This document discusses strategies for teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) students in secondary classrooms. It begins by providing background on the growing population of ESL students in U.S. schools and outlines key principles for effective ESL instruction. These include recognizing the important role of students' first language, building on what students already know, understanding that language acquisition takes time, and promoting interaction and literacy development. The document also describes common ESL program models and the stages of linguistic and cultural development ESL students experience. Throughout, effective instructional activities are suggested to support students at different stages of English proficiency.
This document discusses the creation of an intentional learning community called the Culture Share Club to support English Language Learners (ELLs) in the classroom. The author formed this club to provide scaffolding for two Vietnamese brothers new to learning English. By surrounding the brothers with supportive peers and collaborative projects, the Culture Share Club helped the ELLs practice English and feel legitimate in the classroom. It also benefited all students by having them learn from each other's diverse backgrounds and perspectives.
This document discusses bridging among the three languages of instruction in the K-12 curriculum: the mother tongue, Filipino, and English. It will cover the meaning and importance of bridging, identify the 14 domains where bridging can be done explicitly among the languages, and identify strategies for bridging among the languages. The objectives are to explain bridging, identify domains and strategies for bridging, explain transitioning between languages, and evaluate personal experiences in teaching related to what is learned about bridging.
1) The document discusses the use of mother tongue as the medium of instruction in schools. It notes that using one's native language facilitates better learning compared to a second language.
2) Examples are provided of the languages used for instruction in some of the top-ranked countries for literacy. Most use the primary local language, with some offering additional languages.
3) An overview is given of the languages used for instruction in different South Asian countries, including India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. In Pakistan, the medium varies by province.
The document discusses the ongoing debate around the appropriate medium of instruction in Nepal's education system. It outlines the key issues in the debate, including whether the mother tongue, official language, or an international language should be used and at what grades any transition should occur. It summarizes the arguments for using the mother tongue or a national/international language. Finally, it examines how Nepal's School Sector Reform Program and National Curriculum Framework have addressed this issue, outlining policies for a multilingual model that incorporates the mother tongue, Nepali, and English at different grade levels.
The document discusses the Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) approach in the K to 12 basic education program in the Philippines. It provides three key points:
1) MTB-MLE uses the student's native language or Mother Tongue as the medium of instruction from Grades 1 to 3 to help students learn more effectively. This facilitates their language acquisition and literacy development in their first language.
2) It then introduces Filipino and English as subjects to help students learn these additional languages. The goal is for students to become proficient in multiple languages while strengthening their foundation in their Mother Tongue.
3) Research shows that students learn best when instructed in a language they already
A critical review of marko modiano's article 'linguistic imperialism, cultura...Osnovna šola Pivka
This document provides a summary and critical review of Marko Modiano's 2001 article "Linguistic imperialism, cultural integrity, and EIL". Modiano argues that the spread of English continues to impose on the cultural integrity of learners. He urges teachers to use practices that position English as an international language rather than property of Anglo-American cultures. The review examines opposing views and discusses how promoting only certain English varieties undermines cultural diversity and learner identities. It also explores how government and private organizations promote Anglo cultures globally, challenging cultural integrity.
This document discusses issues related to English language proficiency testing based on native speaker varieties and proposes incorporating English as a lingua franca (ELF) into testing practices. It outlines how English spread globally through colonialism and how testing is still often based on dominant native varieties. However, it notes English is now used more as an international language between non-native speakers. The document examines problems with testing materials being culturally bound and issues around preparing students for specific tests. It proposes redefining English users based on competence rather than nativeness and recognizing ELF norms that promote mutual understanding between international users.
This document discusses the creation of an intentional learning community called the Culture Share Club to support English Language Learners (ELLs) in the classroom. The author formed this club to provide scaffolding for two Vietnamese brothers new to learning English. By surrounding the brothers with supportive peers and collaborative projects, the Culture Share Club helped the ELLs practice English and feel legitimate in the classroom. It also benefited all students by having them learn from each other's diverse backgrounds and perspectives.
This document discusses bridging among the three languages of instruction in the K-12 curriculum: the mother tongue, Filipino, and English. It will cover the meaning and importance of bridging, identify the 14 domains where bridging can be done explicitly among the languages, and identify strategies for bridging among the languages. The objectives are to explain bridging, identify domains and strategies for bridging, explain transitioning between languages, and evaluate personal experiences in teaching related to what is learned about bridging.
1) The document discusses the use of mother tongue as the medium of instruction in schools. It notes that using one's native language facilitates better learning compared to a second language.
2) Examples are provided of the languages used for instruction in some of the top-ranked countries for literacy. Most use the primary local language, with some offering additional languages.
3) An overview is given of the languages used for instruction in different South Asian countries, including India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. In Pakistan, the medium varies by province.
The document discusses the ongoing debate around the appropriate medium of instruction in Nepal's education system. It outlines the key issues in the debate, including whether the mother tongue, official language, or an international language should be used and at what grades any transition should occur. It summarizes the arguments for using the mother tongue or a national/international language. Finally, it examines how Nepal's School Sector Reform Program and National Curriculum Framework have addressed this issue, outlining policies for a multilingual model that incorporates the mother tongue, Nepali, and English at different grade levels.
The document discusses the Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) approach in the K to 12 basic education program in the Philippines. It provides three key points:
1) MTB-MLE uses the student's native language or Mother Tongue as the medium of instruction from Grades 1 to 3 to help students learn more effectively. This facilitates their language acquisition and literacy development in their first language.
2) It then introduces Filipino and English as subjects to help students learn these additional languages. The goal is for students to become proficient in multiple languages while strengthening their foundation in their Mother Tongue.
3) Research shows that students learn best when instructed in a language they already
A critical review of marko modiano's article 'linguistic imperialism, cultura...Osnovna šola Pivka
This document provides a summary and critical review of Marko Modiano's 2001 article "Linguistic imperialism, cultural integrity, and EIL". Modiano argues that the spread of English continues to impose on the cultural integrity of learners. He urges teachers to use practices that position English as an international language rather than property of Anglo-American cultures. The review examines opposing views and discusses how promoting only certain English varieties undermines cultural diversity and learner identities. It also explores how government and private organizations promote Anglo cultures globally, challenging cultural integrity.
This document discusses issues related to English language proficiency testing based on native speaker varieties and proposes incorporating English as a lingua franca (ELF) into testing practices. It outlines how English spread globally through colonialism and how testing is still often based on dominant native varieties. However, it notes English is now used more as an international language between non-native speakers. The document examines problems with testing materials being culturally bound and issues around preparing students for specific tests. It proposes redefining English users based on competence rather than nativeness and recognizing ELF norms that promote mutual understanding between international users.
Final english cg grade 9 01.30.2014 edited as of 3.11.2014 (1) 3182014Jane Angela Cadiente
This document provides the K-12 English curriculum guide for the Philippines Department of Education. It outlines the philosophy, principles, and outcomes of the English curriculum. The curriculum is designed to develop students' communicative competence and functional literacy through a focus on meaning, accuracy, and the study of texts. It aims to produce graduates who can effectively communicate, understand other subjects, and succeed in their chosen fields. The curriculum was created in response to today's students (Generation Z) who have grown up with technology and require customized, engaging instruction to maintain attention and learn effectively.
This document provides the curriculum guide for English 8 for the first three quarters. It outlines the program, grade level, content and performance standards for each quarter. The standards cover key areas like listening comprehension, oral fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, literature, viewing comprehension, writing, grammar and study strategies. For each standard, it provides learning competencies and examples of how students can demonstrate their understanding. It also lists specific skills and strategies students should develop for each standard by quarter.
Language immersion schools aim to develop students' cultural awareness through bilingual education. There are several types of immersion programs, including foreign language immersion, majority language immersion, and bilingual immersion. Research shows immersion students perform equally or better than non-immersion peers in their first language proficiency and academic achievement. Students in immersion programs develop stronger cognitive learning strategies and interpersonal communication skills due to instructing in a second language. However, immersion programs face limited funding and misunderstanding in the U.S. due to an emphasis on standardized testing in core subjects rather than language education.
