The respiratory system chapter covers the structure and function of the lungs and respiratory system. Key points include how the lungs oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide via the processes of ventilation and gas exchange. Various respiratory conditions are discussed such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, COPD, asthma, and lung cancer. Pneumothorax, atelectasis, and ARDS involve the collapse of parts of the lung. Pulmonary function tests evaluate ventilation and gas exchange efficiency.
The document provides an overview of the respiratory system including lung structure and function, gas exchange, common respiratory diseases, and diagnostic tests. Key points covered include how the lungs oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide through ventilation and gas exchange. Common respiratory conditions like pneumonia, tuberculosis, COPD, and lung cancer are described in terms of causes, presentation, and treatment. Pneumothorax, atelectasis, and respiratory distress syndrome in neonates and adults are also summarized.
There are two major types of emphysema: centrilobular and panlobular. Centrilobular emphysema involves primarily the upper lobes and occurs with loss of respiratory bronchioles in the proximal portion of the acinus, sparing distal alveoli. This pattern is most typical for smokers. Panlobular emphysema occurs with loss of all portions of the acinus from the respiratory bronchiole to the alveoli. This pattern is typical for alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency. Microscopically, emphysema is demonstrated by the loss of alveolar walls with remaining airspaces dilated at high magnification.
This document provides an overview of lung pathology, including:
- The anatomy and physiology of the lungs, mechanics of breathing, and common pathological processes.
- Descriptions of various obstructive lung diseases like asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchiectasis.
- Restrictive lung diseases including fibrosis, granulomatous diseases, and smoking-related conditions.
- Pulmonary vascular diseases, infections, tumors, and pleural diseases. Details are given on pathology, presentation, and microscopic features of many common lung conditions.
The document discusses pleurisy and pleural effusions. It defines the pleura and pleural space, and describes different types of pleural syndromes including dry pleurisy, pleural effusion, pneumothorax, and fibrothorax. Common causes, symptoms, signs, and investigation findings for pleural effusions are outlined. Pleural fluid analysis is described to differentiate exudates from transudates. Differentials are provided for lymphocytic and eosinophilic pleural effusions.
This document summarizes various pathologies that can affect the respiratory system. It begins by discussing various diseases that can cause inflammation in different parts of the respiratory tract, such as epistaxis (nose bleeding), rhinitis (inflammation of the nasal mucosa), sinusitis (inflammation of the sinuses), laryngitis (inflammation of the larynx), and tracheitis (inflammation of the trachea). It then discusses pathologies that can affect the lungs, such as different types of pneumonia (suppurative bronchopneumonia, fibrinous bronchopneumonia, interstitial pneumonia, and embolic pneumonia), pulmonary edema, atelectasis, and pulmonary emphysema. It provides descriptions
This document discusses bronchitis in children, including defining bronchitis, causes, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. It describes bronchitis as an inflammatory disease of the bronchi mucous membrane causing cough and sputum production. The document outlines infectious and non-infectious causes and provides details on viral, bacterial, and mixed etiologies. It recommends treatment approaches including antiviral medications, antibiotics, and medications to reduce inflammation and normalize mucus secretion and cough.
The respiratory tract is divided into three segments: the upper respiratory tract, respiratory airways, and lungs. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, paranasal sinuses, and throat. The respiratory airways include the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. The lungs contain the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange with the blood. The respiratory tract is susceptible to both upper and lower respiratory infections caused by viruses and bacteria. Common upper respiratory infections include strep throat, caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, which if left untreated can lead to rheumatic fever or glomerulone
The document provides an overview of the respiratory system including lung structure and function, gas exchange, common respiratory diseases, and diagnostic tests. Key points covered include how the lungs oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide through ventilation and gas exchange. Common respiratory conditions like pneumonia, tuberculosis, COPD, and lung cancer are described in terms of causes, presentation, and treatment. Pneumothorax, atelectasis, and respiratory distress syndrome in neonates and adults are also summarized.
There are two major types of emphysema: centrilobular and panlobular. Centrilobular emphysema involves primarily the upper lobes and occurs with loss of respiratory bronchioles in the proximal portion of the acinus, sparing distal alveoli. This pattern is most typical for smokers. Panlobular emphysema occurs with loss of all portions of the acinus from the respiratory bronchiole to the alveoli. This pattern is typical for alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency. Microscopically, emphysema is demonstrated by the loss of alveolar walls with remaining airspaces dilated at high magnification.
This document provides an overview of lung pathology, including:
- The anatomy and physiology of the lungs, mechanics of breathing, and common pathological processes.
- Descriptions of various obstructive lung diseases like asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchiectasis.
- Restrictive lung diseases including fibrosis, granulomatous diseases, and smoking-related conditions.
- Pulmonary vascular diseases, infections, tumors, and pleural diseases. Details are given on pathology, presentation, and microscopic features of many common lung conditions.
The document discusses pleurisy and pleural effusions. It defines the pleura and pleural space, and describes different types of pleural syndromes including dry pleurisy, pleural effusion, pneumothorax, and fibrothorax. Common causes, symptoms, signs, and investigation findings for pleural effusions are outlined. Pleural fluid analysis is described to differentiate exudates from transudates. Differentials are provided for lymphocytic and eosinophilic pleural effusions.
This document summarizes various pathologies that can affect the respiratory system. It begins by discussing various diseases that can cause inflammation in different parts of the respiratory tract, such as epistaxis (nose bleeding), rhinitis (inflammation of the nasal mucosa), sinusitis (inflammation of the sinuses), laryngitis (inflammation of the larynx), and tracheitis (inflammation of the trachea). It then discusses pathologies that can affect the lungs, such as different types of pneumonia (suppurative bronchopneumonia, fibrinous bronchopneumonia, interstitial pneumonia, and embolic pneumonia), pulmonary edema, atelectasis, and pulmonary emphysema. It provides descriptions
This document discusses bronchitis in children, including defining bronchitis, causes, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. It describes bronchitis as an inflammatory disease of the bronchi mucous membrane causing cough and sputum production. The document outlines infectious and non-infectious causes and provides details on viral, bacterial, and mixed etiologies. It recommends treatment approaches including antiviral medications, antibiotics, and medications to reduce inflammation and normalize mucus secretion and cough.
