Chapter 4 soil composition & engineering properties

Chapter 4
SOIL COMPOSITION AND
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

4.1 Introduction
Compositional
• Types of minerals
• Amount of each mineral
• Types of adsorbed cations
• Shapes and size distribution of
particles
• Pore water composition
• Type and amount of other
constituents, such as organic
matter, silica, alumina, and iron
oxide
Environmental factors
• Water content
• Density
• Confining pressure
• Temperature
• Fabric
• Availability of water
The engineering properties of a soil depend on the composite effects of
several interacting factors. These factors may be divided into two groups:
compositional factors and environmental factors.

Quantitative determination of soil behavior completely in
terms of compositional and environmental factors is
impractical for several reasons:
• Most natural soil compositions are complex, and determination of soil
composition is difficult.
• Physical and chemical interactions occur between different phases
and constituents.
• The determination and expression of soil fabric in quantitatively
useful ways is difficult.
• Past geologic history and present in situ environment are difficult to
simulate in the laboratory.
• Physicochemical and mechanical theories for relating composition
and environment to properties quantitatively are inadequate.

4.2 Approaches to the Study of Composition
and Property Interrelationships
• Study of soil composition in relation to soil properties may be
approached in two ways.
• Natural soils are used, the composition and engineering properties are
determined, and correlations are made.
• Has the advantage that measured properties are those of naturally occurring soils.
Disadvantages, however, are that compositional analyses are difficult and time
consuming, and that in soils containing several minerals or other constituents such as
organic matter, silica, alumina, and iron oxide the influence of any one constituent may
be difficult to isolate.
• The engineering properties of synthetic soils are determined. Soils of known
composition are prepared by blending different commercially available clay
minerals of relatively high purity with each other and with silts and sands.
• Although this approach is much easier, it has the disadvantages that the properties of
the pure minerals may not be the same as those of the minerals in the natural soil, and
important interactions among constituents may be missed.

Approaches to the Study of Composition and Property Interrelationships
• Regardless of the approach used, there are at least two difficulties.
• One is that often the variability in both composition and properties in any one
soil deposit may be great, making the selection of representative samples
difficult. Variations in composition and texture occur in sediments within
distances as small as a few centimeters. Residual soils, in particular, are likely
to be very nonhomogeneous.
• A second difficulty is that the different constituents of a soil may not influence
properties in direct or even predictable proportion to the quantity present
because of physical and physicochemical interactions. For example:
• Physicochemical interaction between clay minerals is shown in Fig. 4.2. Mixtures of
bentonite (sodium montmorillonite) and kaolinite and of bentonite and a commercial
illite containing about 40 percent illite clay mineral, with the rest mostly silt-sized
nonclay, were prepared, and the liquid limits were determined. The dashed line in Fig.
4.2 shows the liquid limit values to be expected if each mineral contributed in proportion
to the amount present. The data points and solid lines show the actual measured values.

4.3 Engineering Properties of Granular Soils
• The mechanical behavior of granular materials is governed primarily
by their structure and the applied effective stresses. Structure
depends on the arrangement of particles, density, and anisotropy.
Particle sizes, shapes, and distributions, along with the arrangement
of grains and grain contacts comprise the soil fabric

Engineering Properties of Granular Soils
• Particle Size & Distribution
• Particle Shape
• Particle Stiffness
• Particle Strength

Particle Size & Distribution
• The origin of a cohesionless soil can be reflected by its grading. Alluvial
terrace deposits and aeolian deposits tend to be poorly graded or sorted.
• Glacial deposits such as Boulder clays and tills are often well graded,
containing a wide variety of particle sizes.
• Small particles in a well-graded soil fit into the voids between larger
particles. Well-graded cohesionless soils are relatively easy to compact to a
high density by vibration.
• The loss of fine fraction by internal erosion can lead to large changes in
engineering properties.
• Uniformly graded soils are usually used for controlled drainage applications
because they are not susceptible to loss of fines by internal erosion and
their hydraulic conductivity can be maintained within definable and narrow
limits.

• Coefficient of Uniformity Cu:
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60
𝐷10
• Cu 5 to 10 is considered well-graded
• Coefficient of Curvature Cc:
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷30
2
𝐷10 𝐷60
• Gap Graded

• The possible range of packing of soil particles is often related to the
maximum and minimum void ratios (or minimum and maximum densities)
reflecting the loosest and densest states, respectively.
• Figure 4.4 shows how the maximum and minimum void ratios change by
mixing sand and silt in different proportions.
• At low silt contents, silt particles fit into the voids between larger sand
particles, so the void ratio of sand–silt mixtures decreases with increase in
silt content.
• However, at a certain silt content, the silt fully occupies the voids, and the
increase in silt content results in sand particles floating inside the silt
matrix. Then, the void ratios increase with further increase in silt content.

• The relative density, DR, a measure of the current void ratio in relation to the
maximum and minimum void ratios, and applied effective stresses controls the
mechanical behavior of cohesionless soils.
• Relative density is defined by
𝐷 𝑅 =
 𝑑 −  𝑑,𝑚𝑖𝑛
 𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 −  𝑑,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑥 100 (%)
• The relative density correlates well with other properties of granular soils. As
different standard test methods can give different limiting void ratios, the use of
the relative density is sometimes criticized, especially when considered in relation
to the random in situ variations of the density of most sand and gravel deposits.

Particle Shape
• Particle shape is an inherent soil characteristic that plays a major role
in mechanical behavior of soils.
• Characterization of particle shape is scale dependent, as shown in Fig.
4.5.
• At larger scales, that is, that of the particle itself, the particle
morphology might be described as spherical, rounded, blocky, bulky,
platy, elliptical, elongated, and so forth.
• At smaller scales, the texture, which reflects the local roughness
features such as surface smoothness, roundness of edges and
corners, and asperities, is important.
• Texture – the appearance or “feel” of a soil. Depends on (1) relative sizes &
shape and (2) range or distribution of sizes.

Particle Shape
• With the exception of mica, most nonclay minerals in soils occur as
bulky particles.
• Most particles are not equidimensional, however, and are at least
slightly elongate or tabular.
• A frequency histogram of particle length-to-width ratio (L/W) for
Monterey No. 0 sand is shown in Fig. 4.6.
• This well-sorted beach sand is composed mainly of quartz with some feldspar.
The mean of all the particle measurements is an L/W ratio of 1.39. This
distribution is typical of that for many sands and silty sands.

Particle Shape
• Particle morphology in soil mechanics has historically been described
using standard charts against which individual grains may be
compared.
• A typical chart and some examples are shown in Fig. 4.7 (Krumbein,
1941; Krumbein and Sloss, 1963; Powers, 1953).

Particle Shape
• In an assembly of uniform size spherical particles, the loosest stable
arrangement is the simple cubic packing giving a void ratio of 0.91.
The densest packing is the tetrahedral arrangement giving a void ratio
of 0.34.
• Particle shape affects minimum and maximum void ratios as shown in
Fig. 4.8 (Youd, 1973).
• The values increase as particles become more angular or the
roundness (defined as roundness 1 in Table 4.1) deceases.
• Void ratios are also a function of particle size distribution; the values
decrease as the range of particle sizes increases (increase in the
coefficient of uniformity Cu).

Particle Shape
• The friction angle increases with increase in particle angularity, possibly as
a result of an increase in coordination number.
• For example, values of the angle of repose are plotted against roundness in
Fig. 4.9 the following linear fit to the relationship is proposed
• (Santamarina and Cho, 2004) - Angle of repose can be determined by
pouring soil in a graduated cylinder filled with water. Tilt the cylinder more
than 60 and bring it back slowly to the vertical position. The angle of the
residual sand slope is the angle of repose.

Angularity Test
Calculations:
Porosity, n
𝑛 =
𝑉𝑣
𝑉𝑡
=
𝑉𝑡 − 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑡
=
𝑉𝑡 −
𝑊 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠
𝑉𝑡

Particle Stiffness
• Soil mass deformation at very small strains originates from the elastic
deformations at points of contact between particles.
• Contact mechanics shows that the elastic properties of particles
control the deformations at particle contacts (Johnson, 1985), and
these deformations in turn influence the stiffness of particle
assemblages.
• Elastic properties of different minerals and rocks are listed in Table
4.2.
• The modulus of a single grain, which determines the particle contact
stiffness, is at least an order of magnitude greater than that of the
particle assembly.