The aim of this paper is to identify some of the problems faced by Saudi learners of English at Taibah University when translating from Arabic into English. Also, this paper discusses the reasons why these errors are attributed to. These students commit different types of errors, such as spelling, lexical errors, and errors of synonymy, syntactic errors, and finally, the cohesion errors. The committed errors are due to linguistic and non-linguistic factors. This study, as well, identifies the main functions served by the topics discussed by the researcher and determines that the most predominant function is the promotion of understanding between cultures.
The role of social class in English language learning and teachingMuhmmad Asif
This document discusses the role of social class in English language learning at the secondary level in Pakistan. It begins with an introduction that outlines the status of English in Pakistan and its importance in education, government, and business. It then discusses the relationship between social class and the medium of instruction in Pakistani schools. The document reviews related literature on social class and language learning. It describes the research methodology used and presents findings from a questionnaire given to students. It concludes by providing suggestions to help address issues around social class and English language learning, including recommendations for the government, teachers, and students.
Using Literature in Teaching English as a Second Language A Case Study of Ard...ijtsrd
The document discusses using literature to teach English as a second language. It notes that literary texts can improve language skills like reading, writing, listening and provide cultural knowledge about different societies. A case study was conducted at Jazan University in Saudi Arabia that found the majority of students believed literature could make learning English more interesting and help understand other cultures.
06. tp n°6- translanguaging as a pedagogycal toolRodrigoAlcazar5
1) Garcia defines named languages as socially constructed categories like English or Spanish that refer to entities with real effects, while an individual's linguistic system is shaped by social interactions and allows them to communicate, comprised of words and structures that may differ from named languages.
2) Garcia rejects the view that bilinguals have two separate linguistic systems, arguing they have a single, unified system and inviting thinking of them as having a single repertoire rather than separate named languages.
3) Translanguaging originated as a term coined by Cen Williams to describe allowing students to use both Welsh and English for input and output in education to better acquire knowledge and communicate information across both languages.
This document provides a review of Module 3 of the CTEL exam, which covers the topics of culture and inclusion. It includes 8 domains related to understanding culture and its relationship to academic achievement, as well as culturally inclusive instruction and curriculum. For each domain, it provides sample multiple choice questions testing knowledge of that domain, along with the correct answer and an explanation.
This document presents the K-12 English curriculum guide from the Department of Education of the Philippines. It outlines the philosophy, rationale, and guiding principles of the English language curriculum. The curriculum is designed to develop students' language proficiency and literacy through a focus on both meaning and accuracy. It recognizes the importance of building on students' existing language skills and acknowledges the needs of today's digital native students who rely heavily on technology for communication.
Teaching English Language Learners in Primary and Elementary ClassroomsChristine Morris
This document provides a resource guide for teachers on teaching English Language Learners (ELLs) in primary and elementary classrooms. It discusses who ELL students are, including refugee ELLs, and theories of second language acquisition. The guide also explores the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach and how it can be used with refugee ELLs through classroom activities and programs. It provides recommendations and lists additional resources for teachers to support ELL students.
This document provides the K-12 English curriculum guide for the Philippines' Department of Education. It outlines the philosophy, principles, outcomes and conceptual framework for teaching English. The goals are to develop students' communicative competence and multiliteracies. It also discusses the needs of Generation Z learners who are growing up with advanced technology. The curriculum is designed based on principles of spiral progression, interaction, integration, learner-centeredness, contextualization and construction. It aims to develop students' understanding of cultures, language skills and strategies through an integrated approach to listening, speaking, reading, writing and thinking.
This document provides the K-12 curriculum guide for English in the Philippines. It outlines the philosophy, principles, needs of learners, outcomes, and conceptual framework for teaching English. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social and emotional development. Key principles include the interrelatedness of languages and that acquisition in one language benefits others. The needs of today's learners, referred to as Generation Z, are that they are immersed in technology but may have reduced attention spans. Desired outcomes include communicative competence, multiliteracies, and preparing graduates to communicate effectively and participate in civic life. The conceptual framework explains that language is best learned through interaction, integration of skills, being learner-centered, contextualization, and
Special Education Evaluation of English Language Learners (ELLs)- The Importa...Amanda Lee Palmer
This document discusses collaboration between general education and special education teachers to support English language learners with learning disabilities. It provides background information on English language learners and those with learning disabilities. It also discusses challenges in identifying learning disabilities in English language learners. The document advocates for teacher collaboration and recommends strategies like preventative discipline and providing structure to support these students. It suggests teacher education programs should provide opportunities for collaboration and connecting theory to practice in real classrooms to better prepare teachers.
The document summarizes foreign language education in Hungary. It notes that while Hungarian is the primary language, German, Croatian and other languages are also spoken as minority languages. It describes the history and structure of the education system, including starting ages, types of schools, and requirements around foreign language study. It also discusses challenges around teacher qualifications, availability of resources, and ensuring early language learning is continued effectively in later grades.
This paper investigated students’ attitudes and motivation towards learning literature in English in three government secondary schools in Zanzibar (one in urban and two in rural areas). The study had a sample of 96 people; 45 boys, 45 girls, and 6 teachers who were teaching literature in English at the selected schools. They were selected through purposive sampling technique. Mixed method was used. Data were collected through interview, observation, and questionnaires. Predictable variables were number of teachers teaching the subject and their qualifications, learning environment, teaching and learning materials, and students’ attitudes and motivation towards learning the subject. Findings revealed that there was shortage of teachers teaching the subject, and some of them were not trained. Students had positive attitudes and motivation towards learning the subject because it was a source of information not only from their own society but also from the world at large. Additionally, literature in English was found a means of entertainment as well as educating the students. However, students’ positive attitudes and motivation towards learning the subject were hindered by unfavourable conditions such as shortage of literature books, difficult English vocabularies, large class sizes, limited time to read suggested literature books, poor teaching methods, and teachers themselves. As a result the study suggests the provision of appropriate and adequate reading materials to all secondary schools, expose teachers to more training so as to be more knowledgeable about various suitable methods of teaching the subject, and improve classroom learning environment.
This document provides the K-12 English curriculum guide for the Philippines Department of Education. It outlines the philosophy, principles, context and outcomes of the English language curriculum. The curriculum is designed to develop students' communicative competence and functional literacy through a focus on meaning, accuracy and the conventions of English. It acknowledges that today's students are digital natives who are highly influenced by technology and need skills to analyze complex information. The ultimate goal is for students to effectively apply English language skills in interacting with others, understanding other subjects, and preparing for their future careers.
This document provides the curriculum guide for teaching English to grade 9 students in the Philippines. It outlines the philosophy, principles, needs of learners, outcomes, and conceptual framework for the curriculum. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social and emotional development. The principles discuss language acquisition theories and the importance of an integrated, learner-centered approach. The needs of Generation Z learners are described as being highly technology-savvy but having reduced attention spans. The outcomes aim to develop communicative competence and multiliteracies. The conceptual framework provides guidance on teaching language through principles like spiral progression and contextualization.
This document discusses key aspects of the new National Curriculum for English that support EAL and low-attaining pupils. It summarizes five aspects: 1) distinguishing between decoding and language comprehension using the Simple View of Reading framework; 2) teaching spelling in detail including phonics, morphology and etymology; 3) actively building vocabulary; 4) promoting reading for pleasure; and 5) teaching English grammar. It provides context and evidence for why these aspects are important for supporting EAL and low-attaining pupils.
The document discusses several key points about teaching English to second language learners:
1) It takes between 5-7 years for English language learners to develop academic proficiency in English. Younger students may learn conversational English quicker, but older students who have had schooling in their native language can transfer skills more easily.
2) Students should not be placed in special education programs solely based on lack of English proficiency, and must be properly assessed. Instruction should integrate both language and content.
3) Developing media literacy for students is important in today's digital world so they can analyze different types of media sources critically.