The respiratory tract is divided into three segments: the upper respiratory tract, respiratory airways, and lungs. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, paranasal sinuses, and throat. The respiratory airways include the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. The lungs contain the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange with the blood. The respiratory tract is susceptible to both upper and lower respiratory infections caused by viruses and bacteria. Common upper respiratory infections include strep throat, caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, which if left untreated can lead to rheumatic fever or glomerulone
The document provides an overview of different types of lung abnormalities visible on chest x-rays, including various pneumonias, masses, and other conditions. It describes lobar pneumonias, bronchopneumonias, segmental pneumonias, necrotizing pneumonias, round pneumonias, and diffuse pneumonias. For each type, it lists common causes and provides examples of chest x-rays demonstrating related pathologies.
Lecture 28. common repratory pathological condirtion part 3ayeayetun08
Simple coal worker's pneumoconiosis is caused by inhalation of carbon particles and presents as small black macules near respiratory bronchioles. Progressive massive fibrosis develops from coalescence of coal nodules and scarring, forming large intensely blackened lesions over years. Bronchiectasis is characterized by permanent dilation of bronchi and bronchioles caused by repeated cycles of obstruction and infection, clinically presenting as chronic cough and copious purulent sputum. Pneumoconiosis describes occupational lung diseases from mineral dust inhalation like silicosis, with pathogenesis involving particle-induced macrophage activation and pulmonary fibrosis.
Mahra Nourbakhsh's Lecture for Pathology Assistants, Respiratory SystemMahra Nourbakhsh
The document provides an overview of the respiratory system and its components including the thoracic walls, extraparenchymal airways, pleura, and lungs. It describes the major muscles of respiration and trachea. It discusses the visceral and parietal pleura and pleural cavity. It also covers pulmonary circulation, common pulmonary diseases like asthma, COPD, cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis, and interstitial lung diseases. Diagnostic tests for pulmonary diseases including imaging, pulmonary function tests, and bronchoscopy are summarized.
BRONCHIECTASIS BY DR BASHIR AHMED DAR ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR MEDICINE SOPORE KAS...Prof Dr Bashir Ahmed Dar
Bronchiectasis is the irreversible widening of the airways. It develops through one of three mechanisms: damage to the bronchial wall from infections or inflammation, obstruction of the bronchial lumen, or traction from fibrosis in adjacent tissues. Repeated infections, mucus plugging, and bacterial overgrowth lead to a vicious cycle of progressive airway damage and widening in bronchiectasis. Various congenital defects or conditions like cystic fibrosis can also predispose individuals to developing bronchiectasis by impairing mucus clearance from the lungs.
Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura, the thin membrane that surrounds the lungs. It is usually caused by a viral infection and causes sharp, stabbing chest pain that worsens with breathing or coughing. Diagnosis involves imaging tests and thoracentesis. Treatment focuses on relieving pain and includes antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, cough medication, and draining fluid via chest tube if needed.
This document summarizes various pathologies of the lung including atelectasis, acute lung injury, ARDS, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, bronchiectasis, pneumonia, lung abscess, Good Pasture's syndrome, lung tumors, and a therapeutic classification of lung cancers. It describes the causes, symptoms, and pathology of each condition in detail over multiple paragraphs.
This document discusses empyema, which is an accumulation of thick, purulent fluid in the pleural space caused by bacterial pneumonia, lung abscess, chest trauma, or surgery. Common organisms include Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Empyema develops from a parapneumonic effusion through exudative, fibrino-purulent, and organizing stages. Symptoms include fever, chest pain, and dyspnea. Diagnosis involves imaging and culture of pleural fluid. Treatment requires drainage of fluid, antibiotics for 10-14 days intravenously or longer orally, and oxygen. Nursing diagnoses relate to impaired gas exchange, acute pain, and risk for activity intolerance.
Pneumosclerosis is a pathology characterized by the replacement of lung tissue with connective tissue, resulting in the destruction of elasticity and gas transport in the lungs. It can occur due to various lung diseases like tuberculosis, chronic bronchitis, or pneumonia. Symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, and cyanosis. Diagnosis involves tests like spirometry, x-ray, and CT scan. Treatment focuses on fighting infection, improving lung function, and strengthening immunity. Prevention involves promptly treating respiratory illnesses and strengthening the immune system.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) refers to two lung diseases, chronic bronchitis and emphysema, that are typically caused by smoking and result in limited airflow. The document discusses the definition, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and management of COPD. It notes that COPD is the 4th leading cause of death and involves inflammation and narrowing of the airways leading to shortness of breath. Treatment focuses on improving ventilation, removing secretions, managing complications, and improving overall health.
This document provides information on pneumonia, lung abscess, and bronchiectasis. It discusses the clinical classification, pathophysiology, etiology, risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management of pneumonia. It also covers the etiology, symptoms and diagnosis, and management of lung abscess. Finally, it discusses the introduction, etiology, clinical manifestations and diagnosis, and management of bronchiectasis.
This document discusses various lung pathologies including atelectasis, obstructive lung diseases, pulmonary infections, lung tumors, and pleural lesions. It provides detailed descriptions of different types of atelectasis including resorption, compression, and contraction atelectasis. It also discusses common obstructive lung diseases like emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and bronchiectasis. Various pulmonary infections and their causes are outlined. The most common lung tumors are discussed with a focus on bronchogenic carcinoma. Risk factors for bronchogenic carcinoma like tobacco smoking are examined. Occupational lung diseases including silicosis, asbestosis, and their clinical features are also reviewed.
The document discusses various lung pathologies including:
1. Congenital anomalies such as cystic diseases and tracheal/bronchial anomalies.
2. Traumas from mechanical injuries or bone fractures caused by traffic accidents or firearms.
3. Vascular diseases such as pulmonary congestion and edema from left heart failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome from diffuse capillary damage, and pulmonary embolism from deep vein thrombosis.