Particle Strength
• The crushability of soil particles has large effects on the mechanical
behavior of granular materials.
• At high stresses, the compressibility of sand becomes large as a result
of particle crushing, and the shape of an e–log p compression curve
becomes similar to that of normally consolidated clay.
• Under constant states of stress, the amount of particle breakage
increases with time, contributing to creep of the soil (Lade et al.,
1996)
• The amount of crushing in a soil mass depends both on the stiffness
and strength of the individual grains and how applied stresses are
transmitted through the assemblage of soil particles.

Particle Strength
• Particle strength or hardness is characterized by crushing at contacts
or particle tensile splitting. There is a statistical variation in grain
strength for particles of a specified material and of a given size
(Moroto and Ishii, 1990; McDowell, 2001).
• Table 4.3 lists the characteristic tensile strengths of some soil
particles.
• The values are smaller than the yield strength of the material itself.
• The strength also depends on the particle shape.
• For example, Hagerty et al. (1993) show that angular glass beads were
more susceptible to breakage than round glass beads.

Particle Strength
• The breakage potential of a single soil particle increases with its size
as illustrated in Table 4.3.
• This is because larger particles tend to contain more and larger
internal flaws and hence have lower tensile strength.
• Fig. 4.10 shows that oolitic limestone, carboniferous limestone, and
quartz sand exhibit near linear declines in strength with increasing
particle size on a log–log plot (Lee, 1992).

Particle Strength
• The amount of particle crushing in an assemblage of particles depends not only
on particle strength, but also on the distribution of contact forces and
arrangement of different size particles.
• It can be argued that larger size particles are more likely to break because the
normal contact forces in a soil element increase with particle size and the
probability of a defect in a given particle increases with its size as shown in Fig
4.10 (Hardin, 1985).
• However, if a larger particle has contacts with neighboring particles (i.e., larger
coordination number), the load on it is distributed, and the probability of facture
is less than for a condition with fewer contacts.
• Experimental evidences suggest that fines increase as particles break by increase
in applied pressure. For example, the evolution of particle size distribution curves
for Ottawa sand in one-dimensional compression is shown in Fig. 4.11 (Hagerty et
al., 1993).
• Hence, the coordination number dominates over size-dependent particle
strength.

Particle Strength
• Larger particles have higher coordination numbers because they are
in contact with many smaller particles.
• The very smallest particles have a lower coordination number
because there are fewer smaller particles available for contact.
• Hence, the largest particles in the aggregate become protected by the
surrounding newly formed smaller particles, and smaller particles are
more likely to break.

Dominating Influence of the Clay Phase
• In general, the more clay in a soil,
• the higher the plasticity,
• the greater the potential shrinkage and swell,
• the lower the hydraulic conductivity, the higher the compressibility,
• the higher the cohesion, and
• the lower the internal angle of friction.
• If it is assumed as a first approximation that all of the water in a soil is
associated with the clay phase, the amount of clay required to fill the
voids of the granular phase and prevent direct contact between
granular particles can be estimated for any water content.

4.4 Dominating Influence of the Clay Phase
• The weight and volume relationships for the different phases of a
saturated soil are shown in Fig. 4.12.
• In this figure W represents weight, V is volume, C is the percent clay
by weight, GSC is the specific gravity of clay particles, w is the water
content in percent, w is the unit weight of water, and GSG is the
specific gravity of the granular particles.
• The volume of voids in the granular phase is eGVGS, where eG is the
void ratio of the granular phase and VGS is the volume of granular
solids, given by

Dominating Influence of the Clay Phase
• This relationship indicates that for water contents typically
encountered in practice, say 15 to 40 percent, only a maximum of
about one-third of the soil solids need be clay in order to dominate
the behavior by preventing direct interparticle contact of the granular
particles.
• In fact, since there is a tendency for clay particles to coat granular
particles, the clay can significantly influence properties. For example,
just 1 or 2 percent of highly plastic clay present in gravel used as a fill
or aggregate may be sufficient to clog handling and batching
equipment.

4.5 Atterberg (Consistency Limits)
• Atterberg limits are extensively used for identification, description,
and classification of cohesive soils and as a basis for preliminary
assessment of their mechanical properties.
• Atterberg developed five limits:
• Liquid Limit
• Plastic Limit
• Shrinkage Limit
• Sticky Limit
• Cohesion Limit

Atterberg Limits:
• Casagrande (1932) developed a standard device for determination of
the liquid limit noting that the nonclay minerals quartz and feldspar
did not develop plastic mixtures with water, even when ground to
sizes smaller than 2 m. (Atterberg also noted this)
• This system was adopted, with minor modifications, as a part of the
Unified Classification System.
• USCS uses the Casagrande Plasticity Chart to identify fine grained soils
– silts and clays.