Final english cg grade 9 01.30.2014 edited as of 3.11.2014 (1) 3182014Jane Angela Cadiente
This document provides the K-12 English curriculum guide for the Philippines Department of Education. It outlines the philosophy, principles, and outcomes of the English curriculum. The curriculum is designed to develop students' communicative competence and functional literacy through a focus on meaning, accuracy, and the study of texts. It aims to produce graduates who can effectively communicate, understand other subjects, and succeed in their chosen fields. The curriculum was created in response to today's students (Generation Z) who have grown up with technology and require customized, engaging instruction to maintain attention and learn effectively.
This document provides the curriculum guide for English 8 for the first three quarters. It outlines the program, grade level, content and performance standards for each quarter. The standards cover key areas like listening comprehension, oral fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, literature, viewing comprehension, writing, grammar and study strategies. For each standard, it provides learning competencies and examples of how students can demonstrate their understanding. It also lists specific skills and strategies students should develop for each standard by quarter.
Language immersion schools aim to develop students' cultural awareness through bilingual education. There are several types of immersion programs, including foreign language immersion, majority language immersion, and bilingual immersion. Research shows immersion students perform equally or better than non-immersion peers in their first language proficiency and academic achievement. Students in immersion programs develop stronger cognitive learning strategies and interpersonal communication skills due to instructing in a second language. However, immersion programs face limited funding and misunderstanding in the U.S. due to an emphasis on standardized testing in core subjects rather than language education.
The aim of this paper is to identify some of the problems faced by Saudi learners of English at Taibah University when translating from Arabic into English. Also, this paper discusses the reasons why these errors are attributed to. These students commit different types of errors, such as spelling, lexical errors, and errors of synonymy, syntactic errors, and finally, the cohesion errors. The committed errors are due to linguistic and non-linguistic factors. This study, as well, identifies the main functions served by the topics discussed by the researcher and determines that the most predominant function is the promotion of understanding between cultures.
The role of social class in English language learning and teachingMuhmmad Asif
This document discusses the role of social class in English language learning at the secondary level in Pakistan. It begins with an introduction that outlines the status of English in Pakistan and its importance in education, government, and business. It then discusses the relationship between social class and the medium of instruction in Pakistani schools. The document reviews related literature on social class and language learning. It describes the research methodology used and presents findings from a questionnaire given to students. It concludes by providing suggestions to help address issues around social class and English language learning, including recommendations for the government, teachers, and students.
Using Literature in Teaching English as a Second Language A Case Study of Ard...ijtsrd
The document discusses using literature to teach English as a second language. It notes that literary texts can improve language skills like reading, writing, listening and provide cultural knowledge about different societies. A case study was conducted at Jazan University in Saudi Arabia that found the majority of students believed literature could make learning English more interesting and help understand other cultures.
06. tp n°6- translanguaging as a pedagogycal toolRodrigoAlcazar5
1) Garcia defines named languages as socially constructed categories like English or Spanish that refer to entities with real effects, while an individual's linguistic system is shaped by social interactions and allows them to communicate, comprised of words and structures that may differ from named languages.
2) Garcia rejects the view that bilinguals have two separate linguistic systems, arguing they have a single, unified system and inviting thinking of them as having a single repertoire rather than separate named languages.
3) Translanguaging originated as a term coined by Cen Williams to describe allowing students to use both Welsh and English for input and output in education to better acquire knowledge and communicate information across both languages.
This document provides a review of Module 3 of the CTEL exam, which covers the topics of culture and inclusion. It includes 8 domains related to understanding culture and its relationship to academic achievement, as well as culturally inclusive instruction and curriculum. For each domain, it provides sample multiple choice questions testing knowledge of that domain, along with the correct answer and an explanation.
This document presents the K-12 English curriculum guide from the Department of Education of the Philippines. It outlines the philosophy, rationale, and guiding principles of the English language curriculum. The curriculum is designed to develop students' language proficiency and literacy through a focus on both meaning and accuracy. It recognizes the importance of building on students' existing language skills and acknowledges the needs of today's digital native students who rely heavily on technology for communication.
Teaching English Language Learners in Primary and Elementary ClassroomsChristine Morris
This document provides a resource guide for teachers on teaching English Language Learners (ELLs) in primary and elementary classrooms. It discusses who ELL students are, including refugee ELLs, and theories of second language acquisition. The guide also explores the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach and how it can be used with refugee ELLs through classroom activities and programs. It provides recommendations and lists additional resources for teachers to support ELL students.
This document provides the K-12 English curriculum guide for the Philippines' Department of Education. It outlines the philosophy, principles, outcomes and conceptual framework for teaching English. The goals are to develop students' communicative competence and multiliteracies. It also discusses the needs of Generation Z learners who are growing up with advanced technology. The curriculum is designed based on principles of spiral progression, interaction, integration, learner-centeredness, contextualization and construction. It aims to develop students' understanding of cultures, language skills and strategies through an integrated approach to listening, speaking, reading, writing and thinking.
This document provides the K-12 curriculum guide for English in the Philippines. It outlines the philosophy, principles, needs of learners, outcomes, and conceptual framework for teaching English. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social and emotional development. Key principles include the interrelatedness of languages and that acquisition in one language benefits others. The needs of today's learners, referred to as Generation Z, are that they are immersed in technology but may have reduced attention spans. Desired outcomes include communicative competence, multiliteracies, and preparing graduates to communicate effectively and participate in civic life. The conceptual framework explains that language is best learned through interaction, integration of skills, being learner-centered, contextualization, and
Special Education Evaluation of English Language Learners (ELLs)- The Importa...Amanda Lee Palmer
This document discusses collaboration between general education and special education teachers to support English language learners with learning disabilities. It provides background information on English language learners and those with learning disabilities. It also discusses challenges in identifying learning disabilities in English language learners. The document advocates for teacher collaboration and recommends strategies like preventative discipline and providing structure to support these students. It suggests teacher education programs should provide opportunities for collaboration and connecting theory to practice in real classrooms to better prepare teachers.
The document summarizes foreign language education in Hungary. It notes that while Hungarian is the primary language, German, Croatian and other languages are also spoken as minority languages. It describes the history and structure of the education system, including starting ages, types of schools, and requirements around foreign language study. It also discusses challenges around teacher qualifications, availability of resources, and ensuring early language learning is continued effectively in later grades.
This paper investigated students’ attitudes and motivation towards learning literature in English in three government secondary schools in Zanzibar (one in urban and two in rural areas). The study had a sample of 96 people; 45 boys, 45 girls, and 6 teachers who were teaching literature in English at the selected schools. They were selected through purposive sampling technique. Mixed method was used. Data were collected through interview, observation, and questionnaires. Predictable variables were number of teachers teaching the subject and their qualifications, learning environment, teaching and learning materials, and students’ attitudes and motivation towards learning the subject. Findings revealed that there was shortage of teachers teaching the subject, and some of them were not trained. Students had positive attitudes and motivation towards learning the subject because it was a source of information not only from their own society but also from the world at large. Additionally, literature in English was found a means of entertainment as well as educating the students. However, students’ positive attitudes and motivation towards learning the subject were hindered by unfavourable conditions such as shortage of literature books, difficult English vocabularies, large class sizes, limited time to read suggested literature books, poor teaching methods, and teachers themselves. As a result the study suggests the provision of appropriate and adequate reading materials to all secondary schools, expose teachers to more training so as to be more knowledgeable about various suitable methods of teaching the subject, and improve classroom learning environment.
This document provides the K-12 English curriculum guide for the Philippines Department of Education. It outlines the philosophy, principles, context and outcomes of the English language curriculum. The curriculum is designed to develop students' communicative competence and functional literacy through a focus on meaning, accuracy and the conventions of English. It acknowledges that today's students are digital natives who are highly influenced by technology and need skills to analyze complex information. The ultimate goal is for students to effectively apply English language skills in interacting with others, understanding other subjects, and preparing for their future careers.