Lung abscesses are collections of pus within the lung tissue that can develop from infections like pneumonia or from aspirating foreign materials. Symptoms may include cough, fever, chest pain, and shortness of breath. Diagnosis involves chest x-rays, CT scans, and sputum cultures. Treatment consists of antibiotics chosen based on culture results, drainage procedures, and occasionally surgery for complications. Nursing care focuses on airway clearance techniques, nutrition, pain management, and educating patients on long-term antibiotic use and preventing recurrence.
PATHOGENESIS OF BRONCHIECTASIS BY DR BASHIR AHMED DAR ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR MED...Prof Dr Bashir Ahmed Dar
Dr Bashir Ahmed Dar associate professor medicine chinkipora sopore kashmir presently working in malaysia speaks about bronchiectasis.Bronchiectasis which is defined as the irreversible dilatation of the cartilage-containing airways bronchi or bronchioles.
This document discusses respiratory pathology and pathophysiology, focusing on major pulmonary diseases. It begins by outlining common presenting symptoms of pulmonary disease like cough, hemoptysis, dyspnea, and chest pain. It then examines specific conditions, including respiratory infections, pneumonias, tuberculosis, obstructive lung diseases like COPD and asthma, restrictive lung diseases, cystic fibrosis, and lung cancers. For each, it discusses etiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment.
1. The document discusses the common radiological features of various types of pneumonia. It outlines the typical features seen for different bacterial, viral and fungal causes on x-ray including abnormalities in lung opacities, markings and silhouette signs.
2. Examples of specific pathogens are given with details on their usual presentation and affected age groups. Staphylococcus aureus commonly causes multifocal bilateral pneumonia in infants. Klebsiella pneumoniae typically leads to upper lobe consolidation in elderly patients.
3. Other conditions discussed include tuberculosis, nontuberculous mycobacterial infections, Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, fungal infections and bronchiectasis. Images are provided to illustrate
Lung abscess is a localized necrotic lesion in the lung tissue containing pus that forms a cavity. It is generally caused by aspiration of anaerobic bacteria from the GI tract into the lungs. The most common areas affected are the superior segment of the lower lobes and the posterior segment of the upper lobes. Clinical manifestations include cough producing foul-smelling pus, fever, chest pain, and shortness of breath.
A 65-year-old male smoker presented with left-sided chest pain and difficulty breathing for 2 weeks and was found to have a left pleural effusion secondary to tuberculosis based on symptoms, examination findings showing dullness and absent breath sounds on the left side, and imaging showing pleural effusion on the left.
In occasione della presentazione del Bilancio Sociale Banca Carim 2015, con la partecipazione di TIM WithYouWeDo in Tour Martedì 24 maggio 2016, ore 10.30 a Rimini, Palazzo Agolanti, Via Gambalunga 29.
The document discusses trends in species extinction and how human activities are accelerating extinction rates. The main points are:
1) The current extinction rate is 100 times the historical background rate and is projected to increase to 10,000 times by 2100 due to habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, climate change and overexploitation from human activities.
2) International treaties and national laws like the U.S. Endangered Species Act aim to protect threatened species by regulating trade and designating protected areas, but more funding is needed for recovery plans.
3) We can help reduce extinction rates by establishing more wildlife refuges and protected areas, supporting gene banks and zoos, and adopting sustainable practices to reduce our impact
The document provides an overview of different types of lung abnormalities visible on chest x-rays, including various pneumonias, masses, and other conditions. It describes lobar pneumonias, bronchopneumonias, segmental pneumonias, necrotizing pneumonias, round pneumonias, and diffuse pneumonias. For each type, it lists common causes and provides examples of chest x-rays demonstrating related pathologies.
Lecture 28. common repratory pathological condirtion part 3ayeayetun08
Simple coal worker's pneumoconiosis is caused by inhalation of carbon particles and presents as small black macules near respiratory bronchioles. Progressive massive fibrosis develops from coalescence of coal nodules and scarring, forming large intensely blackened lesions over years. Bronchiectasis is characterized by permanent dilation of bronchi and bronchioles caused by repeated cycles of obstruction and infection, clinically presenting as chronic cough and copious purulent sputum. Pneumoconiosis describes occupational lung diseases from mineral dust inhalation like silicosis, with pathogenesis involving particle-induced macrophage activation and pulmonary fibrosis.
Mahra Nourbakhsh's Lecture for Pathology Assistants, Respiratory SystemMahra Nourbakhsh
The document provides an overview of the respiratory system and its components including the thoracic walls, extraparenchymal airways, pleura, and lungs. It describes the major muscles of respiration and trachea. It discusses the visceral and parietal pleura and pleural cavity. It also covers pulmonary circulation, common pulmonary diseases like asthma, COPD, cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis, and interstitial lung diseases. Diagnostic tests for pulmonary diseases including imaging, pulmonary function tests, and bronchoscopy are summarized.
BRONCHIECTASIS BY DR BASHIR AHMED DAR ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR MEDICINE SOPORE KAS...Prof Dr Bashir Ahmed Dar
Bronchiectasis is the irreversible widening of the airways. It develops through one of three mechanisms: damage to the bronchial wall from infections or inflammation, obstruction of the bronchial lumen, or traction from fibrosis in adjacent tissues. Repeated infections, mucus plugging, and bacterial overgrowth lead to a vicious cycle of progressive airway damage and widening in bronchiectasis. Various congenital defects or conditions like cystic fibrosis can also predispose individuals to developing bronchiectasis by impairing mucus clearance from the lungs.
Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura, the thin membrane that surrounds the lungs. It is usually caused by a viral infection and causes sharp, stabbing chest pain that worsens with breathing or coughing. Diagnosis involves imaging tests and thoracentesis. Treatment focuses on relieving pain and includes antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, cough medication, and draining fluid via chest tube if needed.
This document summarizes various pathologies of the lung including atelectasis, acute lung injury, ARDS, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, bronchiectasis, pneumonia, lung abscess, Good Pasture's syndrome, lung tumors, and a therapeutic classification of lung cancers. It describes the causes, symptoms, and pathology of each condition in detail over multiple paragraphs.
