The document provides an overview of 10 academic writing techniques: reporting, arguing & discussing, evaluating other points of view, comparing & contrasting, synthesizing, generalizing, supporting claims and arguments, taking a stance, analyzing cause and effect, and drawing conclusions. It also provides examples and explanations of reporting, paraphrasing, arguing balanced and persuasive views, and evaluating different points of view. The key techniques discussed are reporting information from sources, arguing multiple perspectives, and evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of different opinions on a topic.

1. Essential notes

2. 1. Reporting
2. Arguing & Discussing
3. Evaluating other Points of view
4. Comparing & Contrasting
5. Synthesizing
6. Generalizing
7. Supporting claims and Arguments
8. Taking Stance
9. Cause and Effect
10. Drawing Conclusions

3. Reporting is a technique in academic
writing in which the ideas must be clearly
represented. Reporting may include
paraphrasing, summary and synthesis.

4. Read the text and report the main idea of the text by
summarizing it in your own words
 In most developing countries, two-thirds or more of
the people live in rural areas, with few, if any, of the
services the city-dweller takes for granted. Water
taps in houses, for example, are almost unknown. At
best, there may be a village well. Often the only
source of water is a lake or a stream, perhaps
several kilometers away. The drudgery of water-
carrying can take up the better part of every day.

5. Report the information given in the text by
Paraphrasing the following text in your own
words
 There was a time, not so long ago, when the words
'correspondence tuition' conjured up a method of learning which
seemed drab, second-rate and the private pursuit of a small and
rather secretive minority. The success of the Open University in
Britain has certainly changed all that. Open University course
materials are so confidently and attractively designed that they
have occasionally even been accused of flashiness. The
University's materials and methods are open to anyone's
inspection - indeed they are also the basis of a brisk and growing
export business. The Open University has turned correspondence
teaching into a major and thoroughly respectable method of adult
learning.

6. In arguing and discussing, two or more point
of views are presented. Both the negative
and positive aspects of the views are
discussed.

7. THE BALANCED VIEW
Introduce the argument to the reader.
e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic
nowadays or refer directly to some comments
that have been voiced on it recently.
Reasons against the argument
State the position, the evidence and the
reasons.
Reasons in favor of the argument.
State the position, the evidence and the
reasons.
After summarizing the two sides,
state your own point of view,
and explain why you think as you do.
THE PERSUASIVE VIEW
Introduce the topic briefly in general terms,
and then state your own point of view.
Explain what you plan to prove in the essay.
Reasons against the argument.
Dispose briefly of the main objections to your case.
Provide evidence and your reasons.
Reasons for your argument
the arguments to support your own view,
with evidence, reasons and examples.
Conclusion - Do not repeat your opinion again.
End your essay with something memorable
e.g. a quotation or a direct question

9. Should military service be compulsory?
Military service is compulsory in most countries of the world. In some European countries all
citizens are required to spend two years full-time in the army, air force or navy from the age of
eighteen and to continue to train on a part-time basis throughout their adult lives to be ready in
case of war. In other countries, notably Britain and the United States, military service is not
compulsory. (BACKGROUND)
In this essay I intend to look at some of the arguments for and against compulsory military
service. First I want to look at the arguments in its favor. (PLAN)
I think there are three main points in support of compulsory military service. Firstly, all countries
need a military force. This force defends the citizens in times of war and therefore all citizens
should make some contribution. The second point is a practical one. If a country in unable to
attract enough volunteers to the military service then it cannot operate as effective defence. The
third and most often mentioned point is that military service is a good discipline fur young people
- it teaches them practical and social skills and encourages them to take responsibility for
themselves and others. A society with compulsory military service is therefore a better society.
(AURGUMENT FOR)
The main arguments against are to do with individual freedom. Many people question the value
of a young person breaking his or her career or education in order to learn how to kill.
(AURUMENT AGAINST)
In my opinion, military service should not be compulsory, but some kind of useful social service
should be. That is, all young people should be required either to do military service or to work
with disadvantaged groups in the community - for example, with those in hospitals, old people's
homes, special schools. This experience would be valuable to the community and would also
build a sense of responsibility in the individual. However, whether a person chooses military or
community service, their commitment should be part-time so that education and career are not
interrupted. I also think that all young people should be involved - male and female.
(DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION)
(From Perspectives by Andy Hopkins, Longman, 1989, p. 70)

11.  The first reason why … is …
 First of all, …
 The second reason why … is …
 Secondly, …
 The most important …
 In addition, …
 Furthermore, …
 What is more, …
 Besides, …
 Another reason is …
 A further point is …

