Management and organisational behaviour staffing

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:.
1. Explain the concept of and nature of staffing
2. Enumerate the importance of staffing
3. Mention the nature and importance of motivation
4. Explain the types of motivation
5. State and explain four types of motivation theories
6. Describe leadership and explain its importance
7. Mention the traits of a leader
8. Give three styles of leadership

INTRODUCTION
1. The quality of an organization is determined by the
quality of people it employs.
2. Staffing and human resource management decisions
and methods are critical to ensuring that the
organization hires and keeps the right personnel.

STAFFING-DEFINITION AND ACTIVITIES
Definition: Staffing is the process of acquiring, deploying, and
retaining a workforce of sufficient quantity and quality in
order to achieve organisational goals.
1. Acquisition involves:
human resource planning
 recruitment and selection
2. Deploying involves:
 placement and orientation
 training and development
 Recognition and Promotion

STAFFING
3. Retention involves:
 Managing labour turnover: voluntary resignations and
involuntary activities such as retirement, redundancy,
dismissals etc.

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION
After assessing the manpower needs of an organisation, the
next step is recruitment and selection.
1. Recruitment: The process of generating a pool of
qualified applicants for organisational jobs.
2. Recruitment Process:
 identify job vacancies
 identifying alternative sources of recruitment (internal or
external).
Placing job postings (on noticeboards or adverts in media)
 sorting and generating a short-list of qualified applicants

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION
3. Selection: is the process of choosing individuals who
have needed qualifications to fill jobs in an organisation.
4. Selection Process:
 short-list of qualified applicants
 call for interviews or test
Selection of qualified candidate
Call for reference letters
 doing background investigation
Medical examination or drug test
conditional job offer and acceptance

OTHER STAFFING REQUIREMENTS
Other staffing requirement include:
 Probation period
 performance appraisal
 training and development
 promotions
 termination

IMPORTANCE OF STAFFING
The human resource is the most important resource of every
organisation. It is the human resource that combines and
coordinates the other resources for the attainment of
organisational objectives. The importance of staffing
include:
1. To obtain the right quantities and quality of employees at
the right time and at the place.
2. To ensure employee-organisation fit and person-job fit.
3. To gain competitive advantage over the organisation’s
competitors
4. To ensure effective transfer of skills, experiences and
attitudes.
5. To meet the varied needs of employees and the
organisation as a whole
6. To ensure effective performance management systems.

MOTIVATION
Learning out comes:
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
1. Explain the nature and importance of motivation;
2. List the types of motivation theories
3. Compare and contrast content motivational theories and needs
motivational theories

MOTIVATION
Definition:s
1. Motivation is the arousal, direction and persistence of
behaviour (Daft and Marcic, 2007)
2. Motivation is concerned with the strength and direction
of behaviour and the factors that influence people to
behave in certain ways, (Armstrong ,2009)
3. According to Arnold et al (1991), motivation has three
components:
i. Direction: what a person is trying to do
ii. Effort: How hard a person is trying
iii. Persistence: how long a person keeps on trying

TYPES OF MOTIVAITON
There are two types of motivation:
1. Intrinsic Motivation: the self-generated factors that
influence people’s behaviour. Examples: the type of work,
opportunity to achieve. advancement, autonomy to
develop skills etc.
Intrinsic motivators can be enhanced by job or role design such
as variety of job, complexity of job and sufficient challenge.
2. Extrinsic Motivation: is when people are aroused to act
as a result of an external factor given to or done for
them.
Examples: high pay, praise, promotion, punishments etc.
External motivators can have an immediate and powerful effect
but will not necessarily last for long.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation theories could be put into Three main groups:
1. Behavioral Theories
i. Instrumentality Theory-based of Taylorism
ii. Reinforcement Theory
 Hull (1951)
 Skinner (1974)
2. Content or Needs Theories
i. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1954)
ii. The ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer (1972)
iii. Achievement and Affiliation Power Needs of David
McClelland
iv. Frederick Herzberg’s Factor Theory (1961)

