This document discusses IP address classes and classful addressing in IPv4. It begins by introducing the objectives and topics to be covered, which include IPv4 addresses and classes, identifying address classes, finding network addresses from IP addresses, and understanding masks and subnets. It then covers address classes A, B, C, D and E, including how they divide up the address space and the number of addresses in each class. Examples are provided to identify address classes from both binary and decimal notation. The concepts of network IDs, host IDs, blocks, and network addresses are also explained.
Here is the presentation for Network Layer Numericals from the book Andrew S. Tanenbaum (Computer Networks) and B A Forouzan ( Data Communication and Networking)
Here is the presentation for Network Layer Numericals from the book Andrew S. Tanenbaum (Computer Networks) and B A Forouzan ( Data Communication and Networking)
Network layer,ipv4, Classful Addressing,notations, Classless addressing,classful and classless addressing, netid and hostid.
Notations type :-
Binary notations
Dotted decimal notation
Classful addressing and its types:-
class A
class B
class C
class D
class E
Netid and Hostid
Module 5
Routing and Internetworking Address assignment for campus and enterprise
networks, Transmission/Stream data delivery to single and multiple
recipients. Logical addressing, Internet Protocol, Address mapping and Error reporting, Delivery and forwarding, Unicast and multicast routing protocol.
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Here is the presentation for Transport Layer Questions from the book Andrew S. Tanenbaum (Computer Networks) and B A Forouzan ( Data Communication and Networking)
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Network layer,ipv4, Classful Addressing,notations, Classless addressing,classful and classless addressing, netid and hostid.
Notations type :-
Binary notations
Dotted decimal notation
Classful addressing and its types:-
class A
class B
class C
class D
class E
Netid and Hostid
Module 5
Routing and Internetworking Address assignment for campus and enterprise
networks, Transmission/Stream data delivery to single and multiple
recipients. Logical addressing, Internet Protocol, Address mapping and Error reporting, Delivery and forwarding, Unicast and multicast routing protocol.
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Here is the presentation for Transport Layer Questions from the book Andrew S. Tanenbaum (Computer Networks) and B A Forouzan ( Data Communication and Networking)
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Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
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Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
1. Chapter 4
IP Addresses:
Classful Addressing
Objectives
Upon completion you will be able to:
• Understand IPv4 addresses and classes
• Identify the class of an IP address
• Find the network address given an IP address
• Understand masks and how to use them
• Understand subnets and supernets
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1
2. 4.1 INTRODUCTION
The identifier used in the IP layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite to
identify each device connected to the Internet is called the Internet
address or IP address. An IP address is a 32-bit address that uniquely
and universally defines the connection of a host or a router to the
Internet. IP addresses are unique. They are unique in the sense that
each address defines one, and only one, connection to the Internet. Two
devices on the Internet can never have the same address.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Address Space
Notation
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 2
3. Note:
An IP address is a 32-bit address.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3
4. Note:
The IP addresses are unique.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4
5. Note:
The address space of IPv4 is
232 or 4,294,967,296.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 5
6. Figure 4.1 Dotted-decimal notation
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 6
7. Note:
The binary, decimal, and hexadecimal
number systems are reviewed in
Appendix B.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 7
8. ExamplE 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to
dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111
Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239 b. 193.131.27.255
c. 231.219.139.111 d. 249.155.251.15
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 8
9. ExamplE 2
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal
notation to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78 b. 221.34.7.82
c. 241.8.56.12 d. 75.45.34.78
Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent:
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010
c. 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100
d. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 9
10. ExamplE 3
Find the error, if any, in the following IP addresses:
a. 111.56.045.78 b. 221.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.301.14 d. 11100010.23.14.67
Solution
a. There are no leading zeroes in dotted-decimal notation (045).
b. We may not have more than four numbers in an IP address.
c. In dotted-decimal notation, each number is less than or equal
to 255; 301 is outside this range.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is
not
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 10
allowed.
11. ExamplE 4
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to
hexadecimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
Solution
We replace each group of 4 bits with its hexadecimal
equivalent (see Appendix B). Note that hexadecimal notation
normally has no added spaces or dots; however, 0X (or 0x) is
added at the beginning or the subscript 16 at the end to show
that the number is in hexadecimal.
a. 0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF16
b. 0XC1831BFF or C1831BFF16
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 11
12. 4.2 CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
IP addresses, when started a few decades ago, used the concept of
classes. This architecture is called classful addressing. In the mid-1990s,
a new architecture, called classless addressing, was introduced and will
eventually supersede the original architecture. However, part of the
Internet is still using classful addressing, but the migration is very fast.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Recognizing Classes
Netid and Hostid
Classes and Blocks
Network Addresses
Sufficient Information
Mask
CIDR Notation
Address Depletion
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 12
13. Figure 4.2 Occupation of the address space
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 13
15. Figure 4.3 Finding the class in binary notation
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 15
16. Figure 4.4 Finding the address class
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 16
17. ExamplE 5
How can we prove that we have 2,147,483,648 addresses in
class A?
Solution
In class A, only 1 bit defines the class. The remaining 31 bits
are available for the address. With 31 bits, we can have 2 31
or 2,147,483,648 addresses.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17
18. ExamplE 6
Find the class of each address:
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 10100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111
Solution
See the procedure in Figure 4.4.
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address.
c. The first bit is 0; the second bit is 1. This is a class B address.
d. The first 4 bits are 1s. This is a class E address..
