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Chapter 1-Introduction to Plant Breeding-.pdf

an introduction to plant breeding

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Principles of Plant Breeding PSCI 4833 Somashekhar Punnuri Fort Valley State University Fort Valley, GA punnuris@fvsu.edu
Etiquettes & codes for class Come prepared for the class and Do the readings Refer to the course outline and syllabus for textbooks and other informations Show curiosity in Science through questions Be prepared to answer and interact Everyone’s opinion will be heard and respected Develop greater insights from this course by the end of semester Use of cellphone in the class is strictly prohibited Have fun and enjoy the lectures
Objective To introduce the general principles of plant breeding. Provide knowledge base of world, USA and Georgia crops breeding production methods. Overview the impacts of world and local agricultural. Provide a basic knowledge of the processes by which our major food and nonfood agricultural crops are produced.
Agriculture and its importance ◼ Agricultural products used in everyday life- Food, Fiber and energy- nutrition is a key determinant of human health, , Fiber for construction material, provider of energy-fuel-wood and medicinal plants • Agriculture is key to a healthy biosphere and economic driver. It is central to: – Nation’s economic growth-US is major exporter • Individual livelihoods
What is Plant Breeding? a systematic process using scientific methods in order to improve plant traits also collectively known as plant phenotype by crossing and selection and manipulation at the genotype composition with the favorable genes selection: the process of breeding for a specific trait Deliberate and intentional – selective breeding is a form of genetic engineering
Plant Breeding ◼ To develop genetically superior cultivars which are adapted to specific environmental conditions and suitable for economic production in a commercial cropping system. ◼ These new, and more productive cultivars, are increasingly necessary to fulfil humankind´s increasing needs for food, fibre and fuels.
What is Plant Breeding ◼ Plant breeding is an art and science, which tells us ways and means to change the genetic architecture of plants to accomplish specific objective. Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to more complex molecular techniques ◼ Art lies in breeder’s skill in observing plants for useful characteristics ◼ Selection was earliest form of plant breeding ◼ Selections from Land Races or Populations—Turkey Red ◼ Science—based on recognition of gene as unit of heredity ◼ The science of improving the heredity of plant desirable characters ◼ Hybridization became principal plant breeding procedure ◼ Evaluation and selection in segregating populations ◼ Molecular genetics—offers new techniques for breeder ◼ Permits transfer of DNA between species ◼ Traditional and molecular breeding involves creation of desired genotype to reflect on improved phenotype
Plants with higher qualities are selected by and crossed to obtain plants with desired quality. This results in a plant population with improved and desired traits.
Crop Evolution and Domestication Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years, since near the beginning of human civilization.
Why did humans become farmers and not remain hunter/foragers?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IVHD9wGlbho https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MsdxAKuClsc Videos on domestication and cultivation
Region Crop Domestication Mesoamerica Squash 10,000 Maize 6,500 Central America Cassava, 7,000-5,000 Arrowroot, Yam, Maize Fertile Crescent Lentil, Einkorn 9,500-9,000 wheat, Flax China Rice 9,000-8,000 Earliest Crop Domestication
Time period Evidence of crop cultivation > 5,000 Years pea, barley, wheat, maize, millet, lentil, beans, rice, potato, etc. 1,000 to 5,000 years sugar beet, sunflower, soybean, alfalfa, onion, cotton, etc. < 1,000 years rapeseed, coffee, rubber, macadamia Crops cultivated from since ages
Fertile Crescent where farming began
Plant Breeding as an Art and Science Origins of Agriculture Harlan (1992) outlined six major regions in which agricultural origins occurred We will examine, briefly, the Near East and Meso-America. The Near East serves as a general introduction to self-pollinated species, focusing on common wheat (Triticum aestivum, 2n=6x=42, genomes ABD) Meso-America serves as a general introduction to cross -pollinated species focusing on corn (Zea mays L., 2n = 2x = 20).
sunflower potato, maize, bean cotton, rubber millet, coffee barley, wheat, lentil, pea sugarbeet, rapeseed alfalfa, apple rice, . soybean
Plants with higher qualities are selected by and crossed to obtain plants with desired quality. This results in a plant population with improved and desired traits.
The Near East At the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, across a broad arching zone of grasslands and open oak-pistachio woodlands called the Fertile Crescent the world’s first agricultural economies emerged between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago (the Neolithic revolution). Landraces of Self-Pollinated Species The heterogeneous populations grown by Neolithic farmers are called landraces—heterogeneous cultivated forms that evolved from natural populations of plant species.
CROP PLANT DOMESTICATION The process of bringing a wild species under human selection to fit the needs of human civilization Table 4.1 Centres of original domestication of some important crop plants as proposed by Vavilov (1926) Centre Species -8 centres 1 Chinese Soybean, apricot, peach, orange 2 Indian Rice, chickpea, cucumber 2a. Indo-Malayan Banana, coconut 3 Central Asiatic (Afghanistan, Tibet, Iran) Bread wheat, cereal rye, peas, pear, apple, walnut 4 Near Eastern (Transcaucasia, Turkey, Syria, Southern Russia) Diploid wheat, barley, lucerne 5 Mediterranean Durum wheat, oats, broad bean, lettuce, cabbage, olive 6 Abyssinian Durum wheat, barley, peas, flax 7 South and Central American Maize, common bean, pepper, cotton (upland), squash, pumpkin 8 South American (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia) Sweet potato, potato, Lima bean, tobacco, tomato 8a. Chile Potato 8b. Brazilian-Paraguayan Potato E-Book: Principles of Field Crop Production David Luckett and Gerald Halloran. Plant Breeding; In (Ed Jim Pratley) “Principles of Field Crop Production” ( Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga Australia)
Agriculture arose 15000 years ago across globe after thousands of years of collaboration between people and plants. Culture part of agriculture.
