Chapter 7 the landscape of memory
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This document discusses different ways that knowledge can be represented in the mind, including mentally as images, words, and abstract propositions. Pictures are better for representing concrete concepts that have spatial properties, while words are better for abstract concepts. Knowledge representations can also take the form of declarative facts or procedural memories of how to perform actions. The document also examines theories of how visual mental imagery functions in a way analogous to visual perception, including being subject to scanning and distance effects.
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Chapter 7 the landscape of memory
- 1. Mental Images, Maps, and Propositions CHAPTER 7
- 2. this chapter discusses how we represent knowledge in our minds—in words as well as in images. ◦ mental representation- something that stands of what you know about a certain thing. ◦ knowledge representation- the form for what you know in your mind about things, ideas, events, and so on, in the outside world. Jeanne Almerino 2
- 3. Knowledge structures: ◦ Declarative knowledge- stated facts such as the name of the person you hate, the date you got dumped, or the way an ogre looks. ◦ Procedural knowledge- “procedure” memory of processes, or how the action is done. Jeanne Almerino 3
- 4. Knowledge can be represented in different ways in your mind: as pictures, words, or abstract proponents. (External Representations) “Some ideas are better and more easily represented in pictures, whereas others are better represented in words.” Jeanne Almerino 4
- 5. For example, are the following questions better represented by pictures or words? ◦ What is the shape of an EGG? ◦ When is HONESTY applied? ◦ What is love? ◦ What is cognitive psychology? ◦ What is UGLY? ◦ concrete objects seem easier to represent in pictures and abstract concepts in words. Jeanne Almerino 5
- 6. symbolic representation- the relationship between the word and what it represents is arbitrary. ◦ Ex. Fart in English (gaseous, smelly substance) and Fart in Danish (speed)*. ◦ Ex. The word Cat- may mean the animal cat But when letter “C” is taken, it becomes “at” and no longer represents an animal. That is why systems or rules are required in forming symbolic representations... Source: *http://inktank.fi/10-english-words-mean-something-else- languages/ Jeanne Almerino 6
- 7. Jeanne Almerino 7 To summarize, pictures capture concrete and spatial information in manner similar to what they represent. Words capture abstract and categorical information in a manner that is symbolic of whatever the words represent. Representations in words usually convey information sequentially. Since they are arbitrary, careful sequence formation is required. Example: Look at the cat above and describe it. Your description may represent spatial or concrete information, i.e., the cat is sitting, the cat is black, the cat is ugly...etc. (PICTURE) The dictionary defines cat as “a carnivorous mammal (Felis catus) long domesticated as a pet and for catching rats and mice” (WORDS)
- 8. Imagery is the mental representation of things that are not currently seen or sensed by the sense organs. Recall your freshmen year in college. What was it like? -You recall the blazing sun, the color of grass. But you can’t feel nor smell it. Mental imagery even can represent things that you have never experienced. Imagine you are a dragon. Jeanne Almerino 8
- 9. Imagery is not only subject to visuals but may involve mental representations in any of the sensory modalities, such as hearing, smell, or taste. Imagine the sound of thunder. Imagine the smell of poop. Imagine the taste of cucumber. however, most research on imagery in cognitive psychology has focused on visual imagery. Most of us are more conscious of visual imagery than of other forms of imagery. Jeanne Almerino 9
- 10. In Sternberg’s book, he cited Kosslyn & Rabin, (1999) and Kosslyn, Thompson & Ganis, (2006) and said that we use visual images to solve problems and to answer questions involving objects. What is the colour of the rainbow? How do you arrive at Ayala? How many beads are there in the rosary? Didn’t you just visualize the objects in question? In doing so, you had mentally represented the images. Jeanne Almerino 10
- 11. There are many applications of imagery in various fields. One is guided-imagery technique that helps control phobia, stress, and actually feeling better! Architects, engineers also use imagery in successfully making buildings. Jeanne Almerino 11