This document provides the curriculum guide for teaching English to grade 9 students in the Philippines. It outlines the philosophy, principles, needs of learners, outcomes, and conceptual framework for the curriculum. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social and emotional development. The principles discuss language acquisition theories and the importance of an integrated, learner-centered approach. The needs of Generation Z learners are described as being highly technology-savvy but having reduced attention spans. The outcomes aim to develop communicative competence and multiliteracies. The conceptual framework provides guidance on teaching language through principles like spiral progression and contextualization.
This document discusses key aspects of the new National Curriculum for English that support EAL and low-attaining pupils. It summarizes five aspects: 1) distinguishing between decoding and language comprehension using the Simple View of Reading framework; 2) teaching spelling in detail including phonics, morphology and etymology; 3) actively building vocabulary; 4) promoting reading for pleasure; and 5) teaching English grammar. It provides context and evidence for why these aspects are important for supporting EAL and low-attaining pupils.
The document discusses several key points about teaching English to second language learners:
1) It takes between 5-7 years for English language learners to develop academic proficiency in English. Younger students may learn conversational English quicker, but older students who have had schooling in their native language can transfer skills more easily.
2) Students should not be placed in special education programs solely based on lack of English proficiency, and must be properly assessed. Instruction should integrate both language and content.
3) Developing media literacy for students is important in today's digital world so they can analyze different types of media sources critically.
The document discusses effective teaching strategies for English language learners (ELLs). It begins by providing background on the growing ELL population in U.S. schools and the challenges they face in acquiring a new language and academic content. It then discusses how a student's first language proficiency contributes to their second language development. Five effective teaching strategies are outlined: gathering student background information; providing instruction in the student's first language when possible; using comprehensible input; being aware of students' silent period; and understanding stages of second language acquisition. The strategies emphasize the importance of developmentally, culturally and linguistically appropriate instruction for individual ELL students.
Position paper on language and literacy developmentRe Martins
This document provides recommendations for effective early literacy programs for young English language learners ages 3-8. It recommends that programs support students' native language development, recognize that English proficiency takes time, and use culturally and developmentally appropriate instruction and assessment. Effective programs incorporate students' background knowledge, use a balanced approach to literacy and content, and ensure teachers receive training to meet the needs of linguistically diverse learners. The goal is to build on students' foundation in their first language to support their acquisition of English literacy and academic success.
English as a Second Language A Reflective Review of Policiesijtsrd
The purpose of this review is to synthesise the available research on ESL reading instruction in the United States and provide those findings. Reading instruction for ESL English for Speakers of Other Languages students in the United States has been the subject of a lot of research, although its typically superficial. Still, certain emerging themes emerged. The following were some of the most important assertions that might be made. First, we identified the classrooms most fundamental limitations Educators may primarily work in small groups, emphasising word knowledge as well as oral reading classic educational discourse patterns may well be incompatible with common home discourse patterns and ESL teachers may function properly with lower ESL cultural changes and underscore bottom level skills even more than with higher ESL groups. Second, there is a lack of clarity on the role and timing of born and bred reading instruction and ESL reading training in relation with ESL reading skills. Third, instruction that relied on students existing knowledge, such as that which emphasised vocabulary, context, and sentence construction, was usually useful. And last, critical areas of teacher support for ESL reading instruction were insufficient. Dr. Dinesh Kumar | Manav "English as a Second Language: A Reflective Review of Policies" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-1 , February 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52772.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/52772/english-as-a-second-language-a-reflective-review-of-policies/dr-dinesh-kumar
The document is the K to 12 English Curriculum Guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It outlines the philosophy, guiding principles, and context for the English curriculum for grades 1 through 10. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social, and emotional development. The principles indicate that language acquisition is an active lifelong process and that learning requires making meaning. It also notes that learners develop language skills through engaging with varied texts and activities involving viewing, listening, speaking, reading and writing. The context section describes the characteristics of Generation Z, born between 1994-2004, who are digital natives highly dependent on technology and social media with short attention spans.
A Case Study Of An High School English Language Learner And His ReadingAllison Koehn
This document describes a case study of Mario, a 12th grade English language learner and struggling reader. The author worked with Mario for 4 weeks during a summer literacy program. Through assessments, the author identified Mario's literacy weaknesses and developed an individualized instruction plan focusing on strategies like creating mental images while reading. After the program, the author conducted a follow-up assessment and interview with Mario to understand the lasting impact. The case study provides insights into supporting struggling adolescent English language learners and improving their literacy skills.
This document outlines the K-12 English curriculum guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It discusses the philosophy, guiding principles, needs of learners, outcomes and conceptual framework for the English curriculum. The curriculum aims to develop students' communicative competence and multiliteracies. It is designed based on principles of spiral progression, interaction, integration, learner-centeredness and contextualization. The goals are for students to effectively interact with others, understand other content areas, and be prepared for their future careers through strengthened English language skills.
The document is the K to 12 English Curriculum Guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It outlines the philosophy, guiding principles, and context for the English curriculum. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social, and emotional development. The principles indicate that language acquisition is an active lifelong process and learners benefit from engaging with a variety of texts. It also notes that today's students, known as Generation Z, have grown up with ubiquitous technology and shorter attention spans than previous generations.
The document is the K to 12 English Curriculum Guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It outlines the philosophy, guiding principles, and context for the English curriculum. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social, and emotional development. The principles indicate that language acquisition is an active lifelong process and learners benefit from engaging with a variety of texts. It also notes that today's students, known as Generation Z, have grown up with ubiquitous technology and short attention spans due to extensive technology use.
This document outlines the K-12 English curriculum guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It discusses the philosophy, guiding principles, needs of learners, outcomes and conceptual framework for the English curriculum. The curriculum aims to develop students' communicative competence and multiliteracies. It is designed based on principles of spiral progression, interaction, integration, learner-centeredness and contextualization. The goals are for students to effectively interact with others, understand other content areas, and be prepared for their future careers through strengthened English language skills.
The document is the K to 12 English Curriculum Guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It outlines the philosophy, guiding principles, and context for the English curriculum. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social, and emotional development. The principles indicate that language acquisition is an active lifelong process and learners benefit from engaging with a variety of texts. It also emphasizes developing communicative competence and critical literacy. Finally, the context discusses the characteristics of Generation Z learners who have grown up with ubiquitous technology and short attention spans but are also creative, collaborative, and more technologically savvy than previous generations.
The document is the K to 12 English Curriculum Guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It outlines the philosophy, guiding principles, and context for the English curriculum. The philosophy states that language is central to intellectual, social, and emotional development. The principles indicate that language acquisition is an active lifelong process and learners benefit from engaging with a variety of texts. It also emphasizes developing communicative competence and critical literacy. Finally, the context discusses the characteristics of Generation Z learners who have grown up with ubiquitous technology and short attention spans but are also creative and collaborative.
This document outlines the K-12 English curriculum guide published by the Department of Education of the Philippines in May 2016. It discusses the philosophy, guiding principles, needs of learners, outcomes and conceptual framework for the English curriculum. The curriculum aims to develop students' communicative competence and multiliteracies. It is designed based on principles of spiral progression, interaction, integration, learner-centeredness and contextualization. The goals are for students to effectively interact with others, understand other content areas, and be prepared for their future careers through strengthened English language skills.
Schools Should End Up Hurting American StudentsRikki Wright
The author argues that terms like "disruptive innovation" are often used imprecisely in everyday conversation. Even companies commonly referred to as disruptive, like Uber, may not truly fit the definition. This casual use of jargon terms can be misleading for corporate leaders. Rather than overreacting to calls to "disrupt or be disrupted," incumbents should carefully assess actual competitive threats on a case-by-case basis. Creating a strong corporate culture and shared values may help motivate employees in today's global business environment.
Schools Should End Up Hurting American StudentsBrooke Curtis
The author argues that terms like "disruptive innovation" are often used imprecisely in everyday conversation. Even companies commonly referred to as disruptive, like Uber, may not truly fit the definition. This casual use of jargon terms can mislead corporate leaders to overreact to the idea that they must "disrupt or be disrupted." Instead, incumbents should carefully monitor changes rather than feel pressured into unnecessary actions. Precise use of language is important to have meaningful discussions about business strategies.