History of Plant Breeding It started when man first chose certain plants for cultivation. There is no recorded history when the plant breeding started. ➢ As early as 700 BC Babylonians and Assyrians artificially pollinated the date palm. ➢ In 1717 Thomas Fairchild produced the first artificial hybrid. ➢ Joseph Kolreuter, a German made extensive crosses in Tobacco and Solanum between 1760 and 1866 and studied the progenies in detail. ➢ Thomas Andrew Knight (1759-1835) was the first man to produce several new fruit varieties by using artificial hybridization. ➢ Le Coutier, a farmer published his results on selection in wheat in the year 1843. He concluded that progenies from single plants were more uniform. ➢ Patrick Shireff a Scotsman practiced individual plant selection in wheat and oats and developed some valuable varieties. ➢ Vilmorin (1857) proposed individual plant selection based on progeny testing. This was known as “Vilmorins principle of progeny testing’. He proposed this progeny testing in sugar content in sugar beets (Beta vulgaris). But this method was ineffective in wheat. ➢ This clearly demonstrated the difference between effect of selection in cross and self pollinated crops. ➢ Nilsson and his associates in Sweedish Seed Association, Svalof Sweeden (1890) refined the single plant selection. Principles of Plant Breeding 4 www.AgriMoon.Com
In 1903 Johansen proposed the famous ‘pure line theory’ which states that a pure line is progeny of a single self fertilized homozygous plant. He proposed this theory based on his studies in Phaseolus vulgaris. G.H. Shull work in maize is the forerunner for the present day hybrid maize program. He described in detail about the effect of inbreeding. During 1960’s Norman Borlaug, the Nobel laureate developed Mexican semi dwarf wheat varieties, which paved the way for green revolution in wheat. The dwarfing gene was isolated from wheat variety Norin 10. In rice the identification of dwarf Dee Gee Woo Gen from a tall rice variety by a Taiwan farmer revolutionized rice breeding. Using this DGWG at IRRI during 1965 the wonder rice IR 8 was released. Golden rice –provitamin A was approved in July 2021 in Philippines. History of Plant Breeding Principles of Plant Breeding 4 www.AgriMoon.Com
Role of USDA in agriculture
Father of Green Revolution ◼ Norman Borlaug Quote: ◼ “What we need is courage by the leaders of those countries where farmers still have no choice but to use older and less effective methods. The Green Revolution and now plant biotechnology are helping meet the growing demand for food production, while preserving our environment for future generations” (ISAAA, 2009). Dr. Norman Borlaug- Nobel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug (Mar 25, 1914 - Sep 12, 2009) Wheat pathologist and breeder Mexican agricultural program-1943 Created yield increases ranging from 40- 400% using high-yielding semi-dwarf wheat
• The Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an organization established under FAO, co-ordinates agricultural research on a global basis. Under CGIAR, the following international research institutes are functioning presently: • ICRISAT-International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Hyderabad, India • IITA-International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria • CIMMYT-International Wheat and Maize Improvement Center, Mexico. • IRRI-International Rice Research Institute, Manila, The Philippines. • CIAT-International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Palmira, Colombia • CIP-International Potato Center, Lima, Peru • ICARDA-International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Lebanon, Syria. • WARDA- West African Rice Development Research Station, Monrovia, Liberia • BIODIVERSITY INTERNATIONAL-Biodiversity International, Rome, Italy International centers for agriculture improvement across globe
E-Book: Principles of Field Crop Production David Luckett and Gerald Halloran. Plant Breeding; In (Ed Jim Pratley) “Principles of Field Crop Production” ( Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga Australia) Figure 4.1 The central nature of plant breeding
Involves many disciplines or branches of learning, includes all areas of Life Sciences Gene Manipulation Starts At the DNA Level Domestication of corn from Teosinte and plant breeding evolved since 10,000 years of human civilization. Modern biotechnology involves combination of tools and techniques to enhance genetic engineering.
Genotype vs. Phenotype ◼ trait: a genetically determined characteristic ◼ genotype: the genetic make up of an organism ◼ phenotype: the physical characteristics of an organism 30 www.OneLessThing.net
Objectives of Plant Breeding ◼ International development agencies believe that breeding new crops is important for ensuring food security by developing new varieties that are higher-yielding, resistant to pests and diseases, drought-resistant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing conditions. ◼ The objectives may be ◼ a) Crop improvement-Increasing the yield ◼ b) Improved agronomic characters-Elimination of toxic substance, food processing qualities, nutrition content ◼ c) Resistance against biotic and abiotic stress- ex. drought, frost, sugarcane aphid resistance, leaf spot diseases
Examples of trait modifications ◼ Change in maturity duration – Evolution of early maturing varieties ◼ Improved agronomic characters -Production of more tillers – E.g. Rice, Bajra, Reducing the plant height to prevent lodging – Rice ◼ Photoinsensitivity – Pigeon pea, sorghum ◼ Non-shattering nature – Green gram, Brassicas ◼ Synchronized maturity – Pulses ◼ Determinate Growth habit –determinate growth – Pulses ◼ Elimination or introduction of dormancy –Groundnut
Cultivars ◼ Cultivar: a plant that has been bred/developed to have specific and distinguishable characteristics that will be passed on to its offspring also known as a variety www.OneLessThing.net The basic concept of varietal development is rather simple and involves three distinct operations: ◦ Produce or identify genetically diverse germplasm; ◦ Carry out selection procedures on phenotypes or genotypes from within this germplasm to identify superior genotypes with specifically and improved characteristics; ◦ Stabilize and multiply these superior genotypes and release cultivars for commercial production.