12. Evaluation means giving your opinions
(positive and negative) on the work of others
that you have read and learned.

13. Read the following examples and notice how the points of view
are evaluated
 Stalingrad was the greatest single blow of the war. Deep shock, dismay,
and depression were recorded everywhere. It was correctly viewed as
the low point of wartime morale on the home front.
 While agreeing with Jameson's (2003) suggestion that an increase in
funding is required to maintain the quality of daily television, it is not
enough simply to throw money at the problem.
 Eccleshall argues that libertarian Conservatism was alive and well in the work of
Edmund Burke and in the 'Liberal Toryism' which reached its high point during
the premiership of Sir Robert Peel. Yet, as recent work on political economy in
the late eighteenth century has shown, it is difficult to establish Adam Smith, let
alone Burke, as a 'free marketeer' in anything like the modern sense.

14. Read the following text and identify the main point of view.
It is often assumed (Sanders, 1976; Wall, 1978) that, with the rise of
factory production, men said goodbye to their wives and children and
marched happily off to work, only rejoining their families at the end of
the day.
Use information from the following quotation to evaluate the text
above by pointing out that it is not true.
Industrialization did not result immediately in a differentiation
between domestic and industrial labor tied to gender, and the
isolation of the family. On the contrary, all members of the family
were employed in the factories and the mines, and women and
children were only gradually excluded against the vigorous
opposition of the factory owners and very often of the husbands and
parents.
(M. Harris, 1977, p. 68).

18. Comparing (finding similarities) and contrasting
(finding differences) is a process of analysis which
helps you to understand things in greater depth.
Often, the purpose of comparison is to show that
things which are considered different are in fact
similar; likewise, contrasting can show that things
which are considered the same are in fact different.
It can also be a first stage in evaluation; by
comparing specific aspects of A and B, it is possible
to decide which is more useful or valuable.

20.  In the 19th century, two widely differing schools of socialist thought
emerged, the Utopian Socialists and the Marxians. The first
group believed that public ownership of the means of production was
a necessary goal for human happiness. However, they wanted to
reach it gradually and peacefully, using democratic methods to make
changes through the government. They believed in ballots, rather
than bullets. They also felt that owners who had mines, factories or
land taken away by the government should be paid for their property.
People who have these beliefs today are called Socialists. The
second group, led by Marx, also wanted the government to take over
all private property used to produce goods. However, their methods
were to be very different. They thought that violence or revolution
would be necessary because the owners of property would fight to
hold on to it. No payment should be made to these owners who lost
their property. Today, those who believe in these methods are called
Communists.
 Edward Kolevzon, The Afro-Asian world. Allyn & Bacon, 1971.

21.  Three personal computers, the the Armani R850 P4, the Mesh
Elite 1.7 GT Pro and the Elonex WebRider Pro, were compared
with respect to the following factors: price: screen size and
amount of RAM. The Elonex WebRider, which costs £1,174, is
by far the cheapest of the three, the Armani and the Mesh Elite
costing £2,467 and £1,938 respectively. The Mesh Elite has the
same screen size as the Armani,19", whereas the Elonex is the
smallest at 17". Regarding the amount of RAM, the Armani and
the Mesh Elite are similar, with 256 MB, being twice as much as
the Elonex.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
OF DATA

24. A synthesis is a combination, usually a
shortened version, of several texts made into
one. It contains the important points in the text
and is written in your own words.

25. To make a synthesis you need to find suitable
sources, and then to select the relevant parts
in those sources. You will then use your
paraphrase and summary skills to write the
information in your own words. The
information from all the sources has to fit
together into one continuous text. When you
synthesise work from different people, you
must acknowledge it.

26. 1. The following stages may be useful:
2. Find texts that are suitable for your assignment.
3. Read and understand the texts.
4. Find the relevant ideas in the texts. Mark them in some way - write them
down, take notes, underline them or highlight them.
5. Make sure you identify the meaning relationships between the
words/ideas - use colours or numbers.
6. Read what you have marked very carefully.
7. Organise the information you have. You could give all similar ideas in
different texts the same number or letter or colour.
8. Transfer all the information on to one piece of paper. Write down all similar
information together.
9. Paraphrase and summarise as necessary.
10. Check your notes with your original texts for accuracy and relevance.
11. Combine your notes into one continuous text.
12. Check your work.
• Make sure your purpose is clear
• Make sure the language is correct
• Make sure the style is your own
• Remember to acknowledge other people's work

27.  What positions do the sources take on the issue?
 What key terms do the sources identify and define?
 What background information do the sources provide?
 How do the sources address their audiences?
 How do the sources agree?
 How do the sources disagree?
 What evidence do the sources use to support their
assertions?
 How do the sources address opposing points of view?
 How do the sources organize their main ideas?

