This chapter discusses the relationship between grammar and discourse analysis. It covers topics like grammatical cohesion, reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction, theme and rheme, tense and aspect. Grammatical elements like pronouns, verbs and conjunctions are examined in terms of how they contribute to coherence and structure in written and spoken texts. The chapter aims to demonstrate how discourse analysis can provide insights into how local grammatical choices influence the organization of discourse as a whole.

1. Discourse Analysis and
Grammar
Chapter
Two

2. Table of
Contents!
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Theme and
Rheme
2.2 Grammatical Cohesion
and Textuality
2.4 Tense and
Aspects
2.5 Conclusion

3. In this chapter we shall
start on familiar ground. Much
of the discussion will use terms
that are common in language
teaching: clause, pronoun,
adverbial, conjunction, and so
on, we shall be using them in
familiar set of terms: theme,
rheme, reference, anaphoric and
so on, in order to make the link
between grammar and discourse.
2.1
Introduction

4. 2.2 Grammatical Cohesion and
Textuality
Spoken and written discourses display grammatical
connexions between individual clauses and
utterances.
These grammatical links can be classified under
three broad types:
- Reference
- Ellipsis/Substitution
- Conjunction

5. 2.2.1
Reference
Anaphoric (looking backward)
It means, looking back in texts to find the
referent of, for example, a pronoun, have
long been common in first and second
language teaching and testing.
Exophoric (looking outward)
Outward, or exophoric reference often
directs us to the immediate context, as when
someone says 'leave it on the table please'
about a parcel you have for them.
Cataphoric (looking forward)
It is the reverse of anaphoric reference and
is relatively straightforward, but language
learners may leck awareness or confidentce
to put it into use in constructing text, and
may need to have the feature explicitly
taught or exercised.
Reference items in English
include pronouns (e.g. he, she, it, him,
they, etc.), demonstratives (this, that,
these, those) and the article the, and
items like such as.
In discourse analysis there are
references in sentences. That could be
anaphoric reference, exophoric reference,
and cataphoric reference.

6. 2.2.2 Ellipsis and Subtitusion
Ellipsis
Elipsis is the omission of elements normally required by the
grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and
therefore need not be raised.
English has broadly three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal, and
causal.
o Nominal ellipsis often involves omission of a noun headword.
o Ellipsis within the verbal group may cause greater problems. Two very
common types of verbal-group ellipsis are echoing and auxiliary
contrasting (Thomas;1987).
o Clausal ellipsis in English, individual clause elements may be omitted;
especially common are subject-pronoun omission(‘doesn’t matter’,
‘hope so’, ‘sorry, can help you’, etc).

7. Substitusion
Substitusion is similar to ellipsis, in English, it operates
either at nominal, verbal or clausal level.
The items commonly used for substitution in English are:
o One(s): I offered him a seat. He said he didn’t want one.
o Do: Did Mary takr that letter? She might havr done.
o So/not: Do you need a lift? If so, wait for me, if not, I’ll see you
there.
o Same: She chose the roast duck; I chose the same.
Ellipsis and substitution assume a lot from the context; they
proceed on the basis that omitted and substituted elements are easily
recoverable, and are therefore natural in speech situations where a high
degree of contextual support is available.

8. 2.2.3 Conjunction
A conjunction does not set off
a research backward or forward for its
referent, but it does presuppose a textual
sequence, and signal a relationship
between segments of the discourse.
Hallidays (1985: 302-9) offers a scheme
for the classification of conjunctive
relations and includes phrasal types as
well as signal-word everyday items such as
and, but, or, etc.
Type Sub-type Examples
Elaboora-
tion
- Apposition
- Clarifica-
tion
- In other
words
- Or rather
Extension
- Addition
- Variation
- and/but
- alternatively
Enhance-
ment
- spatio-
temporal
- Clausal-
conditional
- there/pre-
viously
- Consequent-
ly/in that
case
A simplified list base on
Halliday’s three category headings of
elaboration, extension, and enhancement:

9. Concentrating on the themes (or topics) of clauses doesn not
tell us much about the rest of the clause, which may called the rheme or
comment of the clause. In fact, when we look at themes and rhemes
together in connected text, we see further patterns emerging.
The notion of theme and how it is realised in English is an
area where grammatical structure and discourse function seem most
closely allied, and, if discourse analysis is to have an influence on
how language is taught, then ways of presenting variations un clause
structure in relation to functions may be a good place to start.
2.3 Theme and Rheme

10. 2.4 Tense and
Aspect
Tense Aspect
Related to how
an action was
completed,
habitual or
continuous
Related to time
Much attention has recently been paid to
the relationship between the choice of
aspects of tension and the boundaries of
discourse as a whole. By examining
natural data, discourse analysts can
observe regular correlations between
discourse types and the predominance of
choice of time and certain aspects in a
clause. In specialist and academic texts
such as scientific articles, correlations
are often seen between discourse segments
and choice of tenses and aspects.

11. 2.5
Conclusion
This chapter has taken a choice of
grammatical concepts and has attempted
to show how discourse analysis has
contributed to our understanding of the
relationship between local choices in
clauses and sentences and the
organization of discourse as a whole.
When speakers and writers produce
discourse, they are at the same time
busy building clauses, monitoring the
development of the larger discourse,
and their choices at the local level
can be seen simultaneously to reflect
discourse concerns.

12. THANK YOU