Hybrids ◼ Hybrid: offspring that result from breeding individual of different varieties or species ◼ hybrid vigor: when the offspring of distinctly different individuals have traits greater than the parents ◼ mutation: a genetic variation that occurs naturally (can be a favorable trait) 34 www.OneLessThing.net
The Influence of Darwin and Mendel on Plant Breeding Darwin began the age of population thinking. It replaced the abstract or metaphysical view of variation of the Essentialist with the materialist view of the Darwinist by focusing on the variation among organisms as a pivotal fact of nature. Darwin considered intraspecific variation to be the cornerstone of evolution. The variation among members of a single species was no longer considered an annoying distortion of the ‘ideal’ divine creation. Darwin believed that evolution was simply the application of the plant and animal breeder’s activities to the mechanisms of nature as a whole. Mendel put emphasis on the variation among the offspring of his crosses rather than on an average description of them. He divided the progeny into categories, counted the number of offspring in each category, and then calculated ratios of numbers of individuals in each category. Unlike his predecessors who seemed to be satisfied to just obtain progeny from crosses, Mendel’s approach considered the whole population and sought out the underlying mechanisms controlling the variation in the populations.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) ◼ Developed Five Theories: – Evolution - the world is not static – Common descent - common ancestors – Gradualism - transformation is slow – Multiplication of species - geographical dimension – Natural selection - differential reproductive success
Adaptive radiation
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) ◼ Unique Contributions to Science: – Data from individuals, not populations – Statistical treatment of data – Clarity of reasoning – Hypothesis testing – Replication over traits and time – Recognition of germinal continuity as basis for heredity Phenotypic ratio of monohybrid cross- 3:1 Genotypic ratio of monohybrid cross-1:2:1 The progeny formed after crossing YY with yy F1 is always Yy
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) ◼ Worked in monastery garden ◼ Time period = 1856-1863 ◼ Published: “Experiments on Plant Hybrids” in obscure journal ◼ Worked ‘discovered’ in 1900
Gregor Mendel S = smooth s = wrinkled ◼ Dominant vs Recessive genes The progeny formed after crossing SS with ss F1 is always Ss Phenotypic ratio of monohybrid cross- 3:1 Genotypic ratio of monohybrid cross-1:2:1
Gregor Mendel ◼ Dominant vs Recessive genes (2) F1 S = smooth s = wrinkled Y = yellow y = green
Mendelian Laws of Genetics ◼ Law of Segregation: – members of each pair of alleles of a gene separate when gametes are produced in meiosis ◼ Law of Independent Assortment: – each member of an allelic pair separates independently during gamete formation
Important Milestones in Genetics ◼ 1866 Gregor Mendel ◼ 1947 Barbara McClintock (jumping genes) ◼ 1953 Watson & Crick (structure of DNA) ◼ 1970s Foreign gene expressed in tobacco ◼ 1986 Transgenic plants field tested ◼ 1990s Bt gene inserted into crops ◼ 1994 Flavr-Savr tomato released
Mendelian Genetics Mendel's Laws 1. Law of Dominance 2. Law of Segregation 3. Law of Independent Assortment What Mendel termed as “factors” in his experiments were later realized as “genes” http://www.scienceprofonline.com/
1. Law of Dominance: - In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear in the next generation. - Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will have only the dominant trait in the phenotype. 2. Law of Segregations: - During the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm), the two alleles (hereditary units) responsible for a trait separate from each other. - Alleles for a trait are then "recombined" at fertilization, producing the genotype for the traits of the offspring. 3. Law of Independent Assortment: - Alleles for different traits are distributed to sex cells (& offspring) independently of one another. Mendel’s Laws: Image: Gregor Mendel, Mendel's Principles of Heredity: A Defense by Bateson, William From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Gregor Mendel ◼ Incomplete dominance
2. Mendel’s Law of ________ Image: Independent assortment and segregation diagram, Mariana Ruiz. Table showing how the genes exchange according to segregation or independent assortment during meiosis and how this translates into Mendel's laws. ◼ Alternative versions of genes (alleles) result in variations in inherited characteristics. ◼ For each character, an organism inherits 2 alleles (one from each parent). ◼ The alleles for each character segregate (separate) during gamete production (_______). ◼ Alleles for a trait are recombined at fertilization, becoming genotype for the traits of the offspring. From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Chromosomes & Genes ◼ Genome - Complete complement of an organism’s DNA. ◼ Cellular DNA is organized in chromosomes. ◼ Genes have specific places on chromosomes. From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com Image: Chromosome & gene, Graham Colm, National Human Genome Research Institute
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Image: DNA Detail Diagram: Madprime From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Nucleic Acids Q: What type of monomer are nucleic acids made of? Image: Nucleotide Structure, Wikipedia From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com All nucleic acids are made up of the same building blocks (monomers). Chemists call the monomers "nucleotides." The five pieces are uracil, cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine. The 'nitrogenous base found in place of thiamine' in RNA molecule is uracil. RNA is a 'polymer' with a 'ribose sugar and phosphate' and four different bases: 'adenine', 'guanine', 'cytosine', and 'uracil'. The first three which is found in DNA, but in RNA, 'thymine is replaced by uracil'.