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation theories could be put into Three main groups:
3. Process Theories
i. Expectancy Theory of Vroom (1964) and Porter &
Lawler
ii. Equity Theory (Adams)
iii. Goal Theory (Edwin Locke & Latham
iv. Theory X and Y of McGregor (1960)
v. Z Theory by Ouchi

MOTIVATION-INSTRUMENTALITY THEORY
1. Based on the principles of Scientific Management Theory
2. People are motivated to work if rewards and punishments
are tired to their performance
3. The theory provides rationale for incentive pay
4. This form of motivation is still used today
Disadvantages
i. Does not give recognition to intrinsic motivation
ii. Does not factor in other needs of people
iii. Does not consider the informal relationships in organisations

MOTIVATION-REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Proponents-Hull (1951) and F. Skinner (1974)
Similar to instrumentality theory
Reinforcement Theory states that peoples’ behaviour tend to
change as a result of the consequence of a stimulus.
That stimulus could be a reinforcer or a punishment.
Reinforcers increase behaviour: e.g. A child is given a candy for
reciting a poem well. Any time a candy is presented to the
child, it will serve as motivator to recite the next poem well.
Punishments reduce behaviour: e.g. a child is isolated for 15
minutes for being late to school. This could serve to reduce
the behaviour of lateness.

MOTIVATION-CONTENT THEORIES
MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY
Assumptions of the Theory
1. There are five major need categories of people;
2. These needs are in a hierarchy of importance and levels
of satisfaction;
3. When one lower need is satisfied, that need seizes to
motivate and people move to the next need in the
hierarchy;
4. Psychological development takes place as one moves
up the hierarchy of needs;
5. This is not a straight forward progression.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Self-actualisation
Needs-growth,
creativity,
advancement
etc.
Self-esteem Needs-
autonomy, recognition,
position, responsibility
Social Needs-companionship,
work groups, love, respect etc
Safety Needs-peace, clothes, shelter, safe
work, job security
Psychological Needs-food, water, oxygen, sex,

APPLYING MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY
NEEDS LEVEL GENERAL
REWARDS
ORGANISATIONAL
FACTORS
Physiological Food, water, sex,
sleep, rest
Pay, working
conditions, cafeteria
Safety Safety, security,
stability, protection
Safe working
conditions, company
benefits, job security
Social Love, affection,
belongingness
Cohesive work group,
friendly supervision,
professional
associations
Esteem Self-esteem, self-
respect, prestige,
status
Social recognition, job
title, high-status job,
feedback from job
itself
Self-actualisation Growth, advancement,
creativity
Challenging job,
opportunities for
creativity, achievement
in work, advancement

MOTIVATION-ERG THEORY
 Proponent: Clayton Alderfer
 He modified the needs theory of Maslow
 Identified three needs:
i. Existence needs: e.g. hunger, thirst-pay, fringe benefits
and working conditions.
ii. Relatedness needs: satisfactory relationships with others-
e.g. acceptance, understanding, confirmation and influence
iii. Growth needs: the development of the human potential
such as advancement, recognition, participation in decision
making etc. this level is similar to the last two levels of
Maslow

MOTIVATION-THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY
Proponent: Frederick Herzberg
He identified two factors:
i. Hygiene Factors: these include pay, security, supervision,
working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.
The absence of these create dissatisfaction
i. Growth Factors or Motivators: these include achievement,
recognition, responsibility, personal growth, work, etc.
The presence of these bring about satisfaction thereby
motivating employees.

Implications of Two Factor Theory for Managers
i. Providing hygiene factors will eliminate employee
dissatisfaction but may not motivate workers to high
achievement levels
ii. Providing growth factors will promote high satisfaction and
performance
The manager’s role is to remove dissatisfiers by providing
sufficient hygiene factors like pay, better working conditions,
security; and motivate employees towards greater
achievements by providing growth factors like career
development, promotions, delegation etc.