Teachers need a strong understanding of educational linguistics to effectively communicate with students, support language development, and make fair evaluations. The document outlines five reasons why: 1) As communicators, teachers must understand differences in language use and structure instruction for clarity. 2) As educators, teachers must assess student knowledge and design instruction to expand linguistic skills. 3) As evaluators, teachers' judgments have serious consequences, so they need linguistic knowledge to fairly assess differences. 4) As educated individuals, teachers should understand language as an important part of human development. 5) As socializing agents, teachers must recognize home language practices to promote school language without devaluing student backgrounds. Overall, educational linguistics knowledge is crucial for teaching diverse students
Bilingual Education Challenges and Possibilitieslascuola
The document discusses challenges and possibilities in bilingual education. It summarizes key findings from research that show bilingual programs can produce better academic outcomes than immersion programs and that developing literacy in two languages provides cognitive and linguistic advantages. The document also discusses the importance of bringing languages into contact to promote transfer of skills across languages and empowering students' identity development through engaging uses of both languages.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
2. Table of contents
1. Changing lives: Teaching English and literature to ESL students................................................................ 1
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3. Document 1 of 1
Changing lives: Teaching English and literature to ESL students
Author: Ernst-Slavit, Gisela; Moore, Monica; Maloney, Carol
ProQuest document link
Abstract: Ernst-Slavit et al provide teachers with selected background knowledge and strategies that enhance
the learning process for English as a Second Language (ESL) students in secondary classrooms. With the
changing U.S. demographic picture and its impact in schools as a backdrop, key principles in the field of ESL
and a brief description of various program models for second-language learning are presented. Also discussed
are the stages of language development and cultural adaptation that all second-language learners navigate
through. Important linguistic and cultural processes are outlined and effective activities are suggested for
students in various stages within those processes.
Full text: Headnote
To enhance learning for ESL students the authors provide selected background knowledge and strategies.
When I was taked Literature I start to read different books for the class, but I first think that I really don't need
read that kind book but I remember that when I finished the book, was really interesting so I start to read by
myself...
This changed a lot my life, because now I love read book of any subject, I don't care if the book is of History or
the kind of story or is a novel or a science fiction book I just read and enjoy the books, but I can't read scary
books, because I afraid to this kind of story.
Ana
Having students who are already familiar with the joy of reading and the importance of books is a paradise
awaited by many teachers. Yet, having a student like Ana for whom reading and books started out as a means
to an end, but ended up as a joy, is one of the things teachers appreciate most, for it means that the student
has learned the power and agency that the world of literature can bring (see Christensen, 2000). Joyous as
Ana's discovery is, the path there is not an easy one. Helping students like Ana who struggle with basic literacy
skills in their second language may at first appear to be a tremendous challenge for teachers who already face
a myriad of other responsibilities. How do we help Ana learn about such complexities as parallelism? How can
she begin to understand 16th-century English when she is confused by 21 st-century English? How can she see
the subtle differences and nuances between guilt and compassion during a discussion of Toni Morrison's (2000)
The Bluest Eye?
The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with selected background knowledge and strategies that
enhance the learning process for English as a Second Language (ESL) students in secondary classrooms. With
the changing U.S. demographic picture and its impact in schools as a backdrop, key principles in the field of
ESL and a brief description of various program models for second-language learning are presented. Also
discussed are the stages of language development and cultural adaptation that all second-language learners
navigate through. Important linguistic and cultural processes are outlined and effective activities are suggested
for students in various stages within those processes.
Who are our second-language learners?
According to a 1990 census, there were 42,791,000 students enrolled in elementary and secondary schools in
the U.S. During the 1991-1992 school year, approximately 6% of those students were language minority
students, that is, students who are in the process of learning English as a Second Language. Furthermore,
according to data from the 1993-1994 Schools and Staffing Survey, available on the National Center for
Education
Statistics website (http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/ display. asp?id=96), "forty-two percent of all public school
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4. teachers [had] at least one LEP student in their classes."
Finally, census 2000 data indicated that the total number of foreign-born children enrolled in elementary (not
including kindergarten) and secondary schools in the United States was 2.6 million. That number increases to
over 12 million when we include children who were born in the United States to foreign-born parents. Although
not all students from these figures would be ESL students, a significant portion of them are likely to be. These
figures also suggest the imminent reality that all teachers, at some point during their careers, will have in their
classrooms at least one student for whom English is a second language.
The recorded numbers of ESL students at the secondary level can be quite misleading. In a report entitled
"Characteristics of SecondarySchool-Age Language Minority and Limited English Proficient Youth" (Strang,
Winglee, &Stunkard, 1993), the data reflects a phenomenon known as the Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills/Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency Skills threshold (Cummins, 1989). The basic point to this
theory is that second-language learners are capable of obtaining the everyday language used in conversation
within a relatively quick period of time-around two years. However, the acquisition of the academic language
and literacy needed for high school coursework takes anywhere from 5 to 11 years depending upon which
research you base your numbers. The large span in years that it takes to develop academic language primarily
reflects the varying degrees of academic preparation and literacy skills students bring with them to secondary
school in their new country.
Ironically, qualifying for many states' ESL programs means that students score at the 35th percentile or below
on language proficiency scales, roughly equivalent to the two-year level of everyday English. Thus, once
students are situated to begin acquiring academic English, they are often no longer eligible for language support
programs. This occurs even when students themselves report that their English is not up to par. According to
Strang et al. (1993), when teachers' opinions of students' language proficiency were the only consideration, the
number of 10th-grade ESL students was determined to be 97,000. Alternatively, when students' opinions of
their own language proficiency were the only consideration, the number of 10th-grade ESL students was
256,000. These numbers point out an interesting difference in the perception of language proficiency between
teachers and students. Could it be that the students are trying to tell us something?
ESL students may be very different from other learners in their background, skills, and past experiences. Some
may come to the U.S. having attended school regularly, and they will bring with them literacy skills and content
knowledge, although in another language. It is likely that these students will have an easier transition into an
academic setting than students who may come from a war-torn country or from a natural disaster area where
schooling was not always available or accessible. Many will belong to low-income families even though some of
their parents may have been highly educated in their own country and may have once held professional
positions. The resources and the needs individual students bring are therefore likely to be very different. It is
imperative that we find out who our students are and where they come from before we can begin to appreciate
the resources they bring and to understand their needs.
In spite of the differences among ESL students, they all have similar needs. In addition to building their oral
English skills, they also need to acquire reading and writing skills in English, while continuing their learning in
the content areas. Some ESL students will have other needs that make the task of learning much more difficult.
For example, students whose first language is Persian, Chinese, or Arabic are not always familiar with the Latin
alphabet. Their writing system may be completely different (e.g., ideographic, pictographic, logographic); the
language may be written from right to left and top to bottom; letters may be written to extend both above and
below the line; or letters may not be joined and punctuation not always precise. For many of these ESL
students, the transition to the Latin alphabet is an additional source of confusion.
Principles that make for good practice
This section outlines selected theoretical principles that address some of the complexities of second-language
learning and the needs of second-language learners. These principles are based on the work of educators and
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5. researchers in the areas of language and literacy learning, second language acquisition, and the anthropology
of education (see, for example, Au &Jordan, 1981; Cazden, 1986; Ernst, 1994b; Ernst, Castle, &Frostad, 1992;
Freire, 2000; Goodman, 1982; Heath, 1983; Philips, 1983; Wells, 1986). These principles represent a
constellation of theoretical and pedagogical perspectives that guide the practice of caring, knowledgeable,
effective educators working in successful programs for ESL students. They should be helpful to educators
interested in understanding the trajectory ESL students follow in their efforts to learn English.
The student's first language plays an essential role in the acquisition of a second language. Evidence of the
influence of native-language development on academic achievement in a second language derives from
program evaluation studies of the 1980s and early 1990s. These studies have demonstrated that the more the
native language is academically supported, in combination with balanced second-language development, the
more ESL students are able to academically achieve in the second language (Ernst-Slavit, 1998; Krashen
&Biber, 1988; Ramirez, Yuen, &Ramey, 1991).