DNA Structure ◼ Double stranded molecule, analogous to a spiral staircase: - two deoxyribose-phosphate chains as the “side rails” - base pairs, linked by hydrogen bonds, are the “steps” ◼ Purine Bases (double ring) Adenine & Guanine ◼ Pyrimidine Bases (single ring) Cytosine & Thymine Images: Model of DNA Molecule, Field Museum, Chicago, T. Port; DNA Detail Diagram: Madprime; DNA Molecule, Biology Corner From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Image: DNA molecule, Why Files, NSF From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
ROLE OF PLANT BREEDERS ◼ Plant breeders concentrate on changing the crop variety and change productivity -- improve competitiveness ◼ Breeders predict the future -- breeding is a long term effort. ◼ Breeders are synthesizers of diverse knowledge. ◼ Plant Breeding -- the art and science of changing and improving the heredity of plants.
Development of Modern Plant Breeding ◼ Introduction: What plant breeding is and what’s involved in order to have a successful plant breeding program ◼ Relevant Historical Events: Great history behind plant breeding including who withstood and over came many political, scientific, and personal obstacles. ◼ The Green Revolution ◼ The Birth of Biotechnology: Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel
Modern Plant Breeding ◼ Influence on agricultural production – Total productivity increased – Production area expanded – Hybrid cultivars developed – Resistance to disease and insect pests manipulated – Food quality increased – Crops designed for adaptability to mechanical harvest
Desired gene Classical and or Traditional Plant breeding DNA is a strand of genes, much like a strand of pearls. Traditional plant breeding combines many genes at once. Traditional donor Commercial variety New variety Desired Gene X = (crosses) (many genes are transferred) Modern Plant Breeding Using plant biotechnology, a single gene may be added to the strand. Desired gene Commercial variety New variety (transfers) = Desired gene (only desired gene is transferred)
Traditional Plant Breeding Modern Plant Breeding (Plant Biotechnology/ Genetic Engineering a. Less control of outcome – When desired characteristics are sought, other characteristics may also appear. More control of outcome – Specific genes can be chosen and inserted without affecting the other genes. b. Time consuming – Repeated back crosses are needed which involves many generations and several years. Saves time – Improved varieties can be created in one generation. Constrained by natural breeding barriers – Only similar plants can be crossed. Unconstrained crosses – Genes can be selected from any species, even outside the plant kingdom.
Molecular markers in plant biotechnology Non PCR-based Isozymes RFLP- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism NGS- Next-generation Sequencing Markers GBS- Genotyping-by-Sequencing marker RAD- seq- Restriction site associated DNA marker PCR-based marker RAPD- Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA Microsatellites-SSR-Simple Sequence Repeats AFLP-Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism SNP- Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
Types of Propagation #1 #2 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Types of Propagation ◼ Sexual – Self-pollination -- Wind pollination – Cross-pollination -- Insect pollination ◼ Asexual – Cuttings -- Layering – Grafting -- Biotechnology
Sexual Propagation ◼ Terms – DNA : Deoxyribonucleic Acid a polymeric molecule consisting of nucleotides (ribose, PO4, and adenine, cytosine, guanine, & thymine). Found in nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria. Makes RNA. – RNA: Ribonucleic Acid a polymeric molecule consisting of nucleotides (ribose, PO4, and adenine, cytosine, guanine, & uracil). Found in nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, ribosomes. Makes proteins.
Building Blocks
Sexual Propagation Terms – Chromosome: genetic material of cell organized in linear structures – Gene: genetic material on a chromosone determining a characteristic – Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism – Phenotype: the physical manifestation of the genotype modified by the environment
Sexual Propagation Terms – Diploid: a cell containing 2 sets (2n)of chromosomes (vegetative cell) – Haploid: a cell containing 1 (1n)set of chromosomes (pollen or ovule) – Sex cells contain haploid number of chromosomes-n – Polyploid: a cell containing more than 2 sets of chromosomes. Usually vegetatively reproduced. ▪ Banana = 3n ▪ Potato = 4n ▪ Strawberry = 8n
Sexual Propagation Terms – Mitosis: cell division where nuclear complement (1n or 2n) is maintained – Meiosis: cell division where nuclear complement (2n only) is reduced to 1n (gametes) – Hybridization: controlled cross-fertilization – Independent Assortment: each chromosome operates independently during mitosis & meiosis – Mutation: a heritable change in a gene
Sexual Propagation Terms ◼ Monoecious: Both sexes on same plant (e.g. corn, pecan) ◼ Dioecious: Sexes on different plants – Holly (female) Juniper (male or female) – Pistachio (female) Cottonwood (male) – Asparagus (male)] – Ash (male)
Cell Division-Mitosis
Cell Division-Meiosis
Sexual Propagation Meiosis Flower Pollen Ovule microspores megaspores Pollens produce microspores
Sexual Propagation Fertilization Endosperm 3n Embryo Pollen grain Generative cell Tube nucleus Pollen tube Sperm cells Polar nuclei Egg Embryo sac 4-nucleate 2-nucleate Zygote 2n
Chapter 1-Introduction to Plant Breeding-.pdf

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Chapter 1-Introduction to Plant Breeding-.pdf

  • 1.
    Principles of PlantBreeding PSCI 4833 Somashekhar Punnuri Fort Valley State University Fort Valley, GA punnuris@fvsu.edu
  • 2.
