Management and Leadership Chapter 3

1. COURSENOTES
COURSE TITLE: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: EPB2033
PREPARED BY: TENGKU NOORAINUN TENGKU SHAHDAN

2. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
TOPIC 3: Individuals in Schools
(Textbook Chapter 4)
3.0 Introduction
This topic will explain individuals in schools, where they are motivated by their needs,
beliefs, and goals. The topic covers the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Herzberg’s
hygiene-motivator theory, achievement and autonomy needs, attribution theory, equity
theory, expectation theory, self-efficacy and goal setting theory (Figure 3.1). After
completing this topic, learners should be able to explain and give example all of the above
theories.
3.0.1 Overview
• Individuals in schools are motivated by their needs, beliefs, and goals.
3.0.2 Learning Objectives
• At the end of this topic, you should be able to explain how a complex process of
social system provides a conceptual basis for organizational analysis and
administrative problem solving.
3.1 Key Contents
3.1.1 Theory of Needs
• Human needs and motivations are key elements in determining how individuals
behave in organizations. Individuals working in organizations are always
concerned about fulfilling their needs in the course of doing their jobs. People
have different personal needs that shape their behaviour. Teachers have different
styles and so do students and administrators. More formally, needs are internal
states of disequilibrium that course individuals to pursue certain courses of action
in order to regain internal equilibrium (Steers and Porter, 1991).
o Hierarchy of Needs: Basic Needs
The humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow (1970) developed a
fascinating theory of human needs; in fact, his need hierarchy model has
become one of the most widely discussed and influential perspectives of
human motivation. Five basic categories of needs, arranged in hierarchical
levels described as follows:
Basic set of human needs arranged in a hierarchical order
• Level 1: Physiological Needs
• Level 2: Safety and Security
• Level 3: Belonging, Love, and Social Activities
• Level 4: Esteem
• Level 5: Self-actualization or self-fulfillment
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3. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
o Needs and Worker Satisfaction
Positive events were dominated by references to achievement, recognition (for
achievement), the work itself (challenging, responsibility, and advancement
promotion). The theory has several basic assumptions:
- There are two separate sets of factors in explaining work satisfaction and
dissatisfaction
- Motivators tend to produce satisfaction, and hygiene factors tend to
produce dissatisfaction
- Work satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites, but rather separate
and distinct dimensions.
Motivators – achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility and
advancement will increases satisfaction. Job satisfaction is more likely to
come from autonomy, responsibility, and the challenge of the job itself
Hygiene – interpersonal relations, supervision, policy and administration,
working conditions, salary, and personal life produces job dissatisfaction.
Figure 3.1
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
Figure 3.1 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
o Need for Achievement
David C. McClelland’s (1961, 1965, and 1985) achievement motivation
theory is commonly called need achievement or n-achievement theory. The
need to accomplish hard tasks, to overcome difficulties and obstructions, and
to excel is the need for achievement. Individuals who strive for excellence in
any field for the sake of achievement, not some other rewards, are considered
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Hygiene
• Interpersonal relations (with
subordinates)
• Interpersonal relations (with
peers)
• Supervision (technical)
• Policy and administration
• Working conditions
• Personal life
• Job security and salary
Motivators
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement

4. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
to have a high need for achievement. McClelland’s framework asserts that
motives are learned; they become arranged in a hierarchy of potential for
influencing behaviour; and they vary from person to person. Three key
characteristics in achievement motivation as below:
- Have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for performing a
task or solving a problem.
- High achievement needs tend to set moderately difficult goals and take
intermediate levels of risk.
- Have a strong desire for performance feedback
o Need for Autonomy
The need for autonomy or self-determination is the desire to have choice in
what we do and how we do it. People seek to be in charge of their own
behaviour. People resist and struggle against pressure from external forces
such as rules, regulations, orders, and deadlines imposed by others because it
interferes with their need for autonomy.
3.1.2 Beliefs
Beliefs are general understandings or generalizations about the world. Beliefs play a
pivotal role in motivating individuals to act.
o Beliefs about Causality: Attribution Theory
Attribution theory deals with causal explanations that individuals make about
past behaviours, especially in regard to achievement efforts and expectancies.
People attribute successes and failures to such factors as ability, luck, effort,
mood, interest, and unfair procedures.
o Belief about Ability
Some of the most powerful attributions that affect motivation and behaviour
are beliefs about ability. A stable view of ability assumes that ability is stable
and uncontrollable trait, that is, a characteristic of an individual that cannot be
changed. An incremental view of ability, assumes that ability is unstable and
controllable, expanding of knowledge and skills. Normally people with an
incremental view believe that by hard work, persistence, study, and practice,
knowledge can be increased and ability can be improved
o Beliefs about Fairness: Equity Theory and Organizational Justice
Students, teachers, and administrators, like most individuals in our society, are
concerned about matters of basic fairness. How do individuals decide whether
they are being rerated unfairly? Equity theory suggests that the key
mechanism for such decisions is social comparison; we compare ourselves
and our own plight with others. For example both young and old teachers
were performing the same role, yet the older teacher had more seniority.
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5. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
o Beliefs about Outcomes: Expectancy Theory
One of the most reliable and valid explanations of what motivates people to
work is expectancy theory. Victor Vroom (1964) developed to predict choices
among jobs, tasks, and effort levels that yield the highest perceived benefits.
Expectancy theory presents a complex view of individuals in organizations.
- Expectancy is the extent to which an individual believes that hard work
will lead to improved performance.
- Instrumentality is the perceived probability that good performance will be
noticed and rewarded
- Valence is the perceived value or attractiveness of a reward.
3.1.3 Goal-Setting Theory
Why do goals often improve our performance? Lock and Latham (1990) propose that
successful goal performance meet four conditions:
o First, goals must be specific.
o Second, goals must be challenging
o Third, goals must be attainable
o Finally, individuals must be committed to the goals
3.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation is generally defined as an internal state that stimulates directs, and maintains
behaviour. Psychologists who study motivation have focused on five basic aspects: choices,
initiation, intensity, persistence, and reaction. What energizes and directs our behaviour?
• Intrinsic motivations are interest and curiosity. It is natural tendency to seek
and accept challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise capabilities.
• Extrinsic motivation, in contrast, is based on rewards and punishment.
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6. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
3.3 Tutorial Activities
3.3.1 Activity 1
• You have just been hired as a new principal of a small school with 20 teachers.
This is your first job as principal and you want to succeed. What goals would you
establish for yourself? Write two short-term goals (to be accomplished in the first
month on the job) and two long-term goals (to be accomplished during the first
year). Describe why you selected those goals and your commitment to them.
Make sure the goals are specific, realistic, challenging, and attainable.
3.4 REFERENCES
Wayne K. H, & Cecil G. M. (2008). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and
Practice. Eight Edition -International Edition. New York: McGraw – Hill Companies.
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7. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
3.3 Tutorial Activities
3.3.1 Activity 1
• You have just been hired as a new principal of a small school with 20 teachers.
This is your first job as principal and you want to succeed. What goals would you
establish for yourself? Write two short-term goals (to be accomplished in the first
month on the job) and two long-term goals (to be accomplished during the first
year). Describe why you selected those goals and your commitment to them.
Make sure the goals are specific, realistic, challenging, and attainable.
3.4 REFERENCES
Wayne K. H, & Cecil G. M. (2008). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and
Practice. Eight Edition -International Edition. New York: McGraw – Hill Companies.
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Date: 18/03/2011
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