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 18
19. Figure 4.5 Finding the class in decimal notation
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 19
20. ExamplE 7
Find the class of each address:
a. 227.12.14.87 b.193.14.56.22 c.14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111 e.134.11.78.56
Solution
a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D.
b. The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.
e. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 20
21. ExamplE 8
In Example 5 we showed that class A has 231 (2,147,483,648)
addresses. How can we prove this same fact using dotted-
decimal notation?
Solution
The addresses in class A range from 0.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255. We need to show that the difference between
these two numbers is 2,147,483,648. This is a good exercise
because it shows us how to define the range of addresses
between two addresses. We notice that we are dealing with base
256 numbers here. Each byte in the notation has a weight. The
weights are as follows (see Appendix B):
See Next Slide
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 21
22. ExamplE 8 (continuEd)
2563, 2562, 2561, 2560
Now to find the integer value of each number, we multiply
each byte by its weight:
Last address: 127 × 2563 + 255 × 2562 +
255 × 2561 + 255 × 2560 = 2,147,483,647
First address: = 0
If we subtract the first from the last and add 1 to the result
(remember we always add 1 to get the range), we get
2,147,483,648 or 231.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 22
23. Figure 4.6 Netid and hostid
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 23
24. Note:
Millions of class A addresses are
wasted.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 24
25. Figure 4.7 Blocks in class A
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 25
26. Figure 4.8 Blocks in class B
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26
27. Note:
Many class B addresses are wasted.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 27
28. Figure 4.9 Blocks in class C
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 28
29. Note:
The number of addresses in class C is
smaller than the needs of most
organizations.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 29
30. Note:
Class D addresses are used for
multicasting; there is only one block in
this class.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 30
31. Note:
Class E addresses are reserved for
future purposes; most of the block is
wasted.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 31
32. Note:
In classful addressing, the network
address (the first address in the block)
is the one that is assigned to the
organization. The range of addresses
can automatically be inferred from the
network address.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 32
33. ExamplE 9
Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class, the block,
and the range of the addresses.
Solution
The class is A because the first byte is between 0 and 127. The
block has a netid of 17. The addresses range from 17.0.0.0 to
17.255.255.255.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 33
34. ExamplE
10
Given the network address 132.21.0.0, find the class, the block,
and the range of the addresses.
Solution
The class is B because the first byte is between 128 and 191.
The block has a netid of 132.21. The addresses range from
132.21.0.0 to 132.21.255.255.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 34
35. ExamplE
11
Given the network address 220.34.76.0, find the class, the
block, and the range of the addresses.
Solution
The class is C because the first byte is between 192
and 223. The block has a netid of 220.34.76. The
addresses range from 220.34.76.0 to 220.34.76.255.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 35
36. Figure 4.10 Masking concept
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 36
37. Figure 4.11 AND operation
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 37
39. Note:
The network address is the beginning
address of each block. It can be found
by applying the default mask to any of
the addresses in the block (including
itself). It retains the netid of the block
and sets the hostid to zero.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 39
40. ExamplE
12
Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the beginning address
(network address).
Solution
The default mask is 255.0.0.0, which means that only the first
byte is preserved and the other 3 bytes are set to 0s. The
network address is 23.0.0.0.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 40
41. ExamplE
13
Given the address 132.6.17.85, find the beginning address
(network address).
Solution
The default mask is 255.255.0.0, which means that the first 2
bytes are preserved and the other 2 bytes are set to 0s. The
network address is 132.6.0.0.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 41
42. ExamplE
14
Given the address 201.180.56.5, find the beginning address
(network address).
Solution
The default mask is 255.255.255.0, which means that the first 3
bytes are preserved and the last byte is set to 0. The network
address is 201.180.56.0.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 42
43. Note:
Note that we must not apply the
default mask of one class to an address
belonging to another class.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 43
44. 4.3 OTHER ISSUES
In this section, we discuss some other issues that are related to
addressing in general and classful addressing in particular.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Multihomed Devices
Location, Not Names
Special Addresses
Private Addresses
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 44
45. Figure 4.12 Multihomed devices
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 45
57. Figure 4.19 Sample internet
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 57
58. 4.4 SUBNETTING AND
SUPERNETTING
In the previous sections we discussed the problems associated with
classful addressing. Specifically, the network addresses available for
assignment to organizations are close to depletion. This is coupled with
the ever-increasing demand for addresses from organizations that want
connection to the Internet. In this section we briefly discuss two
solutions: subnetting and supernetting.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Subnetting
Supernetting
Supernet Mask
Obsolescence
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 58
59. Note:
IP addresses are designed with two
levels of hierarchy.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 59
60. Figure 4.20 A network with two levels of hierarchy (not subnetted)
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 60
61. Figure 4.21 A network with three levels of hierarchy (subnetted)
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 61
62. Figure 4.22 Addresses in a network with and without subnetting
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 62
63. Figure 4.23 Hierarchy concept in a telephone number
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 63
64. Figure 4.24 Default mask and subnet mask
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 64
65. ExamplE
15
What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is
200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?
Solution
We apply the AND operation on the address and the subnet
mask.
Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000
Subnet Mask ➡ 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
Subnetwork Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 65
66. Figure 4.25 Comparison of a default mask and a subnet mask
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 66
67. Figure 4.26 A supernetwork
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 67
68. Note:
In subnetting, we need the first
address of the subnet and the subnet
mask to define the range of addresses.
In supernetting, we need the first
address of the supernet and the
supernet mask to define the range of
addresses.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 68
69. Figure 4.27 Comparison of subnet, default, and supernet masks
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 69
70. Note:
The idea of subnetting and
supernetting of classful addresses is
almost obsolete.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 70