    Etiquettes & codesfor class Come prepared for the class and Do the readings Refer to the course outline and syllabus for textbooks and other informations Show curiosity in Science through questions Be prepared to answer and interact Everyone’s opinion will be heard and respected Develop greater insights from this course by the end of semester Use of cellphone in the class is strictly prohibited Have fun and enjoy the lectures
  • 3.
    Objective To introduce thegeneral principles of plant breeding. Provide knowledge base of world, USA and Georgia crops breeding production methods. Overview the impacts of world and local agricultural. Provide a basic knowledge of the processes by which our major food and nonfood agricultural crops are produced.
  • 4.
    Agriculture and itsimportance ◼ Agricultural products used in everyday life- Food, Fiber and energy- nutrition is a key determinant of human health, , Fiber for construction material, provider of energy-fuel-wood and medicinal plants • Agriculture is key to a healthy biosphere and economic driver. It is central to: – Nation’s economic growth-US is major exporter • Individual livelihoods
  • 5.
    What is PlantBreeding? a systematic process using scientific methods in order to improve plant traits also collectively known as plant phenotype by crossing and selection and manipulation at the genotype composition with the favorable genes selection: the process of breeding for a specific trait Deliberate and intentional – selective breeding is a form of genetic engineering
  • 6.
    Plant Breeding ◼ Todevelop genetically superior cultivars which are adapted to specific environmental conditions and suitable for economic production in a commercial cropping system. ◼ These new, and more productive cultivars, are increasingly necessary to fulfil humankind´s increasing needs for food, fibre and fuels.
  • 7.
    What is PlantBreeding ◼ Plant breeding is an art and science, which tells us ways and means to change the genetic architecture of plants to accomplish specific objective. Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to more complex molecular techniques ◼ Art lies in breeder’s skill in observing plants for useful characteristics ◼ Selection was earliest form of plant breeding ◼ Selections from Land Races or Populations—Turkey Red ◼ Science—based on recognition of gene as unit of heredity ◼ The science of improving the heredity of plant desirable characters ◼ Hybridization became principal plant breeding procedure ◼ Evaluation and selection in segregating populations ◼ Molecular genetics—offers new techniques for breeder ◼ Permits transfer of DNA between species ◼ Traditional and molecular breeding involves creation of desired genotype to reflect on improved phenotype
  • 8.
    Plants with higherqualities are selected by and crossed to obtain plants with desired quality. This results in a plant population with improved and desired traits.
  • 9.
    Crop Evolution and Domestication Plantbreeding has been practiced for thousands of years, since near the beginning of human civilization.
  • 10.
    Why did humansbecome farmers and not remain hunter/foragers?
  • 11.
  • 13.
    Region Crop Domestication Mesoamerica Squash10,000 Maize 6,500 Central America Cassava, 7,000-5,000 Arrowroot, Yam, Maize Fertile Crescent Lentil, Einkorn 9,500-9,000 wheat, Flax China Rice 9,000-8,000 Earliest Crop Domestication
  • 14.
    Time period Evidence ofcrop cultivation > 5,000 Years pea, barley, wheat, maize, millet, lentil, beans, rice, potato, etc. 1,000 to 5,000 years sugar beet, sunflower, soybean, alfalfa, onion, cotton, etc. < 1,000 years rapeseed, coffee, rubber, macadamia Crops cultivated from since ages
  • 15.
  • 16.
    Plant Breeding asan Art and Science Origins of Agriculture Harlan (1992) outlined six major regions in which agricultural origins occurred We will examine, briefly, the Near East and Meso-America. The Near East serves as a general introduction to self-pollinated species, focusing on common wheat (Triticum aestivum, 2n=6x=42, genomes ABD) Meso-America serves as a general introduction to cross -pollinated species focusing on corn (Zea mays L., 2n = 2x = 20).
  • 17.
  • 18.
    Plants with higherqualities are selected by and crossed to obtain plants with desired quality. This results in a plant population with improved and desired traits.
  • 19.
    The Near East Atthe eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, across a broad arching zone of grasslands and open oak-pistachio woodlands called the Fertile Crescent the world’s first agricultural economies emerged between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago (the Neolithic revolution). Landraces of Self-Pollinated Species The heterogeneous populations grown by Neolithic farmers are called landraces—heterogeneous cultivated forms that evolved from natural populations of plant species.
  • 20.
    CROP PLANT DOMESTICATION Theprocess of bringing a wild species under human selection to fit the needs of human civilization Table 4.1 Centres of original domestication of some important crop plants as proposed by Vavilov (1926) Centre Species -8 centres 1 Chinese Soybean, apricot, peach, orange 2 Indian Rice, chickpea, cucumber 2a. Indo-Malayan Banana, coconut 3 Central Asiatic (Afghanistan, Tibet, Iran) Bread wheat, cereal rye, peas, pear, apple, walnut 4 Near Eastern (Transcaucasia, Turkey, Syria, Southern Russia) Diploid wheat, barley, lucerne 5 Mediterranean Durum wheat, oats, broad bean, lettuce, cabbage, olive 6 Abyssinian Durum wheat, barley, peas, flax 7 South and Central American Maize, common bean, pepper, cotton (upland), squash, pumpkin 8 South American (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia) Sweet potato, potato, Lima bean, tobacco, tomato 8a. Chile Potato 8b. Brazilian-Paraguayan Potato E-Book: Principles of Field Crop Production David Luckett and Gerald Halloran. Plant Breeding; In (Ed Jim Pratley) “Principles of Field Crop Production” ( Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga Australia)
  • 21.
    Agriculture arose 15000years ago across globe after thousands of years of collaboration between people and plants. Culture part of agriculture.
