Spring Chapters 10, 11, 12

1. Chapter 10
Scientific School Management:
Testing, Immigrants, & Experts

2. Scientifically Managed Schools:
Meritocracy & Reducing Public Control
Meritocracy is based on the idea that each individual’s social and
occupational position is determined by individual merit, not political or
economic influence.
• For Schools: Objective selection and preparation of students for place in
society.
• School should be kept out of politics and managed by trained experts.
• Democratic elitism (control of schools by civic elites exercising politics
over local public policy without holding offices in government) used to
create small boards.
• Proper relationship between the school board and school
administration.

3. • Reduced size of school boards and decline in public control of schools.
• Increase in administrative power.
• Growth in size of school districts (urban districts in particular) required more
administration/coordination.
• Administrator power, status, and income increased.
• Developed ideas like keeping schools out of politics, maintaining lines
between school board function vs. school administration.
• Adopted principles of scientific management to bring their status to that
of the business community.
• Raymond E. Callahan’s Education and the Cult of Efficiency discussed
the school administrator as a businessperson mentality due to public
pressure and rewards based on status.
Professional Education Administration

4. Measurement, Democracy, and the
Superiority of Anglo-Americans
• WorldWar I and the modernAmerican army helped develop science of
measurement.
• The army was considered the ideal form of modern social organization as
it embodied proper classification of labor power.
• Intelligence tests created by psychologists for the army became models
for public school tests.
• These intelligence tests seemed to confirm racial superiority of the
English and Germans and seemed to confirm Native Americans and
African Americans as inferior races.
• Anglo-Americans used intelligence test results to protest immigration of
non-white people as well as Southern and Eastern Europeans.

5. Closing the Door to Immigrants: The 1924
Immigration Act
• The 1924 Immigration Act imposed immigration quotas based on
nationalities and dominated immigration policy into the 1960s.
• Based on this Act, the total number of yearly immigrants was
limited.
• Percentages of particular nationalities allowed each year were
determined by the percentage of any foreign-born nationals in the
U.S. according to the 1910 census.
• Most Americanization programs in public schools ended and policy
moved away from concerns of teaching non-English-speaking
students and immigration education issues wouldn’t return until
the 1960s.

6. “Backward” Children and Special
Classrooms
• With the increase in school attendance by children, there was an
increase in children labeled “backward.”
• Many schools created special classes for children classified as deaf,
blind, etc., but emphasized classification and segregation of children
with learning and physical disabilities.
• A broader range of labels were introduced in the 1920s.
• However, handicapped students remained excluded from regular
classes until the 1970s.

7. Overall, do you believe there has been a
marked increase in support for students with
disabilities as well as immigrant students and
do you feel more control should be given to
teachers to make decisions that are best for
their students versus administrators/school
boards having more say and control?

8. Chapter 11
The Politics of Knowledge:
Teachers’ Unions, the American
Legion, and the AmericanWay

9. Teachers vs. Administrators: The
American Federation of Teachers
• Throughout the 19th century, low salaries and lack of retirement
funds was an ongoing problem.
• Scientific management led to powerlessness amongst teachers.
• The ChicagoTeachers Foundation (CFT) and the teachers’
associations in NewYorkCity resisted scientific management.
• Most teachers’ associations were politically conservative in the early
20th century.
• The American Federation ofTeachers (AFT) was formed in 1916 and
expanded from Gary, Indiana to NewYork, Pennsylvania, and
Washington D.C.

10. The Political Changes of the Depression
Years
• The Depression of the 1930s caused alliances between the local
school administrators, boards, and elites to split.
• School administrators and boards wanted to maintain education
programs.
• Leading educators advocated the use of schools o bring
transformation in society, which made it seem that radicals had
taken over schools.
• The federal government introduced programs to solve the problem
of youth unemployment.

11. Politics of Ideological Management: The
American Legion
• The American Legion was organized in 1919 and played a major role in
attempting to purge what was considered the Communist menace.
• The commission stated, “The establishment of a National Americanism
Commission of the American Legion [is] to realize in the United States the
basic ideal of the Legion of 100% Americanism through the planning,
establishment, and conduct of a continuous, constructive educational
system”:
• Combat all anti-American tendencies, activities, and propaganda.
• Work for the education of immigrants, prospective American citizens, and alien
residents in the principles of Americanism.
• Inculcate the ideals of Americanism in the citizen population, particularly the
basic American principle that the interest of all people are above those of any
special interest or any so-called class or section of people.
• Spread throughout the people of the nation information as to the real nature
and principles of American government.
• Foster the teaching of Americanism in all schools.

12. Selling the “American Way” in Schools &
On Billboards
• The “AmericanWay” PR campaign was launched in 1936 to counter the
growth of radical and antibusiness attitudes.
• Particular economic ideas were to be placed into school curricula
spearheaded by the National Association of Manufacturer’s (NAM).
• NAM began putting billboards in every U.S. community over 2,500 declaring
and encouraging the “AmericanWay.”
• Printed materials with pro-business ideas were put in school libraries and
classrooms.
• Some educators told students that propaganda was acceptable in a
democratic society as it encouraged freedom of debate.

13. Do you believe the ideas of business and the
“American Way” played a role in encouraging
modern consumerism and global economy in
education?

14. Chapter 12
Schools, Media, and Pop
Culture: Influencing the Minds
of Children andTeenagers

15. Censorship of Movies as a Form of Public
Education
• In 1922, President of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors
of America (MPPDA), Will Hays, spoke at an NEA meeting, in order ot
help in “establishing and maintaining the highest possible moral and
artistic standards in motion picture production, and developing the
educational as well as entertainment value and the general
usefulness of the motion picture.”
• In the 1930s, the MPPDA enforced a self-regulatory code that shaped
the moral, social, and political content of American films.This was
done to attract more middle-class families to the movies.

16. Educators & the Movies
• Educators considered film a competition for control of children’s
minds, but understood that using movies were good for instruction.
• Eventually both created a relationship that met the educator and film
industry’s needs. Movie appreciation was introduced in high schools.
• The 1930 movie code stressed the importance of the social role of
entertainment and art while teaching audiences moral, political, and
social lessons through film.

17. Should Commercial Radio or Educators
Determine National Culture?
• In 1930, the National Committee on Education by Radio was formed
as educators wanted radio to teach children moral lessons and help
to educate them.
• Jerome Davis, a faculty member ofYale Divinity School and member
of the American Sociological Society, demanded that commercial
radio be required to allocate 20% of its programming to educational
programs.
• Major networks such as CBS and NBC responded with codes to deal
with complaints against American broadcasting.4

18. Educating Children As Consumers & the
Creation of Teenage Markets
• Educators and parents feared that commercial media was targeting children
to become consumers.
• Advertising began to be spent on advertising towards children.
• The message became “civic consumerism” which combined an individual’s
“democratic role as active citizen with one’s duty as a responsible and active
consumer.”
• Early ad campaigns did not use Black, Native American, or Mexican
American youth in their advertising.
• Advertising began to target teens with issues they cared about and the
need for their products.

19. Do you believe that educators were against
consumerism and commercial media or more
concerned that it would take over their role
as educators?

20. The End