This document discusses empyema, which is an accumulation of thick, purulent fluid in the pleural space caused by bacterial pneumonia, lung abscess, chest trauma, or surgery. Common organisms include Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Empyema develops from a parapneumonic effusion through exudative, fibrino-purulent, and organizing stages. Symptoms include fever, chest pain, and dyspnea. Diagnosis involves imaging and culture of pleural fluid. Treatment requires drainage of fluid, antibiotics for 10-14 days intravenously or longer orally, and oxygen. Nursing diagnoses relate to impaired gas exchange, acute pain, and risk for activity intolerance.
Pneumosclerosis is a pathology characterized by the replacement of lung tissue with connective tissue, resulting in the destruction of elasticity and gas transport in the lungs. It can occur due to various lung diseases like tuberculosis, chronic bronchitis, or pneumonia. Symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, and cyanosis. Diagnosis involves tests like spirometry, x-ray, and CT scan. Treatment focuses on fighting infection, improving lung function, and strengthening immunity. Prevention involves promptly treating respiratory illnesses and strengthening the immune system.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) refers to two lung diseases, chronic bronchitis and emphysema, that are typically caused by smoking and result in limited airflow. The document discusses the definition, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and management of COPD. It notes that COPD is the 4th leading cause of death and involves inflammation and narrowing of the airways leading to shortness of breath. Treatment focuses on improving ventilation, removing secretions, managing complications, and improving overall health.
This document provides information on pneumonia, lung abscess, and bronchiectasis. It discusses the clinical classification, pathophysiology, etiology, risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management of pneumonia. It also covers the etiology, symptoms and diagnosis, and management of lung abscess. Finally, it discusses the introduction, etiology, clinical manifestations and diagnosis, and management of bronchiectasis.
This document discusses various lung pathologies including atelectasis, obstructive lung diseases, pulmonary infections, lung tumors, and pleural lesions. It provides detailed descriptions of different types of atelectasis including resorption, compression, and contraction atelectasis. It also discusses common obstructive lung diseases like emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and bronchiectasis. Various pulmonary infections and their causes are outlined. The most common lung tumors are discussed with a focus on bronchogenic carcinoma. Risk factors for bronchogenic carcinoma like tobacco smoking are examined. Occupational lung diseases including silicosis, asbestosis, and their clinical features are also reviewed.
The document discusses various lung pathologies including:
1. Congenital anomalies such as cystic diseases and tracheal/bronchial anomalies.
2. Traumas from mechanical injuries or bone fractures caused by traffic accidents or firearms.
3. Vascular diseases such as pulmonary congestion and edema from left heart failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome from diffuse capillary damage, and pulmonary embolism from deep vein thrombosis.
Lung abscesses are collections of pus within the lung tissue that can develop from infections like pneumonia or from aspirating foreign materials. Symptoms may include cough, fever, chest pain, and shortness of breath. Diagnosis involves chest x-rays, CT scans, and sputum cultures. Treatment consists of antibiotics chosen based on culture results, drainage procedures, and occasionally surgery for complications. Nursing care focuses on airway clearance techniques, nutrition, pain management, and educating patients on long-term antibiotic use and preventing recurrence.
PATHOGENESIS OF BRONCHIECTASIS BY DR BASHIR AHMED DAR ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR MED...Prof Dr Bashir Ahmed Dar
Dr Bashir Ahmed Dar associate professor medicine chinkipora sopore kashmir presently working in malaysia speaks about bronchiectasis.Bronchiectasis which is defined as the irreversible dilatation of the cartilage-containing airways bronchi or bronchioles.
This document discusses respiratory pathology and pathophysiology, focusing on major pulmonary diseases. It begins by outlining common presenting symptoms of pulmonary disease like cough, hemoptysis, dyspnea, and chest pain. It then examines specific conditions, including respiratory infections, pneumonias, tuberculosis, obstructive lung diseases like COPD and asthma, restrictive lung diseases, cystic fibrosis, and lung cancers. For each, it discusses etiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment.
1. The document discusses the common radiological features of various types of pneumonia. It outlines the typical features seen for different bacterial, viral and fungal causes on x-ray including abnormalities in lung opacities, markings and silhouette signs.
2. Examples of specific pathogens are given with details on their usual presentation and affected age groups. Staphylococcus aureus commonly causes multifocal bilateral pneumonia in infants. Klebsiella pneumoniae typically leads to upper lobe consolidation in elderly patients.
3. Other conditions discussed include tuberculosis, nontuberculous mycobacterial infections, Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, fungal infections and bronchiectasis. Images are provided to illustrate
Lung abscess is a localized necrotic lesion in the lung tissue containing pus that forms a cavity. It is generally caused by aspiration of anaerobic bacteria from the GI tract into the lungs. The most common areas affected are the superior segment of the lower lobes and the posterior segment of the upper lobes. Clinical manifestations include cough producing foul-smelling pus, fever, chest pain, and shortness of breath.
A 65-year-old male smoker presented with left-sided chest pain and difficulty breathing for 2 weeks and was found to have a left pleural effusion secondary to tuberculosis based on symptoms, examination findings showing dullness and absent breath sounds on the left side, and imaging showing pleural effusion on the left.
In occasione della presentazione del Bilancio Sociale Banca Carim 2015, con la partecipazione di TIM WithYouWeDo in Tour Martedì 24 maggio 2016, ore 10.30 a Rimini, Palazzo Agolanti, Via Gambalunga 29.
The document discusses trends in species extinction and how human activities are accelerating extinction rates. The main points are:
1) The current extinction rate is 100 times the historical background rate and is projected to increase to 10,000 times by 2100 due to habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, climate change and overexploitation from human activities.
2) International treaties and national laws like the U.S. Endangered Species Act aim to protect threatened species by regulating trade and designating protected areas, but more funding is needed for recovery plans.
3) We can help reduce extinction rates by establishing more wildlife refuges and protected areas, supporting gene banks and zoos, and adopting sustainable practices to reduce our impact
Bad client speak: A translation of the things freelance clients sayRebekah Lambert
The document does not contain any substantive information and instead consists of commentary on common poor client behaviors experienced by freelance writers and copywriters. The commentary is presented as a "translation" of vague, misleading, or unrealistic client requests or project descriptions. No actual client requests or project details are provided.
