The document provides an overview of brain and nervous system topics including: - Gall introduced phrenology and Broca discovered specific brain areas for behaviors - Neurons are the basic unit that communicate via dendrites, axons, and synapses - The nervous system includes the central and peripheral nervous systems, with the somatic and autonomic nervous systems - The brain is divided into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain, with the cerebral cortex responsible for higher functions - The endocrine system regulates hormones, including from the pituitary gland - Genetics determines traits through genes on chromosomes

1. Chapter Two

2. Brain-Behavior Relations Gall introduced phrenology Flouren brain operates as a whole Broca specific part of brain for specific behaviors

3. The Rise of Experimentation Darwin fathered theory of evolution humans can learn about their own behavior(s) by studying different species behavior(s) Watson behaviorism word “mind” should be purged from vocabulary

4. Building Blocks Neurons aka: “nerve cell” basic operating unit of the Nervous System produces energy function = communcation protoplasmic fibers extending from cell body are dendrites & axons biological battery Dendrites “ antannae” of the neuron receives info from other cells “ listens” to other cells Axons forms the “communication line” of the neuron “ talks” to other cells not always , sometimes dendrites talk & axons listen

5. Building Blocks Myelin covers axons aka: myelin sheath gives axons a white appearance does not cover dendrites prevents signals carried by adjacent neurons from interfering with one another Synapses a gap that one can see with an electron microscope means, “to fasten together” found between the axon of one neuron & the dendrites, or a cell body & axon of another how neurons “speak” chemical transmission enables a neuron to receive input

6. How Neurons Communicate The Neural Impulse Resting Potential “ resting” neuron is like a firecracker or a loaded gun--> it is ready to fire when properly triggered neuron “works” at maintaining resting potential Graded Potential need stimulation does not have to exceed threshold full response not an “all-or-none” response

7. How Neurons Communicate Action Potential need stimulation of greater magnitude than graded “ all-or-none” response --> it occurs at full strength, or it does not occur at all must exceed threshold like a fuse burning (going down length of axon)

8. How Neurons Communicate Synaptic Transmission transmission occurs chemically neurotransmitters for each neurotransmitter there is a specific receptor at awaiting neuron like a key fits in a lock neurotransmitter not released exclusively into synapse, can be released into body fluids & carried to many cells Two Effects: Excitatory Excites neurons, making it more likely to “fire” or reach actions potential Inhibitory Makes neurons less likely to “fire”

9. Drugs and Synaptic Transmission Agonistic Effects Drug increases neurotransmitters Drug increases release of neurotransmitters Drug activates more receptors on other “side” Antagonistic Effects Drug interferes with release of neurotransmitters Drug occupies receptor sites Drug causes neurotransmitters to leak from synaptic vessles

10. The Nervous System Central NS Brain Spinal cord 2 functions: 1. Carries sensory info to & from the brain 2. Reflexes Peripheral NS Spinal nerves – serves all of body below neck Cranial nerves – extend from brain 2 Major Parts: 1. Somatic NS -composed of afferent neurons > carry info to the brain

11. The Nervous System 1. Somatic NS -all senses originate from this area (sight, taste, touch, smell, sound) 2. Autonomic NS -carries messages between CNS and all internal organs of the body -necessary for breathing, blood flow and emotion a. Sympathetic NS -prepares body for using energy -busiest when you are frightened or angry b. Parasympathetic NS -have opposite effect of Sympathetic NS -conserves body energy -allows body to rest after stress

12. Studying the NS Observe the effects of damage to a brain -Phineas Gage Electrical recording -EEG -part of brain involved in activity should be active -used in research with alzheimer’s Brain Images -Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) -Positron Emission Tomography (PET) -Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)

13. The Brain Brain size & intelligence -humans born with tiny brains & abnormally small heads are severely developmentally delayed -NO evidence of a correlation between brain size and intelligence with individuals who have heads within normal size range 3 Distinct Parts Hindbrain / Brain Stem -connects spinal cord & brain -regulates bodily functions -earliest part of brain to evolve

14. The Brain a. Medulla -nearest to spinal cord -controls breathing, heart rate, & blood pressure b. Pons -above medulla -connects top of brain to cerebellum c. Cerebellum -regulates motor activities 2. Midbrain -information-processing center -vision, hearing, pain perception

15. The Brain 3. Forebrain -motivation & emotion a. Hypothalamus -regulates the ANS -sweating, crying, salivation -maintains body’s internal environment -regulates eating & drinking b. Thalamus -above the hypothalamus -2 football-shaped parts -”relay” station > receives input & transmits info c. Limbic System -emotions -fighting, sex, feeding, memory

16. The Brain Cerebral Cortex -thin, outer covering of brain -responsible for remembering, planning, reasoning -brownish-gray in color -aka: gray matter Four Lobes: 1. Frontal Lobe -nearest face -damage = loss of fine motor control, especially the fingers 2. Parietal Lobe -information gathered from skin senses -damage = depens on left or right hemisphere

17. The Brain - left hemisphere = lose ability to read or write & knowing where parts of body are located - right hemisphere = seem unaware of left side of body 3. Occipital Lobe - located near back of head -”visual” -damage = “hole” in person’s field of vision; depends on which side of hemisphere is affected 4. Temporal Lobe -located along side of each hemisphere (near ear) -damage = left hemisphere = ability to understand the spoken word -right hemisphere = can recognize speech, but lose ability to recognize other sounds

18. The Endocrine System Endocrine Glands Secrete hormones Hormones Chemical substances Responsible for metabolism, growth, bodily changes during pregnancy Neurohormones –interact with and affect the NS; released slowly into circulatory system, not synapses (exert effect more slowly & for longer period of time) Pituitary Glands Endocrine gland that produces largest number of different hormones Has widest range of effects on body Connected to hypothalamus 2 parts : Posterior Pituitary Anterior Pituitary

19. Genetics Heredity Biologically determined characteristics Genes Chains of chemicals found in the nuclei of cells Function = pass traits from generation to the next Determines one trait Chromosomes Contains chemical DNA Composed of genes (1000s) Determines thousands of traits Mitosis Cell division Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome Mutation that produces an enzyme deficiency Individuals engage in self-mutilating behavior(s) & aggressive, violent behavior(s) toward others Phenylketonuria Enzymatic deficiency that produces a form of mental retardation Lacks ability to break down phenylalanine Treatment = regulation of diet