28. Generalizing is making general claims from specific
examples. These general claims need to be supported with
evidence.
A common organizational principle in academic writing is
the general-specific pattern. This patterns involves a
general statement supported by specific examples or
details.

29. It believed that the USA wanted a round-
the-world air route with access
to all countries including the Soviet Union,
China, the Middle East, and Africa, as well
as the British Commonwealth and Empire.
Overweight people always overeat.
The customer is always right.

30. 1. There are no cars in the school parking
lot.
2. All of the school doors are locked.
3. There are no lights on in the school.

31. 1. Changes in technology affect the kinds of
jobs available to workers.
2. In industry, automation has decreased the
need for unskilled workers.
3. Improvements in farming technology have
made it possible to grow more food using
fewer workers.

33. 1. When more than 5,000 U.S. banks failed in
the early 1930s, many people lost their life
savings.
2. During the Great Depression, many people
waited in breadlines for bowls of soup and
pieces of bread.
3. By 1932 about 12 million Americans were
unemployed.

34. It is important when you are writing critically
to show how sure you are about something.
In other words, you need to show the degree
of certainty.

35.  The other way in which the economic aspects of
military expenditure were presented was in the form of
the public expenditure costs. However, this
was definitely secondary to the manpower approach.

It is not known, and will probably never be known,
when he began writing poetry. The answer almost
certainly lay in the sack of papers that Susan Owen,
on her son's strict instructions, burnt at his death.

36. There are three main ways in which you can
support your generalizations. You can
support your claims with:
1. Examples
2. details
3. evidence.

37.  Morgan was not interested in the terms for
themselves but in the principles which they
seemed to reveal when they were put together.
For example, he would have been interested in
the fact that the English word "uncle" can be
used in speaking both of one's mother's brother
and one's father's brother while in Swedish, for
instance, two different words are used.

38.  Many international students studying at British institutions of further or higher
education experience problems. Some of these problems will be general to
all students, but many will be particular to those students who are non-native
speakers of English.
Several languages have however been quite remarkable in terms of their
significance and use over time. Greek had a key role in parts of Eurasia and
North Africa from the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC) to the fall of
Constantinople (1453): almost 1,800 years (and it continues as a primary
language of the European Union). Latin was a key language of government,
religion, and scholarship from the defeat of Carthage (202 BC) to 1687,
when Newton published his first major work, the Principia, in Latin, and
1704, when he published his second major work, Opticks, in English: almost
2,000 years.
(Tom McArthur, The Oxford guide to world English. Oxford University Press,
2002)

39. While supporting a generalization you can
give evidence from:
1. Your Knowledge
2. Research and Literature
3. statistical data in any form (Graphs,
Figures, Tables)

40. The English language ceased to be the
sole possession of the English some time
ago. Indeed, when even the largest
English-speaking country, the USA, turns
out to have only 20 per cent of the world's
English speakers, it is clear that no one
can now claim sole ownership.

41. The intensity of physiotherapy provision
may affect some patient outcomes
including reduced mortality following a
stroke (Jones, 1997; Smith, 2006) .

42. Figure 1 shows sales of mobile phones per month. As
can be seen, sales of mobile phones increased steadily
from 1998 to 2001.

43. There are thought to be around
6000 distinct languages in the
world. The world's largest
language is Chinese - it has more
native speakers than any other -
followed by English, Hindi/Urdu,
Spanish and Arabic, as parts of
Figure 10.1 and Table 10.1 show.
The most popular foreign language
is English (Montgomery, 2004),
which is spoken in many European
Union states as Figure 10.2 shows.
Identify the claims made in the text below.
Notice how these claims are supported.

44. 1. There are around 6000 distinct languages in
the world.
2. The world's largest language is Chinese
followed by English, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish
and Arabic.
3. The most popular foreign language is
English.
4. Many European Union states speak English.

45. Claim Support
There are around 6000 distinct languages
in the world.
No support
The world's largest language is Chinese
followed by English, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish
and Arabic
Parts of Figure
10.1 and Table
10.1.
The most popular foreign language is
English
Montgomery,
2004
Many European Union states speak
English
Figure 10.2

46. In higher education, you need to be able to write
critically. As well as giving the facts, you need to be
able to make use of these facts to come to general
conclusions. These conclusions need to be justified
and supported by evidence. You also need to be
aware of other points of view that exist and this must
be dealt with.