O Direito Tributário estuda as regras e procedimentos relativos à principal fonte de receita do Estado, que é a arrecadação de tributos. Os tributos são essenciais para que o Estado possa financiar atividades como educação, saúde e pagamento de servidores públicos, e atender às necessidades da população. O Direito Tributário faz parte do Direito Financeiro, que regula a atividade financeira do Estado no que se refere à obtenção de receita
An e-zine is an electronic magazine or newsletter distributed online through email or websites. E-zines may cover topics related to academic subjects, trades, industries or special interests. Some large publishers provide digital versions of print magazines for a fee, while other e-zines are available freely with advertising or through paid subscriptions. E-zines are typically cheaper and faster to produce than print magazines.
The document provides 10 writing tips that are unconventional. The tips include stopping watching reality TV, avoiding shallow writing by broadening experiences, focusing on story over proper grammar, reading true crime to understand human motivations, appreciating criticism over praise, breaking rules to create breakthroughs, using altered states to influence writing, reading challenging material to learn different perspectives, prioritizing story over structure, and creating situations to develop characters rather than defining them. The document encourages exploring these tips to improve writing skills.
Presentation - How to enjoy Social Media happinessRebekah Lambert
Turn you social media homework into social media happiness with this easy to follow guide on choosing the right social channels for your marketing needs.
SLASSCOM TechTalks - Self-Service Business IntelligenceGogula Aryalingam
Business intelligence (BI) techniques and tools transform raw data into meaningful and useful information to help organizations make effective decisions. Traditional BI systems are expensive, built by specialists, and primarily used by top management. Self-service BI allows individual business users to access and analyze data independently from various sources to gain insights and make decisions more quickly without IT assistance. It provides a more agile approach to complement traditional BI systems.
This presentation introduces the concept of self-service business intelligence, and ends with a demo that showcases how some simple BI could be done using Excel 2013 and Power BI add-ins.
This was presented at Dev Day 2014 in Colombo, Sri Lanka on November 17th, 2014.
This document discusses pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal tract. It provides learning objectives on various GI topics like cleft lip and palate, dental caries, peptic ulcers, appendicitis, diverticulitis, intestinal obstructions and colon cancer. It describes the anatomy and functions of the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. It also discusses various GI diseases, their causes, clinical manifestations and treatments.
The Developer vs. The Relational Database: How to do it rightGogula Aryalingam
Presented at Dev Day 2013, Sri Lanka, this presentation focuses on tips and standards an application developer can utilize when interacting with a relational database. (Slide notes included)
This document provides an overview of the liver, biliary system, and pancreas. It describes the structure and functions of these organs and discusses common diseases that affect them, including viral hepatitis, fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, and diabetes mellitus. Learning objectives cover the pathogenesis, manifestations, treatments, and differences between types of these conditions.
This document provides an overview of the gross anatomy, structure, functions, common conditions, tests, and treatments of the lungs. It describes the key parts of the lungs including lobes, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. The lungs' main functions are to transport oxygen to the bloodstream and release carbon dioxide. Common lung conditions mentioned include chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma, and lung cancer. Tests to evaluate lung health include chest X-rays, CT scans, and pulmonary function tests. Treatments involve surgery such as thoracotomy or lung resection, as well as bronchodilators.
1) Emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and bronchiectasis are obstructive lung diseases. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are often grouped together as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) since most patients have features of both, likely due to cigarette smoking.
2) COPD is a major public health problem and the fifth leading cause of death worldwide. Heavy cigarette smoking and environmental pollutants are significant risk factors.
3) Emphysema is characterized by irreversible destruction of lung tissue and airspace enlargement. It is classified according to anatomical location within the lung lobe. Chronic bronchitis involves inflammation and mucus buildup in the bronchi.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the respiratory system. It describes the upper respiratory tract including the nose, nasal cavity, and pharynx. It then describes the lower respiratory tract including the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. It provides overviews of several respiratory diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, asthma, emphysema, and sarcoidosis, describing their causes, symptoms, and impacts.
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System.pptxSarojPoudel24
The respiratory system has four main functions: pulmonary ventilation, gas diffusion, gas transport, and regulation of ventilation. It is divided into an upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. The lower tract includes the lungs, which are divided into lobes and bronchopulmonary segments. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli via diffusion. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart while deoxygenated blood is carried to the lungs. The respiratory system works to provide oxygen to tissues and remove carbon dioxide through a series of branching airways and blood vessels in the lungs.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) refers to a group of lung diseases including chronic bronchitis and emphysema that are characterized by persistent airflow limitation. The main causes of COPD are tobacco smoking, exposure to secondhand smoke, and air pollution. Symptoms include cough, sputum production, and shortness of breath. Diagnosis involves assessing symptoms, lung function tests, and chest imaging. Treatment focuses on smoking cessation, medications to relieve symptoms and prevent exacerbations, pulmonary rehabilitation, and managing complications.
Help for medical students about topic Suppurative lung diseases - Abscess and gangrene of the lungs, Pneumothorax, Hematorax, Purulent pleurisy. And useful material as required by students. Everything is inserted as per outlines of topics.
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The document discusses the structure and function of the human lungs and respiratory system. It describes the branching structure of the bronchi and bronchioles into terminal bronchioles and alveoli, where gas exchange takes place. It also discusses common lung disorders like atelectasis, pulmonary edema, and respiratory failure which can result from issues with ventilation, perfusion, gas exchange, or the respiratory center in the brain.
The document discusses the structure and function of the human lungs and respiratory system. It describes the branching structure of the bronchi and bronchioles into terminal bronchioles and alveoli, where gas exchange takes place. It also discusses common lung disorders like atelectasis, pulmonary edema, and respiratory failure which can result from issues with ventilation, perfusion, gas exchange or the respiratory centers in the brain.
Respiratory dis. presentation1 for gen path copy (2)Art Arts
1) Respiratory diseases are mainly caused by inhalation of infectious agents, allergens, irritants, and carcinogens. The lungs are open to the environment and lack regenerative abilities.
2) Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) include chronic bronchitis, emphysema, bronchiectasis, and asthma. Tobacco smoke is a major cause and leads to airway obstruction.
3) Pneumonia can result from impaired pulmonary defenses and host resistance. Bacterial and viral pathogens are common causes and treatment involves antibiotics and supportive care.
