chapter 2 survey 1

Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Art History
Sixth Edition
Chapter 2
Art of the Ancient Near East

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
2.a Identify the visual hallmarks of early Mesopotamian, Assyrian, Neo-
Babylonian, and Persian art for formal, technical, and expressive
qualities.
2.b Interpret the meaning of works of early Mesopotamian, Assyrian,
Neo-Babylonian, and Persian art based on their themes, subjects, and
symbols.
2.c Relate early Mesopotamian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Persian
artists and art to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
2.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts used to discuss ancient Near
Eastern art, artists, and art history.
2.e Interpret ancient Near Eastern art using appropriate art historical
methods, such as observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.
2.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an
argument or an interpretation of ancient Near Eastern art.

STELE OF NARAM-SIN
From Sippar; found at Susa (present-day Shush, Iran). Naram-Sin r. 2254-2218 BCE.
Limestone, height 6'6" (1.98 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris.
Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre)/Les frères Chuzeville. [Fig. 02-01]

Early Mesopotamia (1 of 2)
• In the sixth or fifth millennium BCE, agriculture developed in
Mesopotamia, the area between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.
• City-states developed between 4000 and 3000 BCE, and with them
social hierarchies separated by skills beyond those needed for
agricultural work.

Early Mesopotamia (2 of 2)
• Organized religion and its associated sacred sites and rituals played
an important role in society.
• Wealth and agricultural resources as well as few natural defenses
made Mesopotamia vulnerable to political upheaval.

THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
The green areas represent fertile land that could support early agriculture, notably the
area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the strips of land on either side of the
Nile in Egypt. [Map 02-01]

Sumer (1 of 9)
• Writing
– A principal contribution of the Sumerians was a form of writing that
was used for an accounting system.
– Simple pictographs were drawn in wet clay using a pointed
stylus.
– This system of writing is termed cuneiform.

Sumer (2 of 9)
• The ziggurat
– Stepped ziggurats were pyramidal structures with a temple at the
top.
– Elevating the buildings protected shrines from flooding but served
a symbolic function of a bridge between earthly humans and
heavenly gods.

Sumer (3 of 9)
• Temples
– Two temples at Uruk mark the first independent city-state.
– Each city had one protective deity, but society was polytheistic.
 Sky god Anu
 Goddess of love and war Inanna

RUINS OF THE ANU ZIGGURAT AND WHITE TEMPLE
Uruk (present-day Warka, Iraq). c. 3400–3200 BCE.
World Tourism Organization: Iraq [Fig. 02-02a]

PLAN OF THE ANU ZIGGURAT AND WHITE TEMPLE
Uruk (present-day Warka, Iraq). c. 3400–3200 BCE. [Fig. 02-02b]

Sumer (4 of 9)
• Temples
– Statues of gods and donors were placed in temples, such as the
head of a woman.
– An alabaster vessel found at the temple complex of Inanna show
three registers, or horizontal bands, that narrate a story with great
clarity.
 It may be a re-enactment of the marriage of the goddess to her
consort.

HEAD OF A WOMAN
From Uruk (present-day Warka, Iraq). c. 3300–3000 BCE.
Marble, height approx. 8" (20.3 cm). Iraq Museum, Baghdad.
© 2016. Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin.
[Fig. 02-03]

CARVED VESSEL
From Uruk (present-day Warka, Iraq). c. 3300–3000 BCE.
Alabaster, height 36" (91 cm). Iraq Museum, Baghdad. © 2016. Photo Scala,
Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin. [Fig. 02-04]

Sumer (5 of 9)
• Votive figures
– Limestone votive statues dating to 2900–2600 BCE are directly
related to a practice of worshipers' setting up images of
themselves in a shrine before a larger image of a god.
– Figures feature conventional representations, wherein all figures
are clasping hands and wearing similar styles of dress.

