This document compares the developmental paths of India, Pakistan, and China, focusing on key indicators such as demographics, economic growth, sectoral contributions, and human development indicators. The analysis highlights significant similarities and differences in the approaches and outcomes of development strategies across these countries since their independence, including the impact of reforms initiated in China, Pakistan, and India. Overall, it emphasizes the varying success rates and challenges faced by these nations in their quest for economic growth and human development.

3. Learning Objectives
• Introduction -
i) Development Path of India, Pakistan and China
• Comparative Study – India, China and Pakistan -
i) Demographic Indicators
ii) Growth Indicators
iii) Sectoral Contribution
iv) Human Development Indicators
• Appraisal of Development Strategies -

4. INTRODUCTION
• Nations have been primarily trying to adopt various means which will strengthen
their own domestic economies. To this effect, they are forming regional and
economic groupings such as the SAARC, EU, ASEAN, G-8, G-20 etc.
• In this chapter, we will compare the trends in various economic and human
development indicators of India (the largest democracy of the world with a Secular
and liberal Constitution for over half a century) with its two principal neighbours:
i) China, which has recently started moving towards a more liberal restructuring of its command economy.
ii) Pakistan, having an authoritarian militarist political power structure.
• All the three countries, have more than six decades of development experience
behind them.

5. The South Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC) is the regional
intergovernmental
organization and geopolitical
union of states in South Asia.
Its member states are
Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, the Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka.
The European Union (EU) is
a political and economic
union of 27 member states
that are located primarily in
Europe. The EU has
developed an internal single
market through a
standardized system of laws
that apply in all member
states in those matters,
where members have agreed
to act as one.
The Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a
regional intergovernmental
organization comprising ten
countries in Southeast Asia,
which promotes
intergovernmental cooperation
and facilitates economic,
political, security, military,
educational and sociocultural
integration among its members
and other countries in Asia.
The Group of Eight (G8) refers
to the group of eight highly
industrialized nations—France,
Germany, Italy, the United
Kingdom, Japan, the United
States, Canada, and Russia—
that hold an annual meeting to
foster consensus on global
issues like economic growth
and crisis management, global
security, energy, and terrorism.

6. DEVELOPMENTAL PATH OF INDIA, PAKISTAN & CHINA
India, Pakistan and China have many similarities in their developmental strategies.
• All the three nations started their developmental path at the same time.
• India and Pakistan got independence in 1947 and People’s Republic of China was established in 1949.
• All the three countries had started their development strategies in similar ways. India announced its
first Five Year Plan in 1951, Pakistan announced in 1956 and China in 1953.
• Since 2013, Pakistan is working on the basis of 11th Five Year Development Plan (2013-18), while China is
working on 13th Five Year Plan (2016-20). Until March 2017, India has been following Five Year Plan-
based development model.
• India and Pakistan adopted similar strategies, such as creating large public sector and raising public
expenditure on social development.
• Till 1980s, all the countries had similar growth rates and per capita incomes.

7. CHINA
Historical Background :
China has one of the
world’s oldest people and
continuous civilizations,
consisting of states and
cultures dating back more
than six millennia. The
People’s Republic of China
(PRC), commonly known as
China, was established in
1949.
Geography :
China is situated in eastern
Asia, bounded by the
Pacific in the east. It is
the third largest country
in the world, next to
Canada and Russia, with an
area of 9.6 million sq. km.
Population and Language:
China is the most populous
country in the world with
1,404 million people and a
growth rate of 0.5% p.a.
Most languages in China
belong to the Sino-Tibetan
language family, spoken by
29 ethnicities. There are
also several major dialects
within the Chinese
language itself.
Economy : After the
establishment of People’s
Republic of China under
one-party rule, all the
critical sectors of the
economy, enterprises and
lands owned and operated
by individuals were
brought under government
control.

9. GLF campaign- The Great Leap Forward (GLF) campaign initiated in 1958 aimed at
industrializing the country on a massive scale. GLF campaign met with many problems. A severe
drought caused havoc in China killing about 30 million people. When Russia had conflicts with
China, it withdrew its professionals.
In rural areas, communes were started. Under the Commune system, people collectively
cultivated lands. In 1958, there were 26,000 communes covering almost all the farm
population.