Hi
Motivators
Achievement,
responsibility,
recognition,
work, personal
growth
Hygiene
Factors
Working
conditions,
pay, security,
supervision,
relationships
High Satisfaction
Neither satisfied
nor dissatisfied
Highly Dissatisfied

MOTIVATION-X & Y THEORY
PROCESS THEORIES
Proponent: Douglas McGregor (1960)
He came with two views about humans and that
depending on the view you take, you may
develop strategies to motivate people. These
views are:

X THEORY
CHARACTERISTICS
i. Average person is lazy and dislikes work
ii. People must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with
punishment if the organisation is to achieve its objectives
iii. The average person avoids responsibility, prefers tob directedm lacks
ambition and values security most of all, and
iv. Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels

Y THEORY
CHARACTERISTICS
i. For most people work is as natural as play
ii. People will exercise self-direction and self-control in achieving
objectives they are commited
iii. Rewards are associated with the achievement of objectives
iv. Given the right conditions, the average person can learn to accept and
take responsibility
v. The capacity of creativiity is distributed widely in the population
vi. The intellectual capacity of the individual is only partially utilised
vii. Motivation occurs at all the needs levels of Maslow

Z THEORY BY OUCHI (1981)
CHARACTERISTICS
i. Long term employment for a life-time
ii. Relatively slow process of evaluation and promotion
iii. Development of company-specific skills, and moderately specialised
career path
iv. Implicit, informal control mechanisms supported by explicit formal
measures
v. Participative decision-making and individual ultiamte responsibility
vi. Collective decision-making but individual ultimate responsibilty
vii. Broad concern for the welfare of subordinates and co-workers as a
natural part of a working relationship, and informal relations among
people.

OTHER PROCESS MOTIVATION THEORIES
1. Expectancy Theory by Vroom.: it states that people’s motivation to do
work will be high if they have the expectation that putting “effort” into a
task will lead to high “performance” which will in tend lead to the
desired “outcome”.
2. Example: A student learns hard to obtain an “A” in Management and
Organisational Behaviour and that the “A” will lead to a first class.
3. Elements of the Expectancy Theory
i. Valence: the value an individual has for an outcome
ii. Instrumentality: the probability that if effort is exerted it will to another
thing (high performance
iii. Expectancy: The probability that high performance will lead to a desired
outcome.
Relationship of the elements:
E P O where “E” stands for Effort, “P” for performance and “O”
for Outcome.

OTHER PROCESS MOTIVATION THEORIES
Equity Theory: Deals with peoples perceptions of how they are treated
compared to others in an orgaisation . It states that people will be
motivated if they are treated equitably or demotivated if they are treated
inequitably.
2. Proponent: Adams Smith (1965)
Goal-setting Theory-Locke
This theory states that people are more motivated to act if they have
specific targets or objectives to work towards. It emphasises that if the
goals are challenging, and are accepted by subordinates, it increases
motivation.
Assumptions of Theory:
i. Specific goals
ii. Difficulty level of goal, i.e. hard goals give motivation more than easy
goals
iii. Goal Acceptance, i.e. subordinates must buy into the goal
iv. Feedback

LEADERSHIP
Learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
i. Define leadership and explain its importance
ii. Enumerate the traits of a leader
iii. Describe the leadership styles

LEADERSHIP-INTRODUCTION
Definition: Leadership is the ability to influence people toward the
attainment of orgainational goals.
LEADERSHIP VERSUS MANAGEMENT

LEADERSHIP STYLES
INTRODUCTION
 Kurt Lewin (1938) identified three main leadership styles.
 Further studies by people like Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973)
developed their leadership styles continuum.
 Recent studies have developed other leadership styles.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
The main leadership styles are:
1. Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic): authoritarian leaders, also known
as autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what needs to be done,
when it should be done, and how it should be done. This style of leadership is
strongly focused on both command by the leader and control of the followers.
There is also a clear division between the leader and the followers.
Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from
the rest of the group.
2. Participative Leadership (Democratic)
Participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is generally
the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to
group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from
other group members.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
3. Delegative (Laissez-Faire) Leadership
Researchers found that children under delegative leadership, also known
as laissez-fair leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The
children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little
cooperation and were unable to work independently.
Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave
decision-making up to group members. While this style can be effective in
situations where group members are highly qualified in an area of expertise, it
often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.