Atterberg Limits: Casagrande Plasticity Chart

Liquid Limit Test
• The liquid limit test is a form of dynamic shear test.
• Casagrande (1932b) deduced that the liquid limit corresponds
approximately to the water content at which a soil has an undrained
shear strength of about 2.5 kPa.
• Subsequent studies have indicated that the liquid limit for all fine-
grained soils corresponds to shearing resistance of about 1.7 to 2.0
kPa and a pore water suction of about 6 kPa.
• Values of hydraulic conductivity at the liquid limit for several clays are
given in Table 4.4, from Nagaraj et al. (1991).

Liquid Limit
• The striking aspect of these data is that, although the water contents
and void ratios at the liquid limit for the different clays vary over a
very wide range, the hydraulic conductivity is very nearly the same for
all of them.
• This means that the effective pore sizes controlling fluid flow must be
about the same for all the clays at their liquid limit.
• Such a microfabric is consistent with the cluster model for hydraulic
conductivity discussed in Chapter 9.

Liquid Limit
• The greater the specific surface, the greater the total amount of water
required to reduce the strength to that at the liquid limit.
• The specific surface areas of the different clay minerals (Table 3.6) are
consistent with the liquid limit values of different clay minerals in
Table 4.5.
• Additional support for this concept is given by the following
relationship found for 19 British clays:
• where LL is the liquid limit and As is the specific surface in square
meters per gram.

Plastic Limit
• Whatever the structural status of the water and the nature of the
interparticle forces, the plastic limit is the lower boundary of the
range of water contents within which the soil exhibits plastic
behavior; that is, above the plastic limit the soil can be deformed
without volume change or cracking and will retain its deformed
shape; below the plastic limit it cannot.
• The undrained shear strength at the plastic limit is reported to be in
the ranges of 100 to 300 kPa with an average value of 170 kPa
(Sharma and Bora, 2003)

Liquidity Index
• The liquidity index (LI) is defined by
• wherein the plasticity index is given by PI = LL - PL. The liquidity index is
useful for expressing and comparing the consistencies of different clays.
• It normalizes the water content relative to the range of water content over
which a soil is plastic.
• It correlates well with compressibility, strength, and sensitivity properties
of fine-grained soils as illustrated in later chapters of this book.

4.6 Activity
• Both the type and amount of clay influence a soil’s properties, and the
Atterberg limits reflect both of these factors. To separate them, the ratio of
the plasticity index to the clay size fraction (percentage by weight of
particles finer than 2 m), termed the activity, is very useful (Skempton,
1953):
• For many clays, a plot of plasticity index versus clay content yields a
straight line passing through the origin as shown for four clays in Fig. 4.14.
• The slope of the line for each clay gives the activity.
• Approximate values for the activities of different clay minerals are listed in
Table 4.6.

4.7 Influence of Exchangeable Cations and pH
• Cation type exerts a controlling influence on the amount of swelling
of expansive clay minerals in the presence of water. For example,
sodium and lithium montmorillonite may undergo almost
unrestricted interlayer swelling provided water is available, the
confining pressure is small, and the electrolyte concentration is low.
• On the other hand, divalent and trivalent forms of montmorillonite do
not expand beyond a basal spacing of about 17 A˚ and form
multiparticle clusters or aggregates, regardless of other
environmental factors.

4.8 Engineering Properties of Clay Minerals
• Different groups of clay minerals exhibit a wide range of engineering
properties. Within any one group, the range of property values may
also be great.
• It is a function of:
• particle size,
• degree of crystallinity,
• type of adsorbed cations,
• pH,
• the presence of organic matter,
• and the type and amount of free electrolyte in the pore water.
• In general, the importance of these factors increases in the order
kaolin < hydrous mica (illite) < smectite.

