threatened species already held in actions depends on the extent to which birth
(8)]. Captive breeding has the potential to captivity. ISIS is an organization that holds and death rates permit populations to survive
maintain targeted populations as an “insur- the most comprehensive information on in the wild (8). Population viability analyses
ance policy” against threats like disease or animals held in zoos and aquariums world- (PVAs) are used to forecast the probability of
pressure from nonnative species [e.g., egg wide, with records of ~2.6 million individu- population extinction for conservation pro-
predators on islands (9)] until reintroduction als shared among ~800 member institutions grams (20), but these require parameteriza-
into the wild is possible. A striking example (16). From the IUCN Red List of Threatened tion with data on age-specific birth and death
is the increase of amphibian collections in Species (17), we obtained the threat category rates (21). Adequate data from natural envi-
zoos (10) as a response to chytridiomycosis, of each terrestrial vertebrate species repre- ronments are often unavailable, especially for
a fungal infection responsible for precipitous sented in ISIS (18). [See supporting online threatened species (20). The zoo network has
materials (SOM) for details.] large long-term data sets, including data such
1
Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock One-quarter of the world’s described bird as average litter size, interval between succes-
18057, Germany. 2International Species Information Sys- species and almost 20% of the mammal spe- sive litters, and age at maturity, which could
tem, Eagan, MN 55121, USA. cies are held in ISIS zoos (table S1). Only be used to fill these gaps. Of course, zoo data
*Author for correspondence: conde@demogr.mpg.de 12% of the described reptile species are rep- should be used with caution because they
1390 18 MARCH 2011 VOL 331 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
2. POLICYFORUM
EMBARGOED UNTIL 2:00 PM US ET THURSDAY, 17 MARCH 2011
Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians
800
Described
In zoos
600
Number of species
400
200 18%
24% 23% 17%
25% 37%
17%
19% 9% 28% 51% 6% 4% 3%
100% 100% 18% 0% 2% 50%
0
NT VU EN CR EW NT VU EN CR EW NT VU EN CR EW NT VU EN CR EW
5000
250 250 250 250
Number of individuals
500
50 50 50 50
50 10 10 10 10
5
1
Percentage of
species per interval 21 27 25 27 8 40 29 23 6 40 32 22 24 10 18 48
Species (ranked by number of individuals)
NT: Near threatened VU: Vulnerable EN: Endangered CR: Critically endangered EW: Extinct in the wild
Threatened
Endangered species in zoos. (Top) The number of able for design of conservation programs, 7. J. Belant, P. Gober, D. Biggins, in IUCN Red List of Threat-
species with IUCN status, globally described (color policy-makers must encourage and facilitate ened Species, Version 2010.4 (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland,
2010).
bars) and in ISIS zoos (black bars). (Bottom) The the participation of zoos from regions with 8. V. J. Meretsky, N. F. R. Snyder, S. R. Beissinger, D. A. Clen-
number of individuals in ISIS zoos for species listed high levels of biodiversity threat in global denen, J. W. Wiley, Conserv. Biol. 14, 957 (2000).
by IUCN—for mammals (142 species), birds (83 spe- networks, such as ISIS and the World Asso- 9. J.-C. Thibault, J.-Y. Meyer, Oryx 35, 73 (2001).
cies), reptiles (90 species), and amphibians (29 spe- 10. Amphibian Ark, www.amphibianark.org.
ciation of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA). 11. L. F. Skerratt et al., EcoHealth 4, 125 (2007).
cies). The vertical broken lines show the boundaries
by 250, 50, and 10 individuals. The large numbers of
The potential for zoos to contribute to 12. J. A. Spalton, M. W. Lawerence, S. A. Brend, Oryx 33, 168
individuals classified as Vulnerable and Near Threat- conservation is not a new concept for the zoo (1999).
13. V. Morell, Science 320, 742 (2008).
ened are omitted for clarity. See SOM for details. community. Zoos and aquariums have devel- 14. R. Barnett, N. Yamaguchi, I. Barnes, A. Cooper, Conserv.
oped conservation projects in the wild, along- Genet. 7, 507 (2006).
side research and education programs (23). 15. T. H. White, J. A. Collazo, F. J. Vilella, Condor 107, 424
(2005).
do not necessarily reflect the situation in the For example, members of WAZA collectively 16. International Species Information System, www.isis.org.
wild, such as population flexibility in the face spend ~U.S. $350 million per year on conser- 17. IUCN, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 3.1
of changing conditions. vation actions in the wild, which makes them (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 2009); www.iucnredlist.org.
18. ISIS and IUCN information were matched on the species
Despite their current and potential contri- the third major contributor to conservation level using the Catalogue of Life (F. A. Bisby et al., Eds.);
butions to species conservation, ISIS zoos are worldwide after the Nature Conservancy and www.catalogueoflife.org.
concentrated in temperate regions, whereas the World Wildlife Fund global network (24). 19. Threatened species are those listed as Critically Endan-
gered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU) by IUCN.
most threatened species are tropical (5, 22) Given the scale of the biodiversity challenge, 20. T. Coulson, G. M. Mace, E. Hudson, H. Possingham,
(fig. S1). This mismatch between the areas it is vital that conservation bodies and policy- Trends Ecol. Evol. 16, 219 (2001).
where captive populations are held and their makers consider the potential that zoos as a 21. J. M. Reed et al., Conserv. Biol. 16, 7 (2002).
22. R. Grenyer et al., Nature 444, 93 (2006).
native range poses a challenge for imple- global network can provide. 23. WAZA, Building a Future for Wildlife: The World Zoo and
mentation of effective conservation actions. Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WAZA, Berne, Switzer-
Acclimatization to a new home is likely to be References and Notes land, 2005).
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