  • 23.
    History of PlantBreeding It started when man first chose certain plants for cultivation. There is no recorded history when the plant breeding started. ➢ As early as 700 BC Babylonians and Assyrians artificially pollinated the date palm. ➢ In 1717 Thomas Fairchild produced the first artificial hybrid. ➢ Joseph Kolreuter, a German made extensive crosses in Tobacco and Solanum between 1760 and 1866 and studied the progenies in detail. ➢ Thomas Andrew Knight (1759-1835) was the first man to produce several new fruit varieties by using artificial hybridization. ➢ Le Coutier, a farmer published his results on selection in wheat in the year 1843. He concluded that progenies from single plants were more uniform. ➢ Patrick Shireff a Scotsman practiced individual plant selection in wheat and oats and developed some valuable varieties. ➢ Vilmorin (1857) proposed individual plant selection based on progeny testing. This was known as “Vilmorins principle of progeny testing’. He proposed this progeny testing in sugar content in sugar beets (Beta vulgaris). But this method was ineffective in wheat. ➢ This clearly demonstrated the difference between effect of selection in cross and self pollinated crops. ➢ Nilsson and his associates in Sweedish Seed Association, Svalof Sweeden (1890) refined the single plant selection. Principles of Plant Breeding 4 www.AgriMoon.Com
  • 24.
    In 1903 Johansenproposed the famous ‘pure line theory’ which states that a pure line is progeny of a single self fertilized homozygous plant. He proposed this theory based on his studies in Phaseolus vulgaris. G.H. Shull work in maize is the forerunner for the present day hybrid maize program. He described in detail about the effect of inbreeding. During 1960’s Norman Borlaug, the Nobel laureate developed Mexican semi dwarf wheat varieties, which paved the way for green revolution in wheat. The dwarfing gene was isolated from wheat variety Norin 10. In rice the identification of dwarf Dee Gee Woo Gen from a tall rice variety by a Taiwan farmer revolutionized rice breeding. Using this DGWG at IRRI during 1965 the wonder rice IR 8 was released. Golden rice –provitamin A was approved in July 2021 in Philippines. History of Plant Breeding Principles of Plant Breeding 4 www.AgriMoon.Com
  • 25.
    Role of USDAin agriculture
  • 26.
    Father of GreenRevolution ◼ Norman Borlaug Quote: ◼ “What we need is courage by the leaders of those countries where farmers still have no choice but to use older and less effective methods. The Green Revolution and now plant biotechnology are helping meet the growing demand for food production, while preserving our environment for future generations” (ISAAA, 2009). Dr. Norman Borlaug- Nobel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug (Mar 25, 1914 - Sep 12, 2009) Wheat pathologist and breeder Mexican agricultural program-1943 Created yield increases ranging from 40- 400% using high-yielding semi-dwarf wheat
  • 27.
    • The ConsultativeGroup for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an organization established under FAO, co-ordinates agricultural research on a global basis. Under CGIAR, the following international research institutes are functioning presently: • ICRISAT-International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Hyderabad, India • IITA-International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria • CIMMYT-International Wheat and Maize Improvement Center, Mexico. • IRRI-International Rice Research Institute, Manila, The Philippines. • CIAT-International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Palmira, Colombia • CIP-International Potato Center, Lima, Peru • ICARDA-International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Lebanon, Syria. • WARDA- West African Rice Development Research Station, Monrovia, Liberia • BIODIVERSITY INTERNATIONAL-Biodiversity International, Rome, Italy International centers for agriculture improvement across globe
  • 28.
    E-Book: Principles ofField Crop Production David Luckett and Gerald Halloran. Plant Breeding; In (Ed Jim Pratley) “Principles of Field Crop Production” ( Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University: Wagga Wagga Australia) Figure 4.1 The central nature of plant breeding
  • 29.
    Involves many disciplinesor branches of learning, includes all areas of Life Sciences Gene Manipulation Starts At the DNA Level Domestication of corn from Teosinte and plant breeding evolved since 10,000 years of human civilization. Modern biotechnology involves combination of tools and techniques to enhance genetic engineering.
  • 30.
    Genotype vs. Phenotype ◼trait: a genetically determined characteristic ◼ genotype: the genetic make up of an organism ◼ phenotype: the physical characteristics of an organism 30 www.OneLessThing.net
  • 31.
    Objectives of PlantBreeding ◼ International development agencies believe that breeding new crops is important for ensuring food security by developing new varieties that are higher-yielding, resistant to pests and diseases, drought-resistant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing conditions. ◼ The objectives may be ◼ a) Crop improvement-Increasing the yield ◼ b) Improved agronomic characters-Elimination of toxic substance, food processing qualities, nutrition content ◼ c) Resistance against biotic and abiotic stress- ex. drought, frost, sugarcane aphid resistance, leaf spot diseases
  • 32.
    Examples of traitmodifications ◼ Change in maturity duration – Evolution of early maturing varieties ◼ Improved agronomic characters -Production of more tillers – E.g. Rice, Bajra, Reducing the plant height to prevent lodging – Rice ◼ Photoinsensitivity – Pigeon pea, sorghum ◼ Non-shattering nature – Green gram, Brassicas ◼ Synchronized maturity – Pulses ◼ Determinate Growth habit –determinate growth – Pulses ◼ Elimination or introduction of dormancy –Groundnut
  • 33.