Engineering Properties of Clay Minerals
• Engineering Properties:
• Atterberg Limits
• Particle Size & Shape
• Hydraulic Conductivity
• Shear Strength
• Compressibility
• Swelling & Shrinkage
• Time-dependent Behavior

Engineering Properties: Atterberg Limits
1. The liquid and plastic limit values for any one clay mineral species
may vary over a wide range.
2. For any clay mineral, the range in liquid limit values is greater than
the range in plastic limit values.
3. The variation in values of liquid limit among different clay mineral
groups is much greater than the variation in plastic limits.
4. The type of adsorbed cation has a much greater influence on the
high plasticity minerals (e.g., montmorillonite) than on the low
plasticity minerals (e.g., kaolinite).

Engineering Properties: Atterberg Limits
5. Increasing cation valence decreases the liquid limit values of the
expansive clays but tends to increase the liquid limit of the
nonexpansive minerals.
6. Hydrated halloysite has an unusually high plastic limit and low
plasticity index.
7. The greater the plasticity the greater is the shrinkage on drying (the
lower the shrinkage limit).

Engineering Properties: Particle Size & Shape
• Different clay minerals occur
in different size ranges (Table
3.6) because mineralogical
composition is a major factor
in determining particle size.
• There is some concentration
of different clay minerals in
different
• bands within the clay size
range (less than 2 m), as
indicated in Table 4.7.

Engineering Properties: Hydraulic Conductivity
• Mineralogical composition, particle size and size distribution, void
ratio, fabric, and pore fluid characteristics all influence the hydraulic
conductivity.
• The usual measured range for natural clay soils is about 1 x 10-8 to 1 x
10-10 m/ s.
• For clay minerals compared at the same water content, the hydraulic
conductivities are in the order
• smectite (montmorillonite)< attapulgite < illite < kaolinite.

Engineering Properties: Shear Strength
• There are many ways to measure and express the shear strength of a
soil, as described in most geotechnical engineering textbooks.
• In most cases, a Mohr failure envelope, where shear strength (usually
peak, critical state, or residual) is plotted as a function of the direct
effective stress on the failure plane, or a modified Mohr diagram, in
which maximum shear stress is plotted versus the average of the
major and minor principal effective stresses at failure, is used.

• From a number of studies (Hvorslev, 1937) it has been believed that
the total strength of a clay is composed of two distinct parts: a
cohesion that depends only on void ratio (water content), and a
frictional contribution, dependent only on normal effective stress.
• The strength parameters determined in this way, often termed the
Hvorslev parameters or true cohesion and true friction, show
increasing cohesion and decreasing friction with increasing plasticity
and activity of the clay.
• However, two samples of the same clay at the same void ratio but
different effective stresses are known to have different structures, as
discussed in Chapter 8.

• Thus, they are not equivalent, and the strength tests measure the
effects of both effective stress and structure differences.
Furthermore, tests over large ranges of effective stress show that
actual failure envelopes are curved in the manner of Fig. 4.16 and
that the cohesion intercept is either zero or very small, except for
cemented soils.
• Thus, a significant true cohesion, if defined as strength in the absence
of normal stress on the failure plane, does not exist in the absence of
chemical bonding. These considerations are discussed in more detail
in Chapter 11.

Engineering Properties: Compressibility

Engineering Properties: Compressibility
• The compressibility of saturated specimens of clay minerals increases
in the order kaolinite < illite < smectite.
• The compression index Cc, which is defined as the change in void ratio
per 10-fold increase in consolidation pressure, is in the range of
• 0.19 to 0.28 for kaolinite,
• 0.50 to 1.10 for illite, and
• 1.0 to 2.6 for montmorillonite, for different ionic forms).
• The more compressible the clay, the more pronounced the influences
of cation type and electrolyte concentration on compressibility.
• Compression index values for a number of different natural clays are
shown in Fig. 4.18 as a function of plasticity index (Kulhawy and
Mayne, 1990).

Coefficient of Compressibility, Cv

Coefficient of Compressibility, Cv
• As both compressibility and
hydraulic conductivity are strong
functions of soil composition, the
coefficient of consolidation cv is also
related to composition because cv is
directly proportional to hydraulic
conductivity and inversely
proportional to the coefficient of
compressibility.
• Approximate ranges of the
coefficient of consolidation for
natural clays are given in Fig. 4.19.