10. In 1965, Mao introduced
the Great Proletarian
Cultural Revolution (1966-
76) under which students
and professionals were sent
to work and learn from the
countryside.
GPCR
The present-day
fast industrial
growth in China can
be traced back to
the reforms
introduced in 1978.
Rapid Industrial Growth
In the initial phase,
reforms were
initiated in
agriculture, foreign
trade and
investment sectors.
Reforms introduced in China

11. In agriculture, for instance, commune lands
were divided into small plots which were
allocated to individual households. They
were allowed to keep all income from the
land after paying stipulated taxes.
In the later phase, reforms were initiated in
the industrial sector. Private sector firms, in
general, and township and village
enterprises, i.e. those enterprises which were
owned and operated by local collectives, in
particular, were allowed to produce goods.
At this stage, enterprises owned by government
which we, in India, call public sector enterprises,
were made to face competition. The reform
process also involved dual pricing.

12. This means fixing the prices
in two ways:
1. Farmers and individual
units were required to buy
and sell fixed quantities of
inputs and outputs on the
basis of prices fixed by the
govt. and
2. The rest were purchased
and sold at market prices.
Over the years, as
production increased,
the proportion of goods
or inputs transacted in
the market was also
increased. In order to
attract foreign
investors, Special
Economic Zones were
set up.
SEZ

13. PAKISTAN
Historical Background :
Pakistan officially the Islamic
Republic of Pakistan, gained
independence on 14th August,
1947. In 1971, a civil war in East
Pakistan resulted in the
independence of Bangladesh.
Pakistan’s history has been
characterized by periods of
economic growth, military rule
and political instability.
Geography : Pakistan is located in
South Asia and borders Central
Asia and the Middle East. Its
borders are with China in the North
and towards West and Northwest
are Iran and Afghanistan and
towards East and South East, its
borders are with India. The country
has an area of 7,96,095 sq. km. The
total cultivated area is 2,21,300 sq.
km, where as the area under forest
is 42,300 sq. km.
Population and Language : Pakistan
is the 6th most populous country
in the world with 208 million
people with a growth rate if
2.8% p.a. One third of total
population lives below the
official poverty line. It has the
2nd largest Muslim population in
the world after Indonesia. The
national language is Urdu and
English is the official language.

15. Mixed Economic System- Pakistan follows the mixed economy
model with co-existence of public and private sectors.
Introduction of Various Policies- In the late 1950s and 1960s,
Pakistan introduced a variety of regulated policy framework (for
import substitution industrialization). The policy combined tariff
protection for manufacturing of consumer goods together with
direct import controls on competing imports.
Green Revolution- The introduction of Green Revolution led to
mechanization and increase in public investment in infrastructure
in select areas, which finally let to a rise in the production of
foodgrains.
ECONOMY :

16. Reforms- In 1988, reforms were initiated in the country.
Financial Support during late 1970s- During this period, Pakistan also received financial support from:
i) Western nations; and ii) Remittances from emigrants to the Middle-east. This helped the country in
stimulating economic growth.
Importance to Role of Public Sector in early 1970s- In the early 1970s, nationalism of capital goods industries took place.
Importance to Role of Private Sector in late 1970s- In the late 1970s, there was a shift in the govt. policy, when it
adopted the policy of denationalization. Government encouraged the private sector and also offered various incentives to
them. All this created a conductive climate for new investments.

17. COMPARATIVE STUDY – INDIA, CHINA
AND PAKISTAN
Demographic Indicators -
• If we look at the global population, out of every six persons living in this world, one is an Indian and another Chinese.
• The population of Pakistan is very small and accounts for roughly about one-tenth of China or India.
• “One-Child Policy” of China has successfully reduced the growth rate of population and provides a better health
service for women and has reduced the risk of death and injury associated with pregnancy.
• In the recent times, all the three countries are adopting various measures to improve the situation.
Select Demographic Indicators
Country Estd.
Population (in
millions as of
2019)
Annual Growth
of Population
(2019)
Density (per
sq. km)
Sex ratio
(2019)
Fertility rate
(2019)
Urbanization
(2019)
India 1,366 1.2 455 924 2.2 34
China 1,404 0.5 148 949 1.7 59
Pakistan 208 2.8 275 943 3.6 37