    Cultivars ◼ Cultivar: aplant that has been bred/developed to have specific and distinguishable characteristics that will be passed on to its offspring also known as a variety www.OneLessThing.net The basic concept of varietal development is rather simple and involves three distinct operations: ◦ Produce or identify genetically diverse germplasm; ◦ Carry out selection procedures on phenotypes or genotypes from within this germplasm to identify superior genotypes with specifically and improved characteristics; ◦ Stabilize and multiply these superior genotypes and release cultivars for commercial production.
  • 34.
    Hybrids ◼ Hybrid: offspringthat result from breeding individual of different varieties or species ◼ hybrid vigor: when the offspring of distinctly different individuals have traits greater than the parents ◼ mutation: a genetic variation that occurs naturally (can be a favorable trait) 34 www.OneLessThing.net
  • 35.
    The Influence ofDarwin and Mendel on Plant Breeding Darwin began the age of population thinking. It replaced the abstract or metaphysical view of variation of the Essentialist with the materialist view of the Darwinist by focusing on the variation among organisms as a pivotal fact of nature. Darwin considered intraspecific variation to be the cornerstone of evolution. The variation among members of a single species was no longer considered an annoying distortion of the ‘ideal’ divine creation. Darwin believed that evolution was simply the application of the plant and animal breeder’s activities to the mechanisms of nature as a whole. Mendel put emphasis on the variation among the offspring of his crosses rather than on an average description of them. He divided the progeny into categories, counted the number of offspring in each category, and then calculated ratios of numbers of individuals in each category. Unlike his predecessors who seemed to be satisfied to just obtain progeny from crosses, Mendel’s approach considered the whole population and sought out the underlying mechanisms controlling the variation in the populations.
  • 36.
    Charles Darwin (1809-1882) ◼ DevelopedFive Theories: – Evolution - the world is not static – Common descent - common ancestors – Gradualism - transformation is slow – Multiplication of species - geographical dimension – Natural selection - differential reproductive success
  • 37.
  • 38.
    Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) ◼Unique Contributions to Science: – Data from individuals, not populations – Statistical treatment of data – Clarity of reasoning – Hypothesis testing – Replication over traits and time – Recognition of germinal continuity as basis for heredity Phenotypic ratio of monohybrid cross- 3:1 Genotypic ratio of monohybrid cross-1:2:1 The progeny formed after crossing YY with yy F1 is always Yy
  • 39.
    Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) ◼Worked in monastery garden ◼ Time period = 1856-1863 ◼ Published: “Experiments on Plant Hybrids” in obscure journal ◼ Worked ‘discovered’ in 1900
  • 40.
    Gregor Mendel S =smooth s = wrinkled ◼ Dominant vs Recessive genes The progeny formed after crossing SS with ss F1 is always Ss Phenotypic ratio of monohybrid cross- 3:1 Genotypic ratio of monohybrid cross-1:2:1
  • 41.
    Gregor Mendel ◼ Dominantvs Recessive genes (2) F1 S = smooth s = wrinkled Y = yellow y = green
  • 42.
    Mendelian Laws ofGenetics ◼ Law of Segregation: – members of each pair of alleles of a gene separate when gametes are produced in meiosis ◼ Law of Independent Assortment: – each member of an allelic pair separates independently during gamete formation
  • 43.
    Important Milestones inGenetics ◼ 1866 Gregor Mendel ◼ 1947 Barbara McClintock (jumping genes) ◼ 1953 Watson & Crick (structure of DNA) ◼ 1970s Foreign gene expressed in tobacco ◼ 1986 Transgenic plants field tested ◼ 1990s Bt gene inserted into crops ◼ 1994 Flavr-Savr tomato released
  • 44.
    Mendelian Genetics Mendel's Laws 1.Law of Dominance 2. Law of Segregation 3. Law of Independent Assortment What Mendel termed as “factors” in his experiments were later realized as “genes” http://www.scienceprofonline.com/
  • 45.
    1. Law ofDominance: - In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear in the next generation. - Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will have only the dominant trait in the phenotype. 2. Law of Segregations: - During the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm), the two alleles (hereditary units) responsible for a trait separate from each other. - Alleles for a trait are then "recombined" at fertilization, producing the genotype for the traits of the offspring. 3. Law of Independent Assortment: - Alleles for different traits are distributed to sex cells (& offspring) independently of one another. Mendel’s Laws: Image: Gregor Mendel, Mendel's Principles of Heredity: A Defense by Bateson, William From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
  • 46.
  • 47.
    2. Mendel’s Lawof ________ Image: Independent assortment and segregation diagram, Mariana Ruiz. Table showing how the genes exchange according to segregation or independent assortment during meiosis and how this translates into Mendel's laws. ◼ Alternative versions of genes (alleles) result in variations in inherited characteristics. ◼ For each character, an organism inherits 2 alleles (one from each parent). ◼ The alleles for each character segregate (separate) during gamete production (_______). ◼ Alleles for a trait are recombined at fertilization, becoming genotype for the traits of the offspring. From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
  • 48.
    Chromosomes & Genes ◼Genome - Complete complement of an organism’s DNA. ◼ Cellular DNA is organized in chromosomes. ◼ Genes have specific places on chromosomes. From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com Image: Chromosome & gene, Graham Colm, National Human Genome Research Institute
  • 49.
    Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Image: DNADetail Diagram: Madprime From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
  • 50.
    Nucleic Acids Q: Whattype of monomer are nucleic acids made of? Image: Nucleotide Structure, Wikipedia From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com All nucleic acids are made up of the same building blocks (monomers). Chemists call the monomers "nucleotides." The five pieces are uracil, cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine. The 'nitrogenous base found in place of thiamine' in RNA molecule is uracil. RNA is a 'polymer' with a 'ribose sugar and phosphate' and four different bases: 'adenine', 'guanine', 'cytosine', and 'uracil'. The first three which is found in DNA, but in RNA, 'thymine is replaced by uracil'.