TWELVE VOTIVE FIGURES
From the Square Temple, Eshnunna (present-day Tell Asmar, Iraq). c. 2900–2600 BCE.
Limestone, alabaster, and gypsum, height of largest figure approx. 30" (76.3 cm).
The Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of
the University of Chicago [Fig. 02-05]

Sumer (6 of 9)
• Royal tombs
– Sir Leonard Woolley led an excavation of Ur during the 1920s.
– A lyre found in one of the royal burials rested over the body of a
woman depicted the image of a man interlocked with two bulls.
– The lyre retained its gold bull's-head finial, lapis lazuli, and carved
shell inlaid with bitumen.

Sumer (7 of 9)
• Royal tombs
– The top scene shows animals entertaining at a banquet, while the
bottom scene shows a scorpion-man from the Epic of Gilgamesh.
 This 3,000-line poem describes a hero who braves danger to
probe the meaning of humankind and immortality.
– These lyres may have been buried atop bodies of sacrificial harp
players.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE GREAT LYRE WITH BULL’S HEAD
From Royal Tomb (PG 789), Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq). c. 2600–2500 BCE.
Wood with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, bitumen, and shell, reassembled in modern wood
support; height of head 14" (35.6 cm); height of front panel 13" (33 cm); maximum length
of lyre 55-1/2" (140 cm); height of upright back arm 46-1/2" (117 cm).
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.
Courtesy of the Penn Museum, image #160104 [Fig. 02-06a]

FRONT PANEL ON SOUND BOX OF THE GREAT LYRE WITH BULL’S HEAD
Courtesy of the Penn Museum, image#150888 [Fig. 02-06b]

Sumer (8 of 9)
• Royal tombs
– The Standard of Ur employs scenes of battle and banquet utilizing
the same techniques and materials.
 While the function of the box is unknown, the three registers
are the best surviving examples of pictorial narrative from the
time period.

SCENES OF WAR
The front of a box known as the Standard of Ur. c. 2600–2500 BCE.
Shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone inlaid in bitumen, originally attached to the large
sides of a rectangular wooden box, each 8 × 19″ (20.3 × 48.3 cm).
British Museum, London. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved.
[Fig. 02-7a]

SCENES OF THE CELEBRATION OF VICTORY
The back of a box known as the Standard of Ur. c. 2600–2500 BCE.
Shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone inlaid in bitumen, originally attached to the large
sides of a rectangular wooden box, each 8 × 19″ (20.3 × 48.3 cm).
[Fig. 02-7b]

Sumer (9 of 9)
• Cylinder seals
– Cylinder seals, another invention by Sumerians, identified
property ownership and were made of semiprecious stones.
 The lapis lazuli seal from Ur is one of over 400.
 These seals were usually less than 2 inches high and their
incised scenes did not wear away during repeated use.

CYLINDER SEAL AND ITS MODERN IMPRESSION
From the tomb of Queen Puabi (PG 800), Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq).
c. 2600–2500 BCE. Lapis lazuli, height 1-9/16" (4 cm), diameter 25/32" (2 cm). University
of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.
Courtesy of the Penn Museum, image #10872. [Fig. 02-08]

Akkad (1 of 3)
• The Akkadians settled north of Uruk during the Sumerian period and,
under Sargon I, conquered most of Mesopotamia.
• Disk of Enheduanna
– This circular relief in alabaster depicts the high priestess and
serves as the first recording of an author in human history.

DISK OF ENHEDUANNA
From Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq). c. 2300–2275 BCE.
Alabaster, diameter 10" (25.6 cm).
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.
Courtesy of the Penn Museum, image #150424. [Fig. 02-09]

Akkad (2 of 3)
• Head of a Ruler
– This bronze head is the earliest known hollow-cast sculpture made
in the lost-wax casting process.
– Facial features may reflect a generalized ideal rather than the
unique likeness of its subject, Sargon.
– Ears and inlaid eyes have been removed via deliberate damage.

