1) Classroom observation is a common technique for collecting data in classroom research that allows researchers to study behaviors and events in the second language classroom setting. 2) When conducting classroom observations, researchers must consider issues like the observer effect, maintaining objectivity, obtaining permission, and developing coding schemes or adapting existing schemes. 3) Action research, which is more oriented toward teacher and learner development, is another type of classroom-based research that teachers can undertake to identify and address problems through intervention and evaluation.

1. Second Language Research
Methodology and design
Mackey &Gass .2005
Isabel Matos

2. 7.1 Classroom Reseach Context
Laboratory Classroom
SL
Control Studies must be
Learners carried out in
different context
– a range of
different
Abstract approaches must
- control be used
Setting

3. 7.2 Common techniques for data
collection in classroom research
 Classroom Observation
Allows the study of a
behavior at close range
Useful mean for gathering
information
Events in the SL and FL
classroom can be studied

4. Conducting Classroom observation
Obstrusive Observers
• The presence of the observer may be problematic for the
instructor andstudents
The Hawthorne Effect
• When the observer is present, the productivity of the observed
improves
Objectivity and Subjectivity
• It is necessary to aimto be objective and to recognize the
subjective elements in the research

5. Permission to Observe
• This is a professional courtesy and it would lessen
the impact of the observation on the lesson
Debriefing the instructor
• Debrief the instructor about the research findings
or the content of the observation.
Expressing appreciation
• It is always important to foster a good relation
between instructors and future researchers

6. Observation Procedures and
Coding Schemes
Consider the goals of the rearch and the observation
Prevent duplication of effort by adapting existing
codes or schemes
Existing schemes vary in complexity and organization
A number of chemes has already been developed:
 Allen, Fröhlich, & Spada (1984)
 Fanselow (1977)
 Nunan (1989)
 Ullman & Geva (1983)

7. Description of observation Schemes
 Description of Observation Schemes
 In most observation schemes the observer marks the
frequency of an event, e.g
questions, drills, explanation of grammar points; other
schemes have low-inference and High inference
categories.
 High inference categories require judgement, such as
in relation to the function or meaning of the observed
event.

8. Classroom Observation Tally Sheet From Nunan (1989)
Tallies Total
1. Teacher ask a display question / //
2. Teacher ask referential question / // /
3. Teacher explains a grammatical poiny
4. Teacher explains a meaningful vocabulary item
5. Teacher explains functional point
6. Teacher explains point related to the content of the lesson /
7. Teacher gives instructions/directions / ////
8. Teacher praises /
9. Teacher criticises
10. Learner ask a question / //
11. Learner answer a question / ///
12. Learner talks to another learner
13. Period of silence or confusion

9. The TALOS observation Scheme
 Low inference
Drill
Explain
Use L1 / L2 (teacher)
To whom (peer/teacher)
Use L1/L2 (student)
 High inference
X low low fair high X high
Clarity (teacher)
Comprehension (student)
Depth (program)
Listening/speaking/reading skills

10. Using or Modifying Existing
Observation Schemes
 Relative ease of use compared with nonsystematic
classroom description.
 Comparability with other studies
 Simplified analysis of data
 Possibility of measuring change over different time
periods
 More realiable focus on facets related to the research
problem
 Different classroom contexts can be compared

11. Caveats to using or Modifying
Existing Observation Schemes
 Determine if the scheme is appropiate for the research
goals.
 To be valid the finding must be the result of appropiate
and applicable schemes
 With most coding schemes only one rater observes the
data.
 Predetermined categories limit and restrict the
observer’s perceptions, important patterns could be
missed.

12. Introspective Methods
 Uptake sheets: reports of “whatever it is learners get
from all the language learning opportunities”
(Allwright, 1987)
 Stimulated recall: the observer makes an audio or
video recording and plays it to the participant,
stopping to ask what they think in a particular point.
 Diary research: first person account of a language
learning or teaching experience.

13. Practical considerations in
classroom Research
Recording • Microphone
the lesson
• Cameras
Logistical Whose • Kind of
voices
Issues microphone
Amount • Equipment
of
intrusion • Operators

14. Informer
consent
Instructional Debriefing
setting Participants
Problematics
Data
Confidentiality
segmentation

15. Purposes and types of Research
Conducted in Classroom Setting
Traditional classroom-based research
Descriptive Experimental
Action Research
Amode of inquiry undertaken by teachers that
is more oriented to instructor and learner
development than to theory building

16. Action Research in Practice
1. Identify the problem.
2. Preliminary investigation.
Much action
3. Create database (other sources). research is not
intended to be
4. Form hypothesis. generalized. It is
5. Devise intervention. situated, or
context
6. Evaluate the effect of it. dependent.
Not all action researchers agree on a
process for doing action research.

17. Concerns in action research
 Many types of action research do not use control
groups.
 It is often easy to lose sight of concerns with validity or
reliability.
 Potential conflicts that arise when the intuitions of
teachers run counter to empirical findings about SL
learning.
“If action research is intended to
“Essentially, it may not always be
inform a wide research community,
appropiate to hold action
it will need to meet the basic
research to the same standards as
standards for publication and
more established research”
presentation”

18. Conclusions
 “Second language learning theory is unlikely to be fully
developed without some understanding of how
languages are learned in the classroom and,
consequently, how they may be ore effectively taught”.
 “SL classroom research allows researchers and teachers
to better understand the multitude of factors involved
in instruction and learning in different context”.

19. Thank you