LEADERSHIP APPROACHES
The leadership approaches include:
1. The Traits Approach
2. Functional Approach
3. Behavioral Approaches
4. Contingency Approaches
5. Transitional and transformational Leadership
approaches
6. Inspirational Leadership

LEADERSHIP TRAITS
What are traits? Traits are distinguishing personal
characteristics , such as intelligence, values, and
appearance.
 The traits theory believed that people were born with
certain traits that automatically made them leaders.
 Leaders are to be selected rather than taught (Drucker
1955)
 There have researched into the common traits of leaders
which included personality, physical or mental
characteristics
 Apart from personal characteristics, social and work-
related characteristics of leaders have been added to the
traits (Marc & Marcic 2007).

LEADERSHIP TRAITS
Traits of leaders could therefore include the following:
Physical
• Energy
• Physical
stamina
Personal
• Self-confidence
• Honesty and
integrity
• Enthusiasm
• Independence
• Desire to lead
Cognitive
• Intelligence
• Judgement
• Decisiveness
Social
• Interpersonal
skills
• Cooperativene
ss
• Tact and
diplomacy
• Education
• Experience
• mobility
Work-related
• Achievement
• Desire to excel
• Conscientiousne
ss
• Tenacity
• foresight

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
Assumptions
i. This type of leadership focuses not on the personality of the leader but
on the functions of leadership
ii. Leadership is always present in a group of people
iii. Views leadership in terms of how the leader’s behaviour affects and is
affected by the group of followers
iv. It focuses on the content of leadership
v. The skills of leadership can be learned, developed and perfected.
vi. With careful selection and nurturing majority of people can play
leadership roles in an organisation
vii. Everybody can be a leader, you do not need to be the boss to be a
leader.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
Action-centred leadership by John Adair
This theory indicates that the effectiveness of the
leader is dependent upon the following:
1.Task Needs
2.Team Maintenance Needs
3.Individual Needs

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
1.Task Functions/Needs include:
i. Achieving objectives of the work group
ii. Defining group tasks
iii. Planning the work
iv. Allocation of resources
v. Organisation of duties and responsibilities
vi. Controlling quality and checking performance
vii. Reviewing progress

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
2. Team functions include:
i. Maintaining morale and building team spirit
ii. Maintaining cohesiveness of the group
iii. Setting standards and maintaining discipline
iv. Systems of communications within the group
v. Training the group
vi. Appointment of sub-leaders

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
3. Individual functions include:
i. Meeting the needs of individual members of the
group
ii. Attending to personal problems
iii. Giving praise and status
iv. Reconciling conflicts between group needs and
the needs of the individual
v. Training the individual

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
This approach draws attention on the behaviour of
people in leadership situations.
Major Proponents:
1. The Ohio State University Leadership Studies
2. The Michigan University Study
3. McGregor’s X and Y theory
4. Blake and McCanse’s Leadership Greed

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
1. The Ohio State University Leadership Studies
 The focus of this study was on the effect of leadership
styles on group performance.
 The results identified two dimensions of leadership
i. Consideration: which reflects the extent to which leaders
establish trust, mutual respect and rapport with the
group.-this is concerned with communication, participation
and the human relations approach to leadership.
ii. Structure: reflects the extent to which the leader defines
and structures group activities towards the attainment of
group objectives-this approach is associated with efforts
to achieve organisational goals.

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
2. The Michigan University Leadership Studies
 This approach also came out with two approaches
as summarised by Likert:
i. Employee-Centred Functions: which involves:
 delegation of authority and avoidance of close
supervision
 Concern for subordinates
 Participative problem-solving
ii. Production-Centred: which involves
 High standards of performance and structure

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
3. The Leadership Grid
 This approach measures the leader’s concern for people and
production.
 They represented this on a two dimension grid with nine scales
each ranging from low concern for people to high concern and from
low concern for production to high concern.
 (9,9) is considered the best form of management.
 Country-club management (1,9) occurs when emphasis is given to
people rather than to work output
 Authority-compliance management (9,1) occurs when primary
emphasis is given to structure .
 Middle-of-the-road management (5,5) reflects a moderate concern
of people and production.