HEAD OF A MAN (KNOWN AS AN AKKADIAN RULER)
From Nineveh (present-day Ninua, Iraq). c. 2300–2200 BCE.
Copper alloy, height 14-3/8" (36.5 cm).
Iraq Museum, Baghdad. © 2016 Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 02-10]

Akkad (3 of 3)
• The Stele of Naram-Sin
– The Stele of Naram-Sin commemorates a military victory of
Sargon's grandson.
 Naram-Sin is shown in hierarchic scale, meaning that his
large size indicates a higher level of importance.
– The Stele of Naram-Sin commemorates a military victory of
Sargon's grandson.

Ur and Lagash (1 of 2)
• The Akkadian Empire fell around 2180 BCE to the Guti from the
northeast.
• King Umammu of Ur commissioned a ziggurat dedicated to Nanna as
well as many other magnificent buildings.
• The city-state of Lagash was the only one to remain independent
under Gudea.

NANNA ZIGGURAT
Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq). c. 2100–2050 BCE.
© Michael S. Yamashita/CORBIS. [Fig. 02-11]

Ur and Lagash (2 of 2)
• Gudea commissioned votive statues of himself in diorite to embody his
just rule.
– In a votive statue dedicated to the goddess Geshtinanna, Gudea is
shown with a vessel in which water flows in two streams with
leaping fish.

VOTIVE STATUE OF GUDEA
From Girsu (present-day Telloh, Iraq). c. 2090 BCE. Diorite, height 29" (73.7 cm).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN/D. Arnaudet/Louvre, Paris. [Fig. 02-12]

Babylon (1 of 2)
• Political turmoil settled during the time of Hammurabi in Babylon.
– Among Hammurabi's achievements is a written legal code that
appears in cuneiform script on a stele.

Babylon (2 of 2)
• The Code of Hammurabi
– The Stele of Hammurabi included about 300 entries on the rights,
duties, and punishments of Babylonians.
 Most deal with property, with a small number relating to
domestic disputes or physical assault.
– Punishments specifically tailored to the crime, such as "an eye for
an eye," have become the most well known.

STELE OF HAMMURABI
Probably from Sippar; found at Susa (present-day Shush, Iran). c. 1792–1750 BCE.
Basalt, height of stele approx. 7'4" (2.25 m); height of figural relief 28" (71.1 cm).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN/Hervé Lewandowski. [Fig. 02-13]

Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians
• Assyrians rose to dominance about 1400 BCE and collapsed around
600 BCE.
• Rulers built their palaces on high platforms within fortified cities.
– Many contained low reliefs of battles, hunting, tribute to the king,
and religious imagery.

Assurnasirpal II (1 of 2)
• At the capital of Kalhu during the reign of Assurnasirpal II, an ambitious
building program was undertaken to fortify the city.
• Most buildings were made from mud bricks, although decoration was
often made from limestone and alabaster.
• Guardian figures flanked the portals of the walls.

Assurnasirpal II (2 of 2)
• The Lion Hunt
– In this scene, the king stands in a chariot during a dramatic
ceremonial hunt.
• Enemies Crossing the Euphrates to Escape Assyrian Archers
– This low-relief scene sets a battle within a detailed landscape,
recalling an event from 878 BCE.

ASSURNASIRPAL II KILLING LIONS
From the palace complex of Assurnasirpal II, Kalhu (present-day Nimrud, Iraq).
c. 875–860 BCE. Alabaster, height approx. 39" (99.1 cm).
[Fig. 02-14]

A CLOSER LOOK: Enemies Crossing the Euphrates to Escape Assyrian Archers
Palace complex of Assurnasirpal II, Kalhu (present-day Nimrud, Iraq).
c. 875–860 BCE. Alabaster, height approx. 39" (99.1 cm).
[Fig. 02-15]

Sargon II
• The palace complex at Dur Sharrukin stood on a platform about 40
feet high and was accessible only from a wide ramp.
– It featured a main courtyard with service buildings on the right and
temples on the left.
– Colossal lamassus guardian figures combined the head of a man,
the body of a lion, the wings of an eagle, and the horned
headdress of a god.