18. Growth Indicators –
• Growth Rate of Gross Domestic Product – GDP growth is considered as the single most important indicator of
an economy during the period. China with 2nd largest GDP, as measured by purchasing power parity (PPP), is
estimated to be of $19.8 trillion. India’s GDP (PPP) is $8.07 trillion and Pakistan’s GDP is roughly about 12% of
India’s GDP.
Annual growth rate of gross domestic product (%)
• Purchasing Power Parity – PPP shows the equality of purchasing power among countries, i.e. quantity of goods
and services that can be bought with a unit of money. US Dollar is the universally accepted currency.
Therefore, GDPs of different countries are expressed in US Dollars ($) and called ‘PPP US$’.
Country 1980-1990 2018-2019
India 5.7 6.1
China 10.3 6.6
Pakistan 6.3 1.9

19. Sectoral Contribution –
Sectoral Share of GDP and Employment (%) in 2018-2019
Agriculture
Industry
Service
Total
India China Pakistan India China Pakistan
16 7 24 43 26 41
30 41 19 25 28 24
54 52 57 32 46 35
100 100 100 100 100 100
Contribution to GDP Distribution to WorkforceSector
Trends in Output Growth in Different Sectors, 1980-2015
Agriculture Industry Service Agriculture Industry Service
India 3.1 7.4 6.9 3.1 6.9 7.6
China 5.9 10.8 13.5 3.1 5.3 7.8
Pakistan 4 7.7 6.8 1.7 4.8 5.0
Country 1980-1990 2014-2018

20. Conclusion
ii) In the industrial sector,
China has maintained a double-
digit growth rate, whereas for
India and Pakistan, growth rate
has declined.
i) In the last two decades,
the contribution of
agriculture sector to GDP,
which employs the largest
proportion of workforce in
all the three countries,
has declined.
iii) In case of service
sector, China was able to
raise its growth rate during
1980-2015, while India and
Pakistan stagnated with its
service sector growth.

21. Human Development Indicators –
Some Selected Indicators of Human Development, 2015-2018
Note: * for the year 2011
Items India China Pakistan
Human Development Index (Value) 0.647 0.758 0.560
Rank (Based on HDI) 129 85 152
Life Expectancy at Birth (Years) 69.4 76.7 67.1
Mean years of Schooling (% aged 15 and above) 6.5 7.9 5.2
GDP per capita (PPP US$) 6,829 16,127 5,190
People Below Poverty Line (at $ 3.20 a day PPP) (%) (2011) 60.4* 7.0 46.4*
Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) 29.9 8.5 57.2
Maternal Mortality Rate (per 1 lakh births) 174 27 178
Population using Improvised Sanitation (%) 60 75 60
Population with Sustainable Access to Improved Water Source (%) 93 96 91
Undernourished Children (%) 37.9 8.1 37.6

22. • Human Development Index (HDI) – HDI is an important indicator to study the human
development. Higher value shows the level of growth and development of a country.
• Life Expectancy at Birth – Life expectancy refers to the average number of years for which
people are expected to live. A higher life expectancy indicates longer and a more active
average life span.
• Mean years of Schooling – Average number of completed years of education of a country's
population.
• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) – Infant mortality rate refers to number of infants dying before
reaching one year of ager per 1,000 live births in a year. Low IMR shows better health and
sanitation facilities as most of the infants die due to unhygienic and insanitary environments.
• People below Poverty line – People below poverty line are the people who do not even have that
level of income and expenditure, which is necessary to meet specified minimum level of
calorie intake.

23. • Access to improved Water Sources – It refers to the percentage of population which
has a reasonable access to water and is able to obtain at least 20 liters per person
per day.
• Access to improved Sanitation – It is measured by the percentage of the population
using improved sanitation facilities. Improved sanitation includes sanitation
facilities that hygienically separate human excreta from human contact.
• Population undernourished – The percentage of population, which is not able to
obtain adequate diet, is termed as undernourished population.