Educational programs need to include what students bring with them. Educators need to focus on what students
have rather than on what they lack. Teaching and learning can be extended and enhanced when participants'
own experiences (vis-a-vis their language and culture) are mixed with those generalizations and
conceptualizations offered in schools. Such acknowledgment often stimulates learning and helps students
construct meanings by connecting what they already know and what the new environment offers them (Ernst,
1993).
Learning a second language is a long and difficult process. It's a big task for anyone. After all, learning a first
language is a process that involves much of a young child's day, and ESL students must work even harder to
acquire a second language. It can be emotionally difficult for children and adults to take the step into a new
language and culture. Adolescents, perhaps even more than adults, can be shy and embarrassed around
others when trying out beginning language skills.
Fluency in the hallway does not necessarily mean proficiency in the classroom. Often we hear our ESL students
conversing easily in English in the hallway with other students. This, however, does not mean that students are
fluent in English. It is important to mention that good conversational skills do not necessarily mean equivalent
literacy skills. The work of Collier and Thomas (1989), Cummins (1989), and others, has clearly demonstrated
the different levels of language proficiency needed depending on the context. In essence, this body of work
suggests that proficiency in everyday language can be achieved in one to two years; however, proficiency in the
language needed to succeed in content-area classes (e.g., literature, mathematics, chemistry) can take five to
seven years or more, especially when academic reading and writing is included in the consideration of
proficiency.
Learners acquire a second language in different ways. There are many similarities in how a second language is
learned, but there are also differences based on individual student characteristics and language background.
For example, outgoing students may begin to imitate phrases and expressions very early and try them without
worrying about making mistakes. Conversely, other learners may not use their new language for some time.
Instead, they observe quietly until they are sure of what they should say. It may be difficult for teachers to
remember that the outgoing student may be less proficient than he or she appears, and the quiet student may
actually be much more proficient than he or she seems. Both will eventually learn to speak fluently.
Errors can indicate progress. As with firstlanguage acquisition, errors can actually have a positive outcome.
Many language errors are developmental and will eventually be replaced by appropriate forms without teacher
intervention. For students in the early stages of language acquisition, errors that impede communication may be
corrected in a sensitive and natural way, especially those involving vocabulary. Direct correction of errors, on
the other hand, can hinder students' efforts and discourage further attempts to use the newly acquired
language. Rather than direct correction, a better strategy that does not hinder communication is to model the
correct form.
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6. Language develops best in a variety of settings that promote talk and interaction. Talk and interaction not only
help students understand new concepts but also provide a scaffold for learning through the other language
modes of reading and writing. Through talking and listening to one another (not only to the teacher) and working
on activities involving reading and writing (not only their own), learners are able both to develop increasing
facility in all language modes and increasing control over social interaction, thinking, and learning (Ernst,
1994a).
Literacy is part of language; thus, reading and writing develop alongside speaking and listening.
According to Goodman (1982), the two most important resources that language learners have are their
competence in oral language and their undiminished ability to learn language as it is needed for new functions.
The role of literacy instruction in school is to teach learners to use these resources. Research indicates that
ESL students benefit from working in classrooms where speaking and listening are regarded as integral to the
process of negotiating knowledge, exchanging personal experiences and thoughts, and the development of
language and literacy abilities.
Schools should demonstrate appreciation and respect for cultural diversity. Providing equal opportunities for all
students depends on the degree to which classroom teachers are able to institute classroom practices and
develop curriculum that responds to the diversity represented in their classrooms. Implementation of these
practices is dependent upon supportive school staff and programs, district guidelines, and state language
policies that recognize diversity as an asset and not a handicap.
Program models for secondlanguage education in the United States
Often ESL students are placed in some kind of bilingual or ESL program-if available in the school or districtbefore being assigned to mainstream classrooms. Although there are a myriad of programs and approaches
designed for ESL students, most of these programs fall into two major categories: bilingual and ESL. Bilingual
programs are those where instruction is provided in two languages (e.g., Chinese and English); ESL programs
offer instruction in English only but are tailored to the needs and abilities of ESL students. Table 1 presents an
overview of the major variations in program types for limited-English proficient students in the United States.
Stages of language development and cultural adaptation
Students acquiring a second language are involved in a predictable pattern of both linguistic and cultural
processes. The ability to determine the stage the student is passing through and what strategies are effective in
a given stage can provide both teacher and student with a means of communicating effectively at any point in
the language-acquisition process. It is important to underscore that the duration of each stage will vary
according to the student's age, language background, proficiency in the first language, individual personality,
and motivational factors, among other considerations. This means that some students might be able to go
through all four stages within one year, while others might need as much as two years before reaching the third
stage.
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7. Stage I-Preproduction
Linguistic considerations. In the first stage of learning a second language, students listen and watch others
carefully and often communicate with gestures, actions, and some verbal formulas (e.g., "no, thank you"). As
depicted in Table 2, effective activities include face-to-face conversations; lessons that focus on building
receptive vocabulary and recycled vocabulary (i.e., key words in a lesson or unit that are visited more than
once); activities that focus on listening comprehension (e.g., using a tape player to hear a target piece of
literature, lectures where a target piece of literature is broken down into short passages, guided yes or no
answer activities following a brief lecture); as well as the use of visuals and manipulative or real objects.
Manipulatives and visuals might include, for example, using pictures from Never Say Macbeth (Front, 1990) to
contrast London's Globe Theatre with modern versions, or showing clips from films about Shakespeare such as
Shakespeare in Love (Zwick, Madden, Norman, &Stoppard, 1998).
Likewise, using Dorothea Lange's photos of the 1930s while the class is reading The Grapes of Wrath
(Steinbeck, 1939) can help students understand and intuit what life might have been like in the U.S. during the
Great Depression. Teacherdirected questioning techniques that are understandable for students are also
presented in Table 2. The visual techniques listed previously can make a subject matter accessible to students
who may not yet understand the original texts.
Cultural considerations. The stages of cultural adaptation, like those of language acquisition, follow predictable
patterns. However, individual factors (e.g., personality, motivation, reasons for leaving the homeland,
socioeconomic status, language, and cultural backgrounds) can greatly influence a student's response to the
stages.
While often misinterpreted by teachers as an unwillingness to participate, the silent period (Krashen, 1992)
plays a crucial role in language acquisition and cultural adaptation. During this silent time, a tremendous amount
of cognitive activity is taking place within the student. The second-language learner is beginning to build the
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8. parameters of how their new school system works. What are the acceptable behaviors exhibited by the native
English speaking students? How do they sit, stand, and talk to the teacher or one another? Questions such as
these draw tremendous amounts of attention away from the task at hand, which often happens to be the
ongoing lesson. During the silent period, students' participation in class is limited because most of their energy
is spent absorbing the information they see and hear. Typically, student behavior at this point includes minimal
oral or written production, distractibility, and confusion.
Providing a stress-free environment with continued support and encouragement, where students are able to
pass and not respond, is a requirement at this stage. For ESL students, it is very comforting to trust that the
teacher will not single them out by turning the spotlight on them and requiring a response when they are not
able to give one. By reducing student anxiety in the classroom, teachers can lead students to the next stage of
language development and cultural adaptation.
Stage II-Early production
Linguistic considerations. During the early production stage, students are in the process of assimilating basic
vocabulary and intuitively understanding that English, like any other language, is a system derived of rules,
patterns, and sound-symbol relationships. Students will begin to speak using one or two words. In some cases,
short utterances as well as chunks of social language are also produced. One of us had a student who often
responded to inquiries with a hearty "no problem!" The truth was that he really did not understand the task at
hand; what he did know, however, was how to produce a socially accepted response that would stop the
teacher from asking more questions. While taking risks with a new language, it is important for teachers to
monitor their students' error correction with great sensitivity.