- 12. The dual-code theory, states that we use both pictorial and verbal codes for representing information (Paivio, 1969, 1971) in our minds. These two codes organize information into knowledge that can be performed, stored, and later retrieved for later use. Jeanne Almerino 12
- 13. Mental images are analog codes. Analog codes resemble the objects they are representing. In contrast, our mental representations for words chiefly are represented in a symbolic code. A symbolic code is a form of knowledge representation that has been chosen arbitrarily to stand for something that does not perceptually resemble what is being represented. Jeanne Almerino 13
- 14. Paivio, consistent with his dual-code theory, noted that verbal information seems to be processed differently than pictorial information. Jeanne Almerino 14
- 15. Paivio also postulates two different types of representational units: ◦ "imagens" for mental images ◦ "logogens" for verbal entities which he describes as being similar to "chunks" as described by Miller. Logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies while imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships. Jeanne Almerino 15
- 16. Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing: ◦ (1) representational- the direct activation of verbal or non-verbal representations ◦ (2) referential- the activation of the verbal system by the nonverbal system or vice-versa ◦ (3) associative processing- the activation of representations within the same verbal or nonverbal system. A given task may require any or all of the three kinds of processing. Jeanne Almerino 16
- 17. Propositional story: ◦ Do not store in form of images ◦ Instead have a "generic" code that is called "propositional“ ◦ Stores the meaning of the concept ◦ Create a verbal or visual code by transforming the propositional code You know who I'm talking about, the tall, redheaded guy, the one with the burn scar on his left arm. Do you know who I mean? Why do convenience stores have 4, 5, 6 on their doors? Jeanne Almerino 17
- 19. Participants were shown simple figures with one of two verbal labelsCarmichael, Hogan, & Walters (1932) Results ◦ Later participants were asked to draw items seen ◦ Participants distorted the images to fit the labels ◦ Interpreted as the images may be stored as propositional ◦ information Jeanne Almerino 19
- 21. Propositional Limits (in ambiguous figures) ◦ a) Two manipulations for mental reinterpretation of ambiguous figures i) Mental Realignment--duck's bill or rabbit's ears (duck's back is rabbit's front) ii Mental Reconstrual--duck's bill equals rabbit's ears ◦ b) Hints for reinterpreting ambiguous figures i) Implicit reference-frame hint--show similar images, no instructions ii) Explicit reference-frame hint--give direct verbal hints iii) Attentional hint--look at a part of the image, what does it look like? iv) Construals from "good" parts--look at the "good" parts of image Jeanne Almerino 21
- 22. Functional-equivalence hypothesis ◦ -although visual imagery is not identical to visual perception, it is functionally equivalent to it. Jeanne Almerino 22
- 24. Mental Rotations ◦ Study conducted by Shepard & Metzler (1971) where subjects had to decide whether displays had two similar shapes. Some pairs were similar, but rotated to various degrees Jeanne Almerino 24
- 25. Kosslyn (1975) Examine how participants scan and use images ◦ Some participants imagine an elephant next to a rabbit ◦ Others imagine a rabbit next to a fly ◦ Then answer questions about the rabbit Does the rabbit have whiskers? Does the rabbit have ears? Does the rabbit have a beak? ◦ Reaction time to answer is measured ◦ Judgments faster for rabbits next to smaller creatures (larger visual image) Jeanne Almerino 25
- 26. Kosslyn (1983) Memorize map Later ask to scan image Manipulate distance between items in scan ◦ Hut to grasses ◦ Lake to Hut Measure reaction time Jeanne Almerino 26
- 27. Results ◦ Linear relationship between the distance to scan and actual reaction time of participants ◦ Further support for functional-equivalence hypothesis Mental images are internal representations that operate in a way that is analogous to the functioning of the perception of physical objects The key idea underlying image scanning research is that images can be scanned in much the same way as physical percepts can be scanned. Jeanne Almerino 27
- 28. In representational neglect, a person asked to imagine a scene and then describe it ignores half of the imagined scene. In scenes, representational neglect is present only when a vantage point is given It is likely that there exists complete knowledge of the scene, but that knowledge sometimes is not accessible when the patient generates a mental image. Jeanne Almerino 28