47. When you are writing critically, it is important
to explain why something is the case. You
need to give reasons and explanations for
any claims you make.

48. Thesis statement: People should use public transportation.
Using public transportation is good for many reasons. First of all, cars
waste time. Many people who drive cars spend time looking for parking
and they get stuck in traffic jams. Also, cars waste space. They need
many roads and parking lots. More importantly, public transportation is
safe because every year thousands of people die in car accidents.
Especially, our country has more accidents than any other
country. Most of all, public transportation is cheap. For example, cars
need gas, repairs, and tolls. And it costs a lot to buy a car. As well,
public transportation is environmentally friendly. Cars, on the other
hand produce smog and acid rain. It isn't good for our health either. And
many trees are cut down to make roads and parking lots. In conclusion,
we should use public transportation instead of cars.

49.  "Cause and effect means that you start with a
subject (an event, person, or object) and then
show the causes (reasons) for it, and/or the effects
(results) of it. "Cause" means the reasons why or
for something, or the source of something.
"Effects" simply are results or outcomes.
 Cause-and-effect writing shows a chain of
connected events, each the logical result of the
one before it. A simple cause-and-effect paper
discusses the chain of events related to a person,
event, or object, showing what are the causes and
what are the results.

50. There are several factors to be taken into account when studying why
some plants become weak or die. One reason is lack of water. Dryness in
the soil causes the leaves to wilt, and may give rise to the death of the
plant. On the other hand, too much water may result in the leaves
drooping, or becoming yellow. While sunshine is necessary for plants, if it
is too strong, the soil may be baked and the roots killed. However, if there
is no light, the leaves will become pale and the stems thin. Consequently
the plant may die.

51. After evidence or data has been produced and
described or arguments made, it is necessary to
come to a conclusion. This should follow logically
from what it follows and should be clearly signaled.
It is particularly important to have a good
conclusion in the conclusion section of your writing
but you need to come to intermediate conclusions
throughout your writing.

52.  During the past 10 years, the use of computers in education
has increased dramatically and a wide range of educational
computer programs are now widely available for individual and
classroom use. 2However, there has been very little research
reported on the effectiveness of such use. 3The purpose of the
present study was therefore to ascertain the effectiveness of
using computer-assisted instruction as compared to traditional
classroom instruction in an EAP writing class. 4The findings
clearly suggest that the inclusion of web-based materials in
EAP writing courses for post-graduate students from East-Asia
on an English language preparation course is
effective. 5Further research is needed, however, before the
use of such materials can be recommended for all students in
all subject areas at all levels.

53.  In conclusion, therefore, it can be seen that millions of people
continue to be affected by water-related problems and,
contrary to popular belief, future water supplies are not
inexhaustible. So the situation is very serious, especially in
view of the UN estimates of demand. Although projects to
provide ever-increasing supplies of water indicate that a
growing number of countries are aware of the present
problems and of those to come, these more often than not are
highly expensive and not very practical - and very time-
consuming when time is a commodity in short supply. So,
while research in these areas is important, the eventual
solution would definitely appear to be worldwide conservation
and pollution control - in other words, a greater respect for our
most valuable natural resource.

54. 1. Echoing the introduction
2. Challenging the reader
3. Looking to the future
4. Posing question

55. Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-
circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof
that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
Example
Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing
stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher.
From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventure land. As I entered the gate,
Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small
town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have
been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.
Conclusion
I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing
time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I
could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best
they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that
would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in
a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk.
But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.

56. By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are
helping them to redirect the information in the paper,
and they may apply it to their own lives.
Example
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic
responsibility but also an interesting experience,
many people still view jury duty as a chore that
interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily
lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt
to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty
challenges us to be interested and responsible
citizens.

57. Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of
your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It
may help them apply the new information to their lives or
see things more globally.
Example
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more
than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers
continue to attract the best and the brightest students,
there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the
teachers available may not have the best qualifications.
Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future
suffers.

58. Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help
your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they
may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also
bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.
Example
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the
candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead,
most tell us what a knave the opposing candidate is, or they
present general images of the candidate as a family person or
God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to
creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political
leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?

60. In short,
In a word,
In brief,
To sum up,
To conclude,
To summarize
In conclusion,
On the whole,
Altogether,
In all,

61. http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/crit.h
tm
http://www.tc.umn.edu/~jewel001/College
Writing/START/Modes.htm#Description