Modeling the correct response without calling attention to the error allows students to hear the information again
while they formulate a correct response of their own.
Because the degree of proficiency in the students' native language, especially in terms of literacy and academic
competency, greatly determines how well and when students will decode the second-language system, it
behooves teachers to find out about students' literacy levels and education in their first language. There are
many ways to do this. Perhaps the best place to begin is with your building or district ESL professional. Often
the determination of English language proficiency also gives some clues about the student's academic
achievement. Even though these clues are rough estimates, they are better than nothing. Data about students
English proficiency should be a part of their ESL, if not general, school file. Students who arrive with little or no
formal schooling or low literacy levels have very little upon which to build this new system of language; those
with strong academic backgrounds will be better equipped to make the connections needed to move ahead
academically.
During the early production stage, several strategies have proven useful. Anticipation guides used before
reading the target literature allow students to identify and think through their positions in relation to complex
abstract concepts such as truth, war, honor, love, or responsibility (for an excellent description of anticipation
guides, see Vacca &Vacca, 1999, pp. 372-377). Providing learners with a list of key terms for pre. viewing and
ample opportunities to use the new vocabulary more than once will increase students participation. Audiotaped
recordings of the assigned readings for previewing and of the lecture or class activity for review are also useful.
As always, clusters, semantic webs, Venn diagrams, T-graphs, and graphic organizers are good tools for all
students but especially for second-language learners (see Collie &Slater, 1987; Johnson &Louis, 1987; Sasser,
1992; Scarcella, 1990). In the early production stage, students are able to grasp and offer responses to yes/no
and either/or questions and make short responses to general questions about key vocabulary.
Cultural considerations. At this point students' frustrations with the language and culture come to a peak. After
observation during the silent period, students begin to try out new behaviors and make their first tentative steps
communicating with the new language. This is where they find difficulty trying to be a part of their surroundings.
This frustration is known as adaptation fatigue.
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10. As defined by Khols (1984), adaptation fatigue is the general unwillingness to interact due to the constant
emotional and cognitive drain of interpreting both linguistic and cultural signals and then responding
accordingly. In the public school environment, ESL students spend an average of six hours a day absorbing a
massive amount of information to which they essentially have no way to respond. During this stage of early
production, they summon huge amounts of emotional energy to make their first forays into becoming a
participant in this new environment. Whether ESL students' risk taking results in a positive encounter or, sadly,
an embarrassing one, they are often exhausted from the effort. Observable behaviors in the classroom include
daydreaming, boredom, and an inability to cope with seemingly insignificant issues (see, for example,
Townsend &Fu, 2001, for a description of the potentially debilitating effects of this inability to cope). A good
strategy for teachers during this time is to suspend judgment and continue to provide ample and safe
opportunities to facilitate students' experimentation with the new language.
Stage III-Speech emergence
Linguistic considerations. In this stage, students' linguistic capabilities have increased in ways that allow for
successful participation in small-group activities. Students are also able to demonstrate comprehension and use
language purposefully (e.g., to clarify, request, refuse, interrupt, apologize). Lessons that focus on key concepts
rather than just key terms are accessible to students (e.g., discussing the concepts of ambition, betrayal, and
idealism while reading Shakespeare's [ 1980] Julius Caesar). Zigo (2001) argued that the narrative mode of
thinking is an excellent medium through which to introduce such otherwise abstract concepts. It stands to
reason, then, that literature is one of the best ways to establish a common experience amongst students from
which discussions involving abstract concepts can be built. Students can be encouraged to tell their own stories
that relate to the text being read. The students, through their own experiences and voice, make personal
connections to the concepts and find it easier to describe and talk about them.
Similarly, teachers can introduce expanded vocabulary and ask open-ended questions that stimulate language
production. Strategies that are especially helpful for assessment purposes include activities that provide for
frequent comprehension checks (e.g., as you discuss Cisneros's The House on Mango Street [ 1989], rather
than asking "Do you understand?" you might ask specific questions such as, "How did Esperanza Cordero feel
in her neighborhood?"). Effective questioning techniques at this stage include open-ended questions such as,
"How is it that _," "Tell me about ," "Talk about _," "Describe -," "and "How would you change this part ?"
Performancebased assessment can be particularly useful at the speech emergence stage.
Cultural considerations. From the ESL student's perspective there is a great sense of relief during this stage of
cultural adjustment. The orientation and subsequent interpretation of linguistic and subtle cultural clues has
been intense and learners now have a knowledge base from which to build. The feelings of isolation begin to
fade and students begin to recover from the frustration found in the earlier stages. While they are still under
great pressure, students have gained control over their lives and can participate in the school environment. At
this point, the dilemma faced by students regarding whether to assimilate (i.e., toss away their own cultural
identities and follow the examples of the native English-speaking students in order to be like them) or to
acculturate (i.e., meeting the new culture with a mix of their own, thereby retaining their identity but still being
able to participate in the mainstream) emerges. The difference between assimilation and acculturation is an
important one since it has been hypothesized that successful language learning is more likely when learners
acculturate (Ellis, 1986). In essence, then, when students are able to add a new language and culture rather
than replace the old with the new, the learning process is enhanced, both in terms of language and in terms of
content.
Students' acculturation can be facilitated greatly by the teacher and the classroom environment. Activities that
permit students to extrapolate from the complex ideas represented in literary masterpieces, for example, to their
own emerging bicultural selves validate students' identity-inmotion. This is of course true for all students in our
classrooms. The teacher's own awareness of this general adolescent need to invent and reinvent themselves
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11. can be expressed through a classroom environment that encourages students to explore their own identities
within the context of the greater social and psychological themes that are expressed in the world's great stories.
Stage IV-Intermediate fluency
Linguistic considerations. Intermediate fluency is characterized by students' abilities to engage in conversation
and produce connective narratives. Often students view reading and writing activities as a way to acquire and
process new information. This is an excellent place to add some direct instruction regarding basic study skills
such as notetaking techniques, skimming text for specific information, scanning text for main ideas, recognizing
specific attributes within a particular literary genre, and using those attributes to produce one's own
representation of that genre, to name a few.
In the classroom, understanding content is evidenced by student participation in activities that require higher
levels of language use (Maloney, 2001). The level of student response to teacher questions develops
considerably during this stage, as is demonstrated by their ability to answer the following types of questions:
"What would you recommend or suggest?'; "How do you think this story will end?'" "What is the story about?",
"What is your opinion on this matter?", "How are these the same or different?", and "Which do you prefer?" The
answers to these and similar questions could be organized with semantic maps or outlines that could, in turn,
form the basis for essay writing given the students' greater ability to produce written narratives and connected
discourse at this stage of language development.
Cultural considerations. The fourth stage finds the student functioning well in school, and as teachers we need
to celebrate our ESL students who have arrived at this point. It has been an arduous journey and we must not
lose sight of the efforts they have made. Having successfully learned a new language and navigated through an
ocean of cultural contexts and dues, they are now able to ask for assistance, share insights, and stage opinions.
More important, on a social level they have made friends and are able to critically examine information,
creatively suggest solutions, and consistently hypothesize possible avenues to follow.
Resources
Your school ESL specialist is a wonderful source of knowledge and information about what to do and what
materials to use with your ESL students. Your librarian can suggest appropriate literature in English and
perhaps in the native languages of your students. Other resources available to teachers and schools are
presented below. This selection, far from comprehensive, provides an array of information for educators working
with students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
The National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education (NCBE), in Washington, D.C. can provide information about
free or low-cost assistance with implementation, training, evaluation, and parental involvement in bilingual
education and ESL programs as well as legal requirements for bilingual education and ESL programs in various
communities. 1-800321-NCBE. http://www.ncbe.ewu.edu.
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) in Alexandria, VA. Individual and
institutional TESOL members may participate in the activities and receive the newsletter of the Bilingual
Education Interest Section. 1-703-836-0774. http://www.tesol.edu/.
The National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) in Washington, D.C. 1-202-898-1829.
http://www.nabe.org/.