- 29. Johnson-Lairds' Mental Models--(1983) Proposed there are three types of mental representations ◦ Propositional representations which are pieces of information resembling natural language ◦ Mental models which are structural analogies of the world ◦ Mental imagery which are perceptual models from a particular point of view Jeanne Almerino 29
- 30. Characteristics of a Mental Model ◦ A representation of a described situation rather than a representation of a text itself or the propositions conveyed by a text ◦ The structure corresponds to the functional relations among entities as they would exist in the world ◦ A simulation of events in the world, either real or imaginary Kerr (1983) studied participants who were blind ◦ Created a tactile Kosslyn Map study equivalent ◦ Participants had to study the island given a physical map to touch ◦ Asked the same scanning questions ◦ Found the same pattern of results; longer distances, longer reaction times Jeanne Almerino 30
- 31. Other modalities ◦ Think about non-visual imagery sound images smell images touch images Spatial images ◦ Think about waking up in a strange bed. Which way are you pointed? Jeanne Almerino 31
- 32. Cognitive Maps--Tolman and Honzik (1930) Tolman &endash; Rats von Frisch &endash; Bees Thorndyke &endash; Humans Creating Cognitive Maps ◦ Gain increased spatial knowledge ◦ Using three types of knowledge Landmark (special buildings) Route-road (procedures to get to one place from another) Survey (global map-like view) Jeanne Almerino 32
- 33. Heuristics Affecting Cognitive Maps ◦ Density Heuristic More landmarks between two points, the greater the distance we estimate ◦ Right angle bias Streets are drawn at 90-degree angles (even when they are not) ◦ Symmetry heuristic Irregular geographic boundaries are made regular (e.g., Americans straighten out the Canadian border) Jeanne Almerino 33
- 34. ◦ Rotation heuristic Tend to 'regularize' tilted landmarks in maps to appropriate E-W or N-S axis ◦ Alignment heuristic Students view two maps of the Americas One a correct map, and a second map which was altered (South America was moved westward with respect to North America) A majority of students thought the altered map was the correct one Jeanne Almerino 34
- 35. http://cs.um.ac.ir/images/87/books/Cogniti ve%20Psychology_Strenberg%206th%20.pdf http://inktank.fi/10-english-words-mean- something-else-languages/ https://www.royalcanin.com/~/media/Royal- Canin/Product-Categories/cat-senior- landing-hero.ashx http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/ dual-coding.png http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/ dual-coding.html Jeanne Almerino 35
Editor's Notes
- Cover half the picture of a cat, it is still recognizable as a cat, but cover parts of the description of Meriam there, what if the only words seen is “carnivorous mammal”? Then it does not only apply to a cat but also to other carnivorous mammal like the dinosaurs, dogs, etc. *sorry for the picture, needed for the chapter
- When students kept a diary of their mental images, the students reported many more visual images than auditory, smell, touch, or taste images (Kosslyn et al., 1990)
- Please note: Not everyone is equally skilled in creating and manipulating mental images, however. Research in applied settings and in the laboratory indicates that some of us are better able to create mental images than are others (Reisberg et al., 1986; Schienle et al., 2008).
- Such applications include using guided-imagery techniques for controlling pain and for strengthening immune responses and otherwise promoting health. With such techniques, you could imagine being at a beautiful beach and feeling very comfortable, letting your pain fade into the background. Or you could imagine the cells of your immune system successfully destroying all the bad bacteria in your body. Design engineers, biochemists, physicists, and many other scientists and technologists use imagery to think about various structures and processes and to solve problems in their chosen fields.
- TO ANALOG CODES: For example, trees and rivers might be represented by analog codes. Just as the movements of the hands on an analog clock are analogous to the passage of time, the mental images we form in our minds are analogous to the physical stimuli we observe. A symbol may be anything that is arbitrarily designated to stand for something other than itself. For example, we recognize that the numeral “9” is a symbol for the concept of “nineness.” It represents a quantity of nine of something. But nothing about the symbol in any way would suggest its meaning. We arbitrarily have designated this symbol to represent the concept. But “9” has meaning only because we use it to represent a deeper concept. Concepts like justice and peace are best represented symbolically.
- For example, in one study, participants were shown both a rapid sequence of pictures and a sequence of words (Paivio, 1969). They then were asked to recall the words or the pictures in one of two ways. One way was at random, so that they recalled as many items as possible, regardless of the order in which the items were presented. The other way was in the correct sequence.
- Similarly, a response involving verbal expression can interfere with a task involving mental manipulations of a verbal statement. These findings suggest the use of two distinct codes for mental representation of knowledge. The two codes are an imaginal (analogical) code and a verbal (symbolic) code.
- Refer to source (at the end of ppt) for more info
- *In this table, propositions are expressed in a shorthand form (known as “predicate calculus”) commonly used to express underlying meaning. This shorthand is intended only to give some idea of how the underlying meaning of knowledge might be represented. It is not believed that this form is literally the form in which meaning is represented in the mind. In general, the shorthand form for representing propositions is this: [Relationship between elements] ([subject element], [object element]). Refer to source (at the end of ppt) for more info
- Much earlier work suggested that semantic (verbal) information (e.g., labels for figures) tends to distort recall of visual images in the direction of the meaning of the images (Carmichael, Hogan, & Walter, 1932). For example, for each of the figures in the center column of Figure 7.7, observe the alternative interpretations for the figures recalled. Recall differs based on the differing labels given for the figures. Refer to source (at the end of ppt) for more info
- Functionally equivalent things are strongly analogous to each other—they can accomplish the same goals. The functionally-equivalent images are thus analogous to the physical percepts they represent. This view essentially suggests that we use images rather than propositions in knowledge representation for concrete objects that can be pictured in the mind.
- For which of these pairs of figures does the figure on the right show an accurate rotation of the figure on the left? Source: Reprinted with permission from “Mental Rotation,” by R. Shepard and J. Metzler. Science, 171(3972), 701–703. Copyright © 1971, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
- We respond more quickly to questions about large objects we observe than to questions about small ones we observe. Now, if we assume that perception and mental representations are functionally equivalent, then participants should respond more quickly to questions about features of large imagined objects than to questions about features of small ones. What happens when we zoom in closer to objects to perceive details? Sooner or later, we reach a point at which we can no longer see the entire object. To see the whole object once more, we must zoom out. **INVESTIGATING COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Image Scaling >>Find a large bookcase (floor to ceiling, if possible; if not, observe the contents of a large refrigerator with an open door). Stand as close to the bookcase as you can while still keeping all of it in view. Now, read the smallest writing on the smallest book in the bookcase. Without changing your gaze, can you still see all of the bookcase? Can you read the title of the book farthest from the book on which you are focusing your perception? Depending on what you want to see (a detail like a book title or the whole shelf), you may have to zoom in and out of what you see. When you look at a small detail, it will be hard to perceive the whole shelf, and vice versa. The same is true for mental images.
- In one of Kosslyn’s experiments, participants were shown a map of an imaginary island, which you can see in Figure 7.11 (Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978). The map shows various objects on the island, such as a hut, a tree, and a lake. Participants studied the map until they could reproduce it accurately from memory. Once the memorization phase of the experiment was completed, the critical phase began: • Participants were instructed that, on hearing the name of an object read to them, they should imagine the map and mentally scan to the mentioned object. • As soon as they arrived at the location of that object, they should press a key. • An experimenter then read to the participants the names of objects. • The participants had to scan to the proper location and press the button once they had found it. This procedure was repeated a number of times. In each case, the participants mentally moved between various pairs of objects on successive trials. For each trial, the experimenter kept track of the participants’ response times, indicating the amount of time it took them to scan from one object to another.
- Kosslyn found that there was an almost perfect linear relation between the distances separating pairs of objects in the mental map and the amount of time it took participants to press the button. The further away from each other the objects were, the longer it took participants to scan from one object to the other. Participants seem to have encoded the map in the form of an image. They actually scanned that image as needed for a response, just as they would have scanned a real map.
- For example, if a person with representational neglect were asked to describe his or her kitchen, he or she would do so accurately. However, if the same person were asked to describe the kitchen from the refrigerator, then he or she would demonstrate neglect