24. APPRAISAL OF DEVELOPMENT
STRATEGIES
•Development strategies of a country act as a model to others for lessons
and guidance for their own development. In order to learn from economic
performance of our neighbouring countries, it is necessary to understand
the roots of their success and failures and different phases of their
strategies.
•Though different countries go through their development phases
differently, taking the initiation of reforms as a point of reference.
Reforms were initiated in China in 1978, Pakistan in 1988 and India in
1991.

25. China did not have any compulsion to introduce reforms as dictated by the World Bank and International Monetary
Fund to India and Pakistan. But, some adverse situations of the economy prior to 1978, forced China to go for reforms.
I. Pre Reforms Period –
• There had been massive extension of basic health services in rural areas.
• Through the commune system, there was more equitable distribution of food grains.
• Despite extensive land reforms, collectivization (collective farming), the Great Leap Forward and other initiatives, the per
capita grain output in 1978 was the same as it was in the mid 1950s.
In 1978, the Government of China was not satisfied with the slow pace of economy and lack of modernization under the
Maoist rule. They felt that Maoist vision of economic development had failed. As a result, a number of reform measures
were introduced in 1978.
II. Post Reforms Period – The various reform measures led to rapid growth in China.
• Each reform measure was first implemented at a smaller level and then extended on a massive scale.
• Development of infrastructural facilities in the areas of education and health, land reforms, long existing of decentralized
planning and existence of small enterprises helped positively in improving the social and income indicators.
• Agricultural reforms brought prosperity to a vast number of people. It created conditions for the subsequent phenomenal
growth in rural industries and built up a strong support base for more reforms.
China -

26. In Pakistan, the reform process led to worsening of all the economic indicators. As compared to 1980s, the growth rate
of GDP and its sectoral constituents decreased in the 1990s. The proportion of poor in 1960s was more than 40% which
declined to 25% in 1980s and started rising again in 1990s.
The reasons for the slow-down of growth and re-emergence of poverty in Pakistan’s economy are :
• Agriculture growth and food supply situation was based on good harvest and not on institutionalized process of
technical change. When there was a good harvest, the economy was in good condition, when it was not, the
economic indicators showed stagnation or negative trends.
• Foreign exchange is an essential component for any country and it is always preferred to build foreign exchange
reserves through exports of manufactured goods. However, in Pakistan, most of the foreign exchange earnings came
from remittances from Pakistani workers in the Middle-east and the exports of highly volatile agricultural products.
• There was growing dependence on foreign loans on the one hand and increasing difficulty in paying back the loans
on the other.
However, during the last few years, Pakistan has recovered its economic growth and has been sustaining. In 2017-18,
the annual plan 2019-20 reports that, the GDP registered a growth of 5.5%, highest when compared to the previous
decade. While agriculture recorded growth rate far from satisfactory level, industrial and service sectors grew at 4.9
and 6.2 per cent respectively. Many macroeconomic indicators also began to show stable and positive trends.
Pakistan -

27. Conclusion
India, China and Pakistan have travelled more than five decades of developmental path with varied
results. Till the late 1970s, all of them were maintaining the same level of low development. The
last three decades have taken these countries to different levels.
India
• Indian economy performed moderately, but majority of its people still depend on agriculture.
• Infrastructure is lacking in many parts of the country.
• It is yet to raise the standard of living of more than one-fourth of its population that lives below the poverty
line.
Pakistan
• Political instability, over-dependence on remittances and foreign aid along with volatile performance of
agriculture sector are the reasons for the slowdown of the Pakistan economy.
• In the recent past, it is hoping to improve the situation by maintain high rates of GDP growth.
• Many macroeconomic indicators began showing positive and higher growth rates reflecting the economic
recovery.

28. China
• In China, the lack of political freedom and its implications for human rights are major
concerns.
• However, in the last three decades, it used the market system without losing political commitment
and succeeded in raising the level of growth alongwith alleviation of poverty.
• China has used the market mechanism to create additional social and economic opportunities.
• By retaining collective ownership of land and allowing individuals to cultivate lands, China has
ensured social security in rural areas.
• Public intervention in proving social infrastructure brought positive results in human development
indicators in China.