THE MANAGEMENT GRID OF BLAKE & McCANSE
High
.
Low
Low Concern for production
High
9 (1,9) (9,9)
8
7
6
5 (5,5)
4
3
2
1 (1,1) (9,1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Country-club
management
Team
Management
Middle-of-the-
road
Management Authority-
compliance
Impoverishe
d
Management
Concernforpeople

CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR BY
Tannerbaum and Schmidt-1973
 Tannerbaum and Schmidt present a continuum of possible leadership
behaviour available to a manager and along with various styles of
leadership may be exerted.
 There are four styles of leadership open to the manager which are:
i. Telling: the manager identifies a problem, makes a decision and
announces it to his subordinates, expecting them to implement it without
opportunity for participating
ii. Selling: manager makes the decision and persuades subordinates to
accept.
iii. Consulting: the manager identifies the problem, presents the problem to
the subordinates, listens to the advice and suggestions of subordinates
before taking decision
iv. Joining: the manager defines the problem and the limits within which the
decisions must be made, and passes to the group the right to make
decisions with the manager as a member of the group.

 Tannerbaum and Schmidt identified three forces that determine the type
of management style to use. These are:
1. Forces in the manager which are:
 Value systems;
 Confidence in subordinates;
 Leadership inclinations; and
 Feelings of security in the uncertain situation.
2. Forces of the subordinate
 Strength of the need for independence
 Readiness to assume responsibility for decision making
 The degree of tolerance for ambiguity
 Interests in the problem and feeling as to its importance
 Necessary knowledge and experience to deal with the problem

 Tannerbaum and Schmidt identified three forces that determine the type
of management style to use. These are:
3. Forces in the situation which are:
 Type of organisation;
 Group effectiveness
 Nature of the problem; and
 Pressure of time.
Tannerbaum and Schmidt conclude that successful leader keenly aware of those
forces which could influence their behaviour at any particular time.

Manager power and
influence
Non-manager power
and influenceAria of Freedom
for Manager
Area of
Freedom for
non-manager
Manager
makes
decisions
which non-
managers
accept
Manager
sells
decision
before
gaining
acceptanc
e
Manager
presents
decision
but
responds
to question
from non-
managers
a
Manager
presents
problem,
gets inputs
from non-
managers
and takes
decision
Manager
defines
limits
within
which non-
managers
make
decisions
Manager
and non-
managers
jointly make
decisions
Organisational and
external environment

LEADERSHIP STYLES
4. Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leadership is often identified as the single most effective style.
The style was first described in the late 1970s and later expanded upon by
researcher Bernard M. Bass. Some of the key characteristics of his style of
leadership are the abilities to motivate and inspire followers and
to direct positive changes in groups. Transformational leaders tend to be
emotionally intelligent, energetic, and passionate. They are not only
committed to helping the group achieve its goals, but also to helping group
members fulfill their potential.
Research has revealed that this style of leadership is linked to higher
performance and improved group satisfaction than other leadership
styles. One study also found that transformation leadership was linked to
improved well-being among group members.
.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
The Transactional Leadership Style
The transactional leadership style views the leader-follower relationship as a
transaction. By accepting a position as a member of the group, the individual
has agreed to obey the leader. In most situations, this involves the employer-
employee relationship and the transaction focuses on the follower completing
required tasks in exchanged for monetary compensation.
One of the key benefits of this leadership style is that it creates clearly defined
roles. People know what they are required to do and what they will be
receiving in exchange for completing these tasks. It also allows leaders to
offer a great deal of supervision and direction if it is needed. Group members
may also be motivated to perform well in order to receive rewards. One of the
biggest downsides is that the transactional style tends to stifle creativity and
out-of-the-box thinking.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
The Transactional Leadership Style
Situational theories of leaders stress the important influence of the environment
and the situation on leadership.
Some of the proponents of Situational Leadership include:
 Hershey and Blankard’s Leadership Styles
 .

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