Engineering Properties: Swelling & Shrinkage
• The potential total amount of swell or shrinkage is determined by the
type and amount of clay.
• The swelling and shrinking properties of the clay minerals follow the
same pattern as their plasticity properties, that is, the more plastic
the mineral, the more potential swell and shrinkage.
• The most successful theories for swelling & shrinkage are based on
the determination of some factor that is related directly to the clay
mineral composition, such as shrinkage limit, plasticity index, activity,
and percentage finer than 1 m.

• Simple, unique correlations
between swell or swell
pressure and these
parameters that reflect only
the type and amount of clay
are not possible because of
the strong dependence of
the behavior on initial state
(moisture content, density,
and structure) and the
other environmental
factors.
• This is illustrated by Fig.
4.20, which shows four
different correlations
between swelling potential
and plasticity index (Chen,
1975).

Engineering Properties: Time-dependent
Behavior
• Different soil types undergo varying amounts of time dependent
deformations and stress variations with time, as exhibited by
secondary compression, creep, and stress relaxation.
• The potential for these phenomena depends on compositional
factors, whereas the actual amount in any case depends on
environmental factors.
• In general, the greater the organic content and the wetter and more
plastic the clay, the more pronounced is the time-dependent
behavior.

• Both the type and amount
of clay are important, as
indicated, for example, by
the variation of creep rate
with clay content for three
different clay mineral–sand
mixtures, as shown in Fig.
4.22.

• The variation in creep
rate for these specimens
as a function of plasticity
index is shown in Fig.
4.23.
• The correlation is
reasonably unique
because the plasticity
index reflects both the
type and amount of clay.

4.9 Effects of Organic Matter
• Organic matter in soil may be responsible for high plasticity, high shrinkage,
high compressibility, low hydraulic conductivity, and low strength.
• Soil organic matter is complex both chemically and physically, and many
reactions and interactions between the soil and the organic matter are
possible (Oades, 1989).
• The humic fraction is gel-like in properties and negatively charged
(Marshall, 1964). Organic particles can strongly adsorb on mineral surfaces,
and this adsorption modifies both the properties of the minerals and the
organic material itself.
• Soils containing significant amounts of decomposed organic matter are
usually characterized by a dark gray to black color and an odor of
decomposition.

Effects of Organic Matter
• At high moisture contents, decomposed organic matter may behave
as a reversible swelling system.
• At some critical stage during drying, however, this reversibility ceases,
and this is often manifested by a large decrease in the Atterberg
limits.
• This is recognized by the Unified Soil Classification System, which
defines an organic clay as a soil that would classify as a clay (the
Atterberg limits plot above the A line shown in Fig. 4.13) except that
the liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75 percent of the
liquid limit value before drying (ASTM, 1989).

• Increasing the organic carbon content by only 1 or 2 percent may
increase the limits by as much as an increase of 10 to 20 percent in
the amount of material finer than 2 m or in the amount of
montmorillonite (Odell et al., 1960).
• The influences of organic matter content on the classification
properties of a soft clay from Brazil are shown in Fig. 4.24.

• The maximum compacted densities and compressive strength as a
function of organic content of both natural samples and mechanical
mixtures of inorganic soils and peat are shown in Figs. 4.25 and 4.26,
respectively.
• Both the compacted density and strength decrease significantly with
increased organic content and the relationships for natural samples
and the mixtures are about the same.
• Increased organic content also causes an increase in the optimum
water content for compaction.

• The effect of organic matter on
the strength and stiffness of soils
depends largely on whether the
organic matter is decomposed or
consists of fibers that can act as
reinforcement.
• In the former case, both the
undrained strength and the
stiffness, or modulus, are usually
reduced as a result of the higher
water content and plasticity
contributed by the organic
matter. In the latter, the fibers
can act as reinforcements,
thereby increasing the strength.

Concluding Comments
• Knowledge of soil composition is a useful indicator of the probable
ranges of geotechnical properties and their variability and sensitivity
to changes in environmental conditions.
• Although quantitative values of properties for analysis and design
cannot be derived from compositional data alone, information on
composition can be helpful for explaining unusual behavior,
identification of expansive soils, selection of sampling and sample
handling procedures, choice of soil stabilization methods, and
prediction of probable future behavior.

Chapter 4 soil composition & engineering properties

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Chapter 4 soil composition & engineering properties

Similar to Chapter 4 soil composition & engineering properties (20)

More from Stan Vitton

More from Stan Vitton (6)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)