The U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR), in Washington, D.C. Contact the OCR for their
latest policy statements on the legal responsibilities of educational agencies serving language minority students,
and call NCBE for the locations and phone numbers of the 10 Desegregation Assistance Centers (DACs).
The Office of English Language Acquisition (formerly called the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority
Languages Affairs, OBEMLA), Washington, D.C., has 16 federally funded resource centers (MRCs). Call NCBE
for appropriate names and phone numbers.
State education agencies. Call your state's Department of Education or NCBE for appropriate names and phone
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12. numbers.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics leads to sources on English as a second or foreign
language, bilingualism and bilingual education, and intercultural communication in publications, newsletters, and
digests. http://www.cal.org/ericcll.
Center for Applied Linguistics, a contract and grant firm, has as primary objective the improvement of the
teaching of English as a second or foreign language. http://www.cal.or .
The Internet TESL Journal is a monthly Internet magazine for teachers of English as a Second Language that
contains articles, research papers, lesson plans, classroom handouts, teaching ideas, and links.
http://www.aitech.ac.jp/-iteslj/.
National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education (NCLE) is the only national clearinghouse focusing on adult
and adolescent literacy education. It offers online access to articles, books, newsletters, and bibliographies on
literacy. http://www.cal.or nde.
The light at the end of the tunnel
Throughout this exploration of the field of ESL two points stand out. First, while ideally all our ESL students
would move through the four stages discussed above in a manner easily recognizable to their teachers, the
truth of the matter is that they do not. While indicators presented here do indeed identify behaviors and abilities
inherent in each stage, students carry individual personality factors that make their involvement with the process
uniquely their own. According to Richard-Amato (1988), students will pass through all of these stages at varying
rates. Additionally, there is no guarantee that each student will pass through each stage smoothly and move
onto the next. Regression to previous stages is not uncommon in cases where the student has tried to leap too
far ahead of their abilities. However, through simple observation, the teacher will be able to identify a student's
current level.
Second, back to Ands essay-after receiving feedback from her peers and teacher, this is what Ana wrote in the
last paragraph of her essay:
Now I know that this class has changed my life because I learned to read books and also learned more from
books. Before this happened I just read a book for reading. In some classes the teacher would tell me that I
need to read and I would read. Now I read and I try to understand everything.
Perhaps it will take a while before Ana can learn to use rhetorical and syntactic conventions or for her to
understand that Juliet's line "0 Romeo, Romeo. Wherefore art thou Romeo?" means "Why are you a
Montague?" and not "Where are you Romeo?" Yet, the challenges she and her teachers will have to face
dwindle when we examine what Ana has to offer and what she has accomplished in such a short time.
References
REFERENCES
References
Au, K., &Jordan, C. (1981). Teaching reading to Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate solution. In
H. Trueba, G. Guthrie, &K. Au, (Eds.), Culture and the bilingual classroom (pp. 139-152). Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Cazden, C. (1986). Classroom discourse. In M. Wittrock, (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp.
432-463). New York: Macmillan.
Christensen, L. (2000). Reading writing, and rising up. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools.
Cisneros, S. (1989). The house on Mango Street. New York: Vintage.
Collie, J., &Slater, S. (1987). Literature in the language classroom. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Academic
Interinstitutional Programs.
References
Collier, V., &Thomas, W.P. (1989). How quickly can immigrants become proficient in school English? Journal of
Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 5, 26-38.
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13. Cummins, J. (1989). Empowering minority students. Sacramento, CA: California Association for Bilingual
Education.
Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Ernst, G. (1993). A multicultural curriculum for the 21st century. In C.G. Hass &F.W. Parkay (Eds.), Curriculum
planning (6th ed., pp. 84-90). Boston: Allyn &Bacon.
Ernst, G. (1994a). Talking circle: Conversation and negotiation in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 28,
293-322.
References
Ernst, G. ( 994b). Beyond language: The many dimensions of an ESL program. Anthropology &Education
Quarterly, 25, 317-335.
Ernst, G., Castle, M., &Frostad, L. (1992). Teaching in multilingual/multicultural settings: Strategies for
supporting second-language learners. Curriculum in Context, 20(2), 13-15.
Ernst-Slavit, G. (1998). Different words, different worlds: Language use, power, and authorized language in a
bilingual classroom. Linguistics and Education, 9(1) 25-47.
Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Front, S. (1990). Never say Macbeth. New York: Doubleday. Goodman, K. (1982). Acquiring literacy is natural:
Who skilled cock robin? In F. Gollasch (Ed.), Language &literacy: Selected writings of Kenneth S. Goodman
(Vol. 2, pp. 243-249). Boston: Routledge &Kegan Paul.
References
Heath, S. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, T.D., &Louis, D.R. (1987). Literacy through literature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Khols, L.R. (1984). Survival kit for overseas living. Yarmouth, England: Intercultural Press.
References
Krashen, S. (1992). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York: Pergamon.
Krashen, S., &Biber, D. (1988). On course: Bilingual education's success in California. Sacramento, CA:
California Association of Bilingual Education.
Maloney, C. (2001). Student voices and visions. Unpublished Master's thesis, Washington State University,
Vancouver. Morrison, T. (2000). The bluest eye. New York: Dutton/Plume.
Philips, S. (1983). The invisible culture. New York: Longman.
References
Ramirez, J., Yuen, S., &Ramey, D. (1991). Longitudinal study of structured English immersion strategy, earlyexit and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for language-minority children. San Mateo, CA:
Aguirre International.
Richard-Amato, P. (1988). Making it happen. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Sasser, L. (1992). Teaching literature to language minority students. In P. Richard-Amato &C.E. Snow (Eds.),
The multicultural classroom (pp. 300-315). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Scarcella, R. (1990). Teaching language minority students in the multicultural classroom. White Plains. NY:
Longman.
References
Shakespeare, W. (1980). Julius Caesar. New York: Royal Composing Room.
Steinbeck, J. (1939). The grapes of wrath. Garden City, NY: Sun Dial Press.
Strang, W., Winglee, M., &Stunkard, J. (1993). Characteristics of secondary-school-age language minority and
limited English proficient youth. Final analytic report.
Washington, DC: Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Affairs.
Townsend, J., &Fu, D. (2001). Paw's story: A Laotian refugee's lonely entry into American literacy. Journal of
Adolescent e'r Adult Literacy, 45, 104-114.
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14. References
Vacca, R., &Vacca, J. (1999). Content area reading. New York: Longman.
Wells, G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Zigo, D. (2001). From familiar worlds to possible worlds: Using narrative theory to support struggling readers'
engagements with texts. Journal of Adolescent &Adult Literacy, 45, 62-70.
Zwick, E. (Producer), Madden, J. (Director), Norman, M., &Stoppard, T. (Writers). (1998). Shakespeare in love
[Motion picture]. Los Angeles: Miramax.
AuthorAffiliation
Gisela Ernst-Slavit, Monica Moore, Carol Maloney
AuthorAffiliation
Ernst-Slavit teaches at Washington State University Vancouver (14204 NE Salmon Creek Avenue, Vancouver,
WA 8686, USA). She may he contacted by e-mail at gepnst@wsu.edu. Moore is an ESL specialist with the
Pullman School district in Pullman, Washington. Maloney coordinates the Bilingual ESL Support Training
Project at Washington State University, Vancouver.
Subject: Educators; Literature; English as a second language; ESL; Language;
Publication title: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy
Volume: 46
Issue: 2
Pages: 116-128
Number of pages: 13
Publication year: 2002
Publication date: Oct 2002
Year: 2002
Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Place of publication: Newark
Country of publication: United Kingdom
Publication subject: Linguistics, Education
ISSN: 10813004
Source type: Scholarly Journals
Language of publication: English
Document type: Feature
ProQuest document ID: 216915301
Document URL:
http://search.proquest.com.ezaccess.library.uitm.edu.my/docview/216915301?accountid=42518
Copyright: Copyright International Reading Association Oct 2002
Last updated: 2012-04-18
Database: ProQuest Education Journals,Arts & Humanities Full Text
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