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE CITADEL AND PALACE COMPLEX OF
SARGON II
Dur Sharrukin (present-day Khorsabad, Iraq). c. 721–706 BCE. The Oriental Institute
Museum, University of Chicago. Courtesy the Oriental Institute Museum, University of
Chicago. [Fig. 02-16]

GUARDIAN FIGURES AT GATE A OF THE CITADEL OF SARGON II DURING ITS
EXCAVATION IN THE 1840S
Dur Sharrukin (present-day Khorsabad, Iraq). c. 721–706 BCE.
World Tourism Organization: Iraq. [Fig. 02-17]

Assurbanipal
• Assurbanipal had his palace at the new capital of Nineveh decorated
with low-relief panels of alabaster.
– One scene depicts a victory celebration wherein the king and
queen are attended by servants and an enemy's head hangs from
a tree.

ASSURBANIPAL AND HIS QUEEN IN THE GARDEN
From the palace at Nineveh (present-day Ninua, Iraq). c. 647 BCE.
Alabaster, height approx. 21" (53.3 cm).
[Fig. 02-18]

Neo-Babylonia
• The most famous Neo-Babylonian ruler was Nebuchadnezzar, who
was a great patron of architecture.
– The Processional Way was up to 66 feet wide and provided a
route for the procession honoring the city's patron god.
 It ended with the Ishtar Gate, a colorful and elaborately
decorated gate with crenellated towers.

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF BABYLON IN THE 6TH CENTURY BCE
The Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of
the University of Chicago [Fig. 02-19]

ISHTAR GATE AND THRONE ROOM WALL
Reconstruction; originally from Babylon (present-day Babil, Iraq). c. 575 BCE.
Glazed brick, height of gate originally 40' (12.2 m) with towers rising 100' (30.5 m).
Vorderasiatisches Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz.
© 2016 Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin
[Fig. 02-20]

Persia (1 of 3)
• The Persians obtained independence in 549 BCE under Cyrus II "the
Great."
• Darius I and his successors were known as the Achaemenids, and
their rule lasted for nearly two centuries.
– They developed fair taxation, standard currency, and improved
communication.

Persia (2 of 3)
• The new capital at Persepolis was built starting in about 515 BCE in a
multicultural style of art.
– It combined Persian, Median, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greek
elements.
– Persepolis was set on a raised platform and laid out on a
rectangular grid.

AERIAL VIEW OF THE CEREMONIAL COMPLEX, PERSEPOLIS
Iran. 518–c. 460 BCE.
Arazu/Fotolia. [Fig. 02-21]

Persia (3 of 3)
• The walls of the Apadana (audience hall) were decorated with low
relief sculpture.
– On one side are ranks of warriors.
– On the staircase are lions attacking bulls, representing the ferocity
of the leaders.
– Elements such as Darius's crown were covered in gold leaf.

APADANA (AUDIENCE HALL) OF DARIUS AND XERXES
Ceremonial Complex, Persepolis, Iran. 518–c. 460 BCE.
© Melba Photo Agency/Alamy Stock Photo.[Fig. 02-22]

DARIUS AND XERXES RECEIVING TRIBUTE
Detail of a relief from the stairway leading to the Apadana, Persepolis, Iran.
491–486 BCE. Limestone, height 8'4" (2.54 m).
Courtesy the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. [Fig. 02-23]

Think About It (1 of 2)
• Describe and characterize the way human figures are represented in
the Sumerian votive figures of Eshnunna. What are the potential
relationships between style and function?
• Discuss the development of relief sculpture in the ancient Near East.
Choose two specific examples, one from the Sumerian period and one
from the Assyrian period, and explain how symbols and stories are
combined to express ideas that were important to these two cultures.

Think About It (2 of 2)
• Select two rulers discussed in this chapter and explain how each
preserved his legacy through commissioned works of art and/or
architecture.
• How did the excavations of Sir Leonard Woolley contribute to our
understanding of the art of the ancient Near East?

chapter 2 survey 1

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