  • 51.
    DNA Structure ◼ Doublestranded molecule, analogous to a spiral staircase: - two deoxyribose-phosphate chains as the “side rails” - base pairs, linked by hydrogen bonds, are the “steps” ◼ Purine Bases (double ring) Adenine & Guanine ◼ Pyrimidine Bases (single ring) Cytosine & Thymine Images: Model of DNA Molecule, Field Museum, Chicago, T. Port; DNA Detail Diagram: Madprime; DNA Molecule, Biology Corner From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
  • 52.
    Image: DNA molecule,Why Files, NSF From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
  • 53.
    ROLE OF PLANTBREEDERS ◼ Plant breeders concentrate on changing the crop variety and change productivity -- improve competitiveness ◼ Breeders predict the future -- breeding is a long term effort. ◼ Breeders are synthesizers of diverse knowledge. ◼ Plant Breeding -- the art and science of changing and improving the heredity of plants.
  • 54.
    Development of ModernPlant Breeding ◼ Introduction: What plant breeding is and what’s involved in order to have a successful plant breeding program ◼ Relevant Historical Events: Great history behind plant breeding including who withstood and over came many political, scientific, and personal obstacles. ◼ The Green Revolution ◼ The Birth of Biotechnology: Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel
  • 55.
    Modern Plant Breeding ◼Influence on agricultural production – Total productivity increased – Production area expanded – Hybrid cultivars developed – Resistance to disease and insect pests manipulated – Food quality increased – Crops designed for adaptability to mechanical harvest
  • 56.
    Desired gene Classical andor Traditional Plant breeding DNA is a strand of genes, much like a strand of pearls. Traditional plant breeding combines many genes at once. Traditional donor Commercial variety New variety Desired Gene X = (crosses) (many genes are transferred) Modern Plant Breeding Using plant biotechnology, a single gene may be added to the strand. Desired gene Commercial variety New variety (transfers) = Desired gene (only desired gene is transferred)
  • 58.
    Traditional Plant BreedingModern Plant Breeding (Plant Biotechnology/ Genetic Engineering a. Less control of outcome – When desired characteristics are sought, other characteristics may also appear. More control of outcome – Specific genes can be chosen and inserted without affecting the other genes. b. Time consuming – Repeated back crosses are needed which involves many generations and several years. Saves time – Improved varieties can be created in one generation. Constrained by natural breeding barriers – Only similar plants can be crossed. Unconstrained crosses – Genes can be selected from any species, even outside the plant kingdom.
  • 59.
    Molecular markers inplant biotechnology Non PCR-based Isozymes RFLP- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism NGS- Next-generation Sequencing Markers GBS- Genotyping-by-Sequencing marker RAD- seq- Restriction site associated DNA marker PCR-based marker RAPD- Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA Microsatellites-SSR-Simple Sequence Repeats AFLP-Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism SNP- Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
  • 60.
  • 61.
    Types of Propagation ◼Sexual – Self-pollination -- Wind pollination – Cross-pollination -- Insect pollination ◼ Asexual – Cuttings -- Layering – Grafting -- Biotechnology
  • 62.
    Sexual Propagation ◼ Terms –DNA : Deoxyribonucleic Acid a polymeric molecule consisting of nucleotides (ribose, PO4, and adenine, cytosine, guanine, & thymine). Found in nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria. Makes RNA. – RNA: Ribonucleic Acid a polymeric molecule consisting of nucleotides (ribose, PO4, and adenine, cytosine, guanine, & uracil). Found in nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, ribosomes. Makes proteins.
  • 63.
  • 64.
    Sexual Propagation Terms – Chromosome:genetic material of cell organized in linear structures – Gene: genetic material on a chromosone determining a characteristic – Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism – Phenotype: the physical manifestation of the genotype modified by the environment
  • 65.
    Sexual Propagation Terms – Diploid:a cell containing 2 sets (2n)of chromosomes (vegetative cell) – Haploid: a cell containing 1 (1n)set of chromosomes (pollen or ovule) – Sex cells contain haploid number of chromosomes-n – Polyploid: a cell containing more than 2 sets of chromosomes. Usually vegetatively reproduced. ▪ Banana = 3n ▪ Potato = 4n ▪ Strawberry = 8n
  • 66.
    Sexual Propagation Terms – Mitosis:cell division where nuclear complement (1n or 2n) is maintained – Meiosis: cell division where nuclear complement (2n only) is reduced to 1n (gametes) – Hybridization: controlled cross-fertilization – Independent Assortment: each chromosome operates independently during mitosis & meiosis – Mutation: a heritable change in a gene
  • 67.
    Sexual Propagation Terms ◼ Monoecious:Both sexes on same plant (e.g. corn, pecan) ◼ Dioecious: Sexes on different plants – Holly (female) Juniper (male or female) – Pistachio (female) Cottonwood (male) – Asparagus (male)] – Ash (male)
  • 68.
  • 69.
  • 70.
    Sexual Propagation Meiosis Flower Pollen Ovule microsporesmegaspores Pollens produce microspores
  • 71.
    Sexual Propagation Fertilization Endosperm 3n Embryo Pollen grain Generativecell Tube nucleus Pollen tube Sperm cells Polar nuclei Egg Embryo sac 4-nucleate 2-nucleate Zygote 2n