The document discusses various lower respiratory disorders including:
1. Atelectasis, which is the collapse or closure of the lung resulting in reduced gas exchange. Pneumonia, an inflammation of the lung parenchyma caused by a microbial agent, is discussed along with types such as bacterial, viral, fungal and aspiration pneumonia.
2. Pulmonary tuberculosis, an infectious lung disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is usually spread through the air. Lung abscess, defined as necrosis of lung tissue and cavity formation caused by microbial infection, is also covered.
3. Other conditions mentioned include pleural conditions, pulmonary edema, acute respiratory failure, pulmonary embolism
This document discusses chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), describing its pathology and the changes that occur in the lungs. COPD involves pathological changes in the central airways, peripheral airways, lung parenchyma, and pulmonary vasculature. In the central airways, there is goblet cell and mucous gland hyperplasia leading to excessive mucus production. In the peripheral airways, bronchiolitis and fibrosis occur. Emphysema involves the destruction of lung parenchyma and loss of alveoli. Changes in the pulmonary vasculature include intimal hyperplasia, smooth muscle hypertrophy, and destruction of the capillary bed. Smoking is a major risk factor for COPD
Atelectasis, restrictive and obstructive pulmonary disease.pptxTeshaleTekle1
Atelectasis is the collapse of lung tissue caused by inadequate expansion of air spaces. It is classified into three forms: resorption, compression, and contraction atelectasis. Resorption occurs when an obstruction prevents air from reaching distal airways, causing absorption of existing air and alveolar collapse. Compression results from fluid, blood, or air accumulation in the pleural cavity compressing the lung. Contraction occurs when fibrosis affects lung or pleural expansion. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Emphysema is characterized by destruction of alveolar walls leading to enlarged air spaces, while chronic bronchitis involves inflammation of the large airways and
This document discusses various pulmonary infections including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and their classifications. It describes bronchopneumonia as a patchy pneumonia localized around bronchioles and surrounding alveoli. Lobar pneumonia involves consolidation of an entire lobe and is often caused by pneumococcus. Interstitial pneumonia shows inflammation predominantly in alveolar walls. The document outlines etiologies, pathogenesis, histopathology, and clinical features of different pulmonary infections.
1-4syndromes in Disorders of the Respiratory .pptxMeghanaPreddy
The document summarizes several basic clinical syndromes related to disorders of the respiratory organs. It describes the key symptoms, signs, and diagnostic findings for bronchial obstruction, infiltrative consolidation of the pulmonary tissue, atelectasis, pulmonary emphysema, fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity, pneumothorax, and respiratory failure syndrome. For each syndrome, it provides details on inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation findings, as well as results of supplementary diagnostic techniques like radiography and spirometry.
This document discusses several respiratory diseases including pulmonary emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, atelectasis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, asthma, and respiratory failure. Pulmonary emphysema involves damage to the alveoli walls of the lungs due to smoking or air pollution, reducing lung function. Pneumonia is a lung infection that causes inflammation of the alveoli. Tuberculosis is a bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs. Asthma involves constriction of the bronchioles causing difficulty breathing. Respiratory failure occurs when the lungs can no longer effectively oxygenate the blood or remove carbon dioxide.
Pneumonia is an inflammatory lung condition caused by infection that can be fatal. It has many types depending on location in the lungs and cause. Risk factors include age, smoking, and medical conditions. Symptoms include cough, fever, and difficulty breathing. Diagnosis involves physical exam, labs, imaging and microbiology tests. Complications can include empyema or lung abscess if not treated with antibiotics, oxygen, breathing exercises, and posture changes.
This document discusses infectious and destructive diseases of the bronchopulmonary system. It describes lung abscess, pulmonary gangrene, and bronchiectasis. Key causes include various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Infection can enter the lungs via bronchogenic, lymphogenic, hematogenous, or direct spread from neighboring organs. Clinical manifestations include cough, sputum production, fever, and chest pain. Treatment involves antibiotics, drainage, and rehabilitation of the bronchi and lungs. Surgery may be needed for complications like bleeding or empyema.
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Kat...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kol...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Versio
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
2. Learning Objectives
• Principles of ventilation and gas exchange
• Causes, clinical effects, complications, and treatment
– Pneumothorax
– Atelectasis
– Tuberculosis
• Differentiate bronchitis vs. bronchiectasis
• COPD, bronchial asthma, RDS: pathogenesis, anatomic and
physiologic derangements, clinical manifestations, treatment
• Asbestosis
• Lung carcinoma: types, manifestations, and treatment
3. Oxygen Delivery:
A Cooperative Effort
• Respiratory system oxygenates blood and
removes carbon dioxide
• Circulatory system transports gases in the
bloodstream
4. Lung: Structure and Function
• System of tubes conduct air into and out of the lungs
–
–
–
–
Bronchi: largest conducting tube
Bronchioles: less than 1 mm
Terminal bronchioles: smallest
Respiratory bronchioles: distal to terminal bronchiole with alveoli
projecting from walls; form alveolar ducts and sacs; transport air and
participate in gas exchange
• Alveoli: O2 and CO2 exchange; surrounded by alveolar septum;
with cells that produce surfactant
• Lung divided into lobes consisting of smaller units or lobules
6. Gas Exchange (1 of 2)
• Two functions of respiration
• Ventilation: movement of air into and out of lungs
– Inspiration
– Expiration
• Gas exchange between alveolar air and pulmonary capillaries
–
–
–
–
Atmospheric pressure, sea level = 760 mmHg
Partial pressure: part of total atmospheric pressure exerted by a gas
Partial pressure of oxygen, P02
= 0.20 x 760 mmHg = 152 mmHg
7. Gas Exchange (2 of 2)
• Gases diffuse between blood, tissues, and pulmonary alveoli due to
differences in their partial pressures
– Alveolar air
– ↑ P02 105 mmHg
– ↓ PC02 35 mmHg
Blood (Pulm capillaries)
P02 20 mmHg
PC02 60 mmHg
• Requirements for efficient gas exchange
–
–
–
–
Large capillary surface area in contact with alveolar membrane
Unimpeded diffusion across alveolar membrane
Normal
Normal
8. Pulmonary Function Tests
• Evaluate efficiency of pulmonary ventilation and
pulmonary gas exchange
• Tested by measuring volume of air that can be moved
into and out of lungs under normal conditions
• Vital capacity: maximum volume of air expelled after
maximum inspiration
• One-second forced expiratory volume (FEV1): maximum
