CHANGE AGENTS, NETWORKS, AND INSTITUTIONS:
A CONTINGENCY THEORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
JULIE BATTILANA
Harvard University
TIZIANA CASCIARO
University of Toronto
We develop a contingency theory for how structural closure in a network, defined as
terms of the extent to which an actor’s network contacts are connected to one another,
affects the initiation and adoption of change in organizations. Using longitudinal
survey data supplemented with eight in-depth case studies, we analyze 68 organiza-
tional change initiatives undertaken in the United Kingdom’s National Health Service.
We show that low levels of structural closure (i.e., “structural holes”) in a change
agent’s network aid the initiation and adoption of changes that diverge from the
institutional status quo but hinder the adoption of less divergent changes.
Scholars have long recognized the political na-
ture of change in organizations (Frost & Egri, 1991;
Pettigrew, 1973; Van de Ven & Poole, 1995). To
implement planned organizational changes—that
is, premeditated interventions intended to modify
the functioning of an organization (Lippitt, 1958)—
change agents may need to overcome resistance
from other members of their organization and en-
courage them to adopt new practices (Kanter, 1983;
Van de Ven, 1986). Change implementation within
an organization can thus be conceptualized as an
exercise in social influence, defined as the alteration
of an attitude or behavior by one actor in response to
another actor’s actions (Marsden & Friedkin, 1993).
Research on organizational change has improved
understanding of the challenges inherent in change
implementation, but it has not accounted system-
atically for how characteristics of a change initia-
tive affect its adoption in organizations. Not all
organizational changes are equivalent, however.
One important dimension along which they vary is
the extent to which they break with existing insti-
tutions in a field of activity (Battilana, 2006; Green-
wood & Hinings, 2006). Existing institutions are
defined as patterns that are so taken-for-granted
that actors perceive them as the only possible ways
of acting and organizing (Douglas, 1986). Consider
the example of medical professionalism, the insti-
tutionalized template for organizing in the United
Kingdom’s National Health Service (NHS) in the
early 2000s. According to this template, physicians
are the key decision makers in both the administra-
tive and clinical domains. In this context, central-
izing information to enable physicians to better
control patient discharge decisions would be
aligned with the institutionalized template. By con-
trast, implementing nurse-led discharge or pread-
mission clinics would diverge from the institu-
tional status quo by transferring clinical tasks and
decision-making authority from physicians to
nurses. Organizational changes may thus converge
with or diverge from an institutional status quo
(Amis, Slack, & Hinings, 2004; D’Aunno, Succi, &
Alexan ...
Journal of Organizational Change ManagementIntegrating the o.docxtawnyataylor528
Journal of Organizational Change Management
Integrating the organizational change literature: a model for successful change
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour
Article information:
To cite this document:
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour , (2015),"Integrating the organizational change literature: a model
for successful change", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 234 - 262
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Downloaded on: 12 September 2016, At: 15:44 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 153 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 6849 times since 2015*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2011),"Managing successful change", Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 43 Iss 6 pp. 349-353
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197851111160478
(2015),"Causes of stress before, during and after organizational change: a qualitative study",
Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 301-314 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
JOCM-03-2014-0055
(2015),"Diffusion of changes in organizations", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol.
28 Iss 1 pp. 134-152 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-04-2014-0081
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by All users group
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
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nl
oa
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by
1
32
.1
34
.2
54
.2
A
t 1
5:
44
1
2
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pt
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PT
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Integrating the organizational
change literature: a model for
successful change
Serina Al-Haddad and Timothy Kotnour
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute a roadmap to the change management literature,
and provide definitions for describing change types, change enablers and change methods. This paper
also proposes aligning the change type with the change method to find the effect on the chan ...
A theoretical framework oforganizational changeGabriele .docxstandfordabbot
A theoretical framework of
organizational change
Gabriele Jacobs
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Arjen van Witteloostuijn
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, Tilburg University, Tilburg,
The Netherlands, and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, and
Jochen Christe-Zeyse
Fachhochschule der Polizei Brandenburg, Brandenburg, Germany
Abstract
Purpose – Organizational change is a risky endeavour. Most change initiatives fall short on their
goals and produce high opportunity and process costs, which at times outweigh the content benefits of
organizational change. This paper seeks to develop a framework, offering a theoretical toolbox to
analyze context-dependent barriers and enablers of organizational change. Starting from an
organizational identity perspective, it aims to link contingency-based approaches, such as
environmental scan, SWOT and stakeholder analysis, with insights from organizational behaviour
research, such as knowledge sharing and leadership.
Design/methodology/approach – The framework is informed by long-lasting field research into
organizational change in an international policing environment. The theories in the framework are
selected from the perspective of field validity in two ways; they were chosen because the topics
covered by these theories emerged as relevant during the field research and therefore it can be
expected they have applicability to the field. The authors’ insights and suggestions are summarised in
13 propositions throughout the text.