volume of air expelled in 1 second
9. The Pleural Cavity
• Pleura: thin membrane covering lungs (visceral pleura) and
internal surface of the chest wall (parietal pleura)
• Pleural cavity: potential space between lungs and chest wall
• Intrapleural pressure: pressure within pleural cavity
– Normally lesser than intrapulmonary pressure
– Referred as “negative pressure” or subatmospheric because it is lesser
than atmospheric pressure
– Tendency of stretched lung to pull away from chest creates a vacuum
– Release of vacuum in pleural cavity leads to lung collapse
10. Pneumothorax (1 of 2)
• Escape of air into pleural space due to lung injury or disease
• Stab wound or penetrating injury to chest wall: atmospheric air
enters into pleural space
• Spontaneous pneumothorax – no apparent cause; rupture of
small, air-filled subpleural bleb at lung apex
• Manifestations:
11. Pneumothorax (2 of 2)
• Tension pneumothorax
– Positive pressure develops in pleural cavity
– Air flows through perforation into pleural cavity on inspiration but cannot
escape on expiration
– Pressure builds up in pleural cavity displacing heart and mediastinal
structures away from affected side
• Chest tube inserted into pleural cavity; left in place until tear in
lung heals
– Prevents accumulation of air in pleural cavity
– Aids re-expansion of lung
12. Atelectasis (1 of 2)
• Collapse of lung
• Obstructive atelectasis caused by bronchial obstruction from
–
–
–
–
–
–
Mucous secretions, tumor, foreign object
Part of lung supplied by obstructed bronchus collapses as air absorbed
Reduced volume of affected pleural cavity
Mediastinal structures shift toward side of atelectasis
Diaphragm elevates on affected side
May develop as a postoperative complication
13. Atelectasis (2 of 2)
• Compression atelectasis
– From external compression of lung by
– Fluid
– Air
– Blood in pleural cavity
– Reduced lung volume and expansion
14. Before atelectasis
Atelectasis of entire left lung
Affected lung appears dense with
absorption of air; left half of diaphragm
elevated; trachea and mediastinal
structures shifted to side of collapse
15. Pneumonia (1 of 3)
• Inflammation of the lung
–
–
–
–
Exudate spreads through lung
Exudate fills alveoli
Affected lung portion becomes relatively solid (consolidation)
Exudate may reach pleural surface causing irritation and inflammation
• Classification
– By etiology
– By anatomic distribution of inflammatory process
– By predisposing factors
16. Pneumonia (2 of 3)
• Etiology: most important, serves as a guide for treatment
– Bacteria, viruses, fungi, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, Rickettsia
• Anatomic distribution of inflammatory process
– Lobar: infection of entire lung by pathogenic bacteria
– Legionnaire’s Disease: gram-negative rod
– Bronchopneumonia: infection of parts of lobes or lobules
adjacent to bronchi by pathogenic bacteria
– Interstitial or primary atypical pneumonia: caused by virus or
Mycoplasma; involves alveolar septa than alveoli; septa with
lymphocytes and plasma cells
17. Pneumonia (3 of 3)
• Predisposing factors
– Any condition associated with poor lung ventilation and retention of
bronchial secretions
– Postop pneumonia: accumulation of mucous secretions in bronchi
– Aspiration pneumonia: foreign body, food, vomit
– Obstructive pneumonia: distal to bronchial narrowing
• Clinical features of pneumonia
– Fever, cough, purulent sputum, pain on respiration, shortness of breath
18. Pneumocystis Pneumonia
• Cause: Pneumocystis carinii, protozoan parasite of low pathogenicity
• Affects mainly immunocompromised persons
– AIDS, receiving immunosuppressive drugs, premature infants
• Cysts contain sporozoites released from cysts that mature to form
trophozoites; sporozoites appear as dark dots at the center of cyst on
stained smears
• Organisms attack and injure alveolar lining leading to exudation of
protein material into alveoli
• Cough, dyspnea, pulmonary consolidation
• Diagnosis:
19. Tuberculosis
• Infection from acid-fast bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Organism has a capsule composed of waxes and fatty substances;
resistant to destruction
• Transmission: airborne droplets
• Granuloma:
• Multi-nucleated giant cells: bacteria + fused monocytes + periphery
of lymphocytes and plasma cells
– Organisms lodge within pulmonary alveoli
– Granulomas are formed
– Spreads into kidneys, bones, uterus, fallopian tubes, others
20. Tuberculosis-Outcome
•
•
•
•
•
Infection arrested and granulomas heal with scarring
Infection may be asymptomatic, detected only by chest x-ray and/or Mantoux
test
Infection reactivated: healed granulomas contain viable organisms reactivated
with reduced immunity leading to progressive pulmonary TB
Spread through blood to other organs (extrapulmonary)
– Secondary focus of infection may progress even if pulmonary infection has
healed
Diagnosis
– Skin test (Mantoux)
–
–
21. Reactivated and Miliary Tuberculosis
• Reactivated tuberculosis: active TB in adults from reactivation of an
old infection; healed focus of TB flares up with lowered immune
resistance
• Miliary tuberculosis
– Multiple foci (small, white nodules, 1-2 mm in diameter) of disseminated
tuberculosis, resembling millet seeds
– Large numbers of organisms disseminated in body when a mass of
tuberculous inflammatory tissue erodes into a large blood vessel
– Extensive consolidation of one or more lobes of lung
– At-risk:
22. Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis
• Resistant strains of organisms emerge with failure to complete
treatment or premature cessation of treatment
• Multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis, MTB
– TB caused by organisms resistant to at least two of the anti-TB drugs
– Course of treatment is prolonged
– Results less satisfactory
• Extremely drug-resistant tuberculosis, XDR-TB
– Caused by organisms no longer controlled by many anti-TB drugs
– Eastern Europe, South Africa, Asia, some cases in the United States
25. Bronchitis and Bronchiectasis
• Inflammation of the tracheobronchial mucosa
• Acute bronchitis
• Chronic bronchitis: from chronic irritation of respiratory mucosa
by smoking or atmospheric pollution
• Bronchiectasis: walls weakened by inflammation become saclike
and fusiform
– Distended bronchi retain secretions
– Chronic cough; purulent sputum; repeated bouts of pulmonary infection
• Diagnosis: bronchogram
• Only effective treatment:
26. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(1 of 4)
• Combination of emphysema and chronic bronchitis
• Pulmonary emphysema
– Destruction of fine alveolar structure of lungs with formation of large cystic
spaces
– Destruction begins in upper lobes eventually affecting all lobes of both lungs
– Dyspnea, initially on exertion; later, even at rest
• Chronic bronchitis:
27. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (2 of 4)
• Three main anatomic derangements in COPD
• Inflammation and narrowing of terminal bronchioles
– Swelling of bronchial mucosa → reduced caliber of bronchi and bronchioles
→ increased bronchial secretions → increased resistance to air flow → air
enters lungs more readily than it can be expelled → trapping of air at
expiration
• Dilatation and coalescence of pulmonary air spaces
– Diffusion of gases less efficient from large cystic spaces
• Loss of lung elasticity; lungs no longer recoil normally following
inspiration
28. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (3 of 4)
• Chronic irritation: smoking and inhalation of injurious agents
• Pathogenesis
– 1.
– Narrows bronchioles; increased resistance to expiration; causing air to be trapped in
lung
– 2. Leukocytes accumulate in bronchioles and alveoli, releasing proteolytic
enzymes that attack elastic fibers of lung’s structural support
– 3. Coughing and increased intrabronchial pressure convert alveoli into
large, cystic air spaces, over-distended lung cannot expel air
– 4. Retention of secretions predisposes to pulmonary infection
29. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (4 of 4)
• Lungs damaged by emphysema cannot be restored to normal
• Management
– Promote drainage of bronchial secretions
– Decrease frequency of superimposed pulmonary infections
– Surgery does not improve survival, initial benefit is short-term
30. Bronchial Asthma
• Spasmodic contraction of smooth muscles on walls of
bronchi and bronchioles
• Dyspnea and wheezing on expiration
• Greater impact on expiration than on inspiration
• Attacks are precipitated by allergens: inhalation of dust,
pollens, animal dander, other allergens
• Treatment
– Drugs that dilate bronchial walls: epinephrine or theophylline
– Drugs that block release of mediators from mast cells
31. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
•
•
•
Progressive respiratory distress soon after birth
Hyaline membrane disease after red-staining membranes lining alveoli
Pathogenesis: inadequate surfactant in lungs
– Alveoli do not expand normally during inspiration
– Tends to collapse during expiration
•
At-risk groups
– Premature infants
– Infants delivered by cesarean section
– Infants born to diabetic mothers
•
Treatment
– Adrenal corticosteroids to mother before delivery
– Oxygen + surfactant
32. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Leakage of protein rich in fibrinogen that tends to clot and
form adherent eosinophilic hyaline membranes impeding
gas exchange.
33. Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Shock – major manifestation
• Conditions: fall in blood pressure and reduced blood flow to lungs
– Severe injury (traumatic shock)
– Systemic infection (septic shock)
– Aspiration of acid gastric contents
– Inhalation of irritant or toxic gases
– Damage caused by SARS
• Damaged alveolar capillaries leak fluid and protein
• Impaired surfactant production from damaged alveolar lining cells
• Formation of intra-alveolar hyaline membrane
34. Comparison: Neonatal Versus Adult
Neonatal Respiratory Distress
Groups
Affected
Premature infants
Adult Respiratory Distress
Adults sustained direct or indirect lung
damage
Delivery by cesarean section
Infant born to diabetic mother
Pathogenesis
Inadequate surfactant
Direct damage: lung trauma,
aspiration, irritant or toxic gases
Indirect damage: ↓ pulmonary blood
flow from shock or sepsis
Associated condition: surfactant
production reduced
Treatment
Corticosteroids to mother before
delivery
Support circulation & respiration
Endotracheal surfactant
Endotracheal tube & respirator
Oxygen
Positive pressure oxygen
35. Pulmonary Fibrosis
• Fibrous thickening of alveolar septa from irritant gases,
organic, and inorganic particles
– Makes lungs rigid restricting normal respiratory excursions
– Diffusion of gases hampered due to increased alveolar thickness
– Causes progressive respiratory disability similar to emphysema
• Collagen diseases
• Pneumoconiosis: lung injury from inhalation of injurious
dust or other particulate material
– Silicosis (rock dust) and asbestosis (asbestos fibers)
36. Lung Carcinoma
•
•
•
•
•
Usually smoking-related neoplasm
Common malignant tumor in both men and women
Mortality from lung cancer in women exceeds breast cancer
Arises from mucosa of bronchi and bronchioles
Rich lymphatic and vascular network in lungs facilitates
metastasis
• Often referred as bronchogenic carcinoma because cancer
usually arises from bronchial mucosa
• Treatment:
37. Lung Carcinoma Classification
• Classification
–
–
–
–
Squamous cell carcinoma: very common
Adenocarcinoma: very common
Large cell carcinoma: large, bizarre epithelial cells
Small cell carcinoma: small, irregular dark cells with scanty cytoplasm
resembling lymphocytes; very poor prognosis
• Prognosis
– Depends on histologic type
– Generally poor due to early spread to distant sites
38. Squamous cell carcinoma,
lung. Partially obstructing a
major bronchus
Adenocarcinoma, lung
Arising from smaller
bronchus at lung
periphery
40. Discussion
1. Differentiate MDR-TB from XDR-TB. What are the clinical and
practical implications of these cases?
2. What socio-economic factors are associated with the increased
prevalence of tuberculosis? Under what circumstances may an old
inactive tuberculous infection become activated? What types of
patients are susceptible to a reactivated tuberculosis?
3. What is the difference between pulmonary emphysema and
pulmonary fibrosis? What factors predispose to their
development?