Findings – The analysis provides a clear warning that organizational change is more risky and
multifaceted than change initiators typically assume. It is stressed that the external environment and
the internal dynamics of organizations co-determine the meaning of managerial practices. This implies
that cure-all recipes to organizational change are bound to fail.
Originality/value – This paper makes an ambitious attempt to cross disciplinary boundaries in the
field of organizational change research to contribute to a more comprehensive and holistic
understanding of change processes by integrating perspectives that focus on the internal context and
the external environment of organizations.
Keywords Organizational change, Contingency analysis, Culture, Leadership, Environmental scan,
Police, Public security, Public management, International environment, Costs of change, Policing
Paper type Research paper
Organizational change as a risky strategy
Organizational change is omnipresent, being the raison d’être of the consultancy
industry (Sorge and van Witteloostuijn, 2004). Modern organization sciences have
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0953-4814.htm
The authors would like to thank the project partners for their contribution to this work. This
research is partially funded by the European Commission in the context of the COMPOSITE
projec.
1. What is qualified immunity 2. What is the rule regar.docxpaynetawnya
1. What is qualified immunity?
2. What is the rule regarding review of summary judgment on appeal after a final
judgment is rendered?
3. What is the rule applied to litigants that fail to timely object to evidence at trial and
attempt to raise an objection to such evidence on appeal?
4. What is the rule regarding leave to amend as it applies to the discretion of the
district court? Note underlying purpose of Fed. R. Civ. P. 15 (2015).
5. What is the rule regarding federal judges supervising trials, and how does that rule
apply to a trial judge’s behavior/rulings?
6. What is the test applied when a lawyer asserts that a member of the jury engaged in
juror misconduct by purposefully withholding information during voir dire (the
questioning of a jury panel to determine the fitness to serve on the jury) indicating bias?
7. What is the rule regarding an appellant seeking a reversal based on their own
evidentiary errors?
8. What is the rule regarding a judge participating in the examination of witnesses?
9. What is the rule regarding the authority of a federal judge to determine the extent
and nature of a post-trial evidentiary hearing?
You are limited to no more than 5 pages of text, Times Roman 12 point, 1-inch margins on
all sides, 1.5 spacing. Put the sources you use to document your responses on a separate
page as “endnotes” not footnotes.
1.Introduction- Change.docx
1 Introduction to Book 7
(Author: Jeni Grubb, with revisions by Ingrid Brooks)
In this book we introduce the important issue of change which, for Carlopio and Andrewartha (2008) is the most common activity that demonstrates leadership in organisations. In Yoder-Wise and Menix’s (2003) words: “Change is a natural social process of individuals, groups, organizations, and society” (p.322).
As we have seen in previous discussions, organisations can be conceptualised as open systems, with the forces for change coming from both inside the organisation and outside. They are essentially processes and are composed of people in relationships with other people; nothing more than relationships and social contracts between people. All organisational change therefore “requires personal change in an organisational setting” (Carlopio & Andrewartha, 2008, p.496). However personal change is not easy – it takes effort, persistence and time. With change we adapt, learn and grow although there can be a sense of loss as old ways of doing things become redundant.
Change is a generic term, which, for our purposes, can refer to macro change in the overall health care system, changes at organisational level, or micro change within your specific work unit or department. Indeed it is likely that a macro change, such as a change in the direction of health care policy by the government, can create a ripple effect throughout the health care system (including the private sector), right down to micro changes in actual service delivery. For example, if the gov ...
Section #2To be completed by Learner2.1 ProjectWrite app.docxkenjordan97598
Section #2
To be completed by Learner
2.1 Project
Write approximately one paragraph that describes the action research project and the basis for it being addressed.
The action research project seeks to explore pertinent leadership effectiveness issue created by the healthcare reform process in healthcare institutions across the United States. The reform process has created a dynamic environment that is in constant flux. Essentially, healthcare reform institutionalization has proven to be very beneficial when it comes to reducing the rising cost of healthcare. Additionally, it helps ensure that effective delivery of primary care is achieved so as to diminish the prevalence of chronic illnesses such as diabetes and cardiac-related health problems. The shift towards preventive care for the reduction of chronic illnesses requires more engagement between the patients and the doctors and closer follow-ups of patient outcomes. This requires effective leadership when it comes to the creation a workforce that is responsive to long-term patient needs. This means the healthcare professionals such as the physicians and nurses need effective leadership in hospital management so as to ensure they are motivated and engaged in the change process through teamwork and partnerships within hierarchical structures. Nonetheless, the purpose of this action research is assess Micheal E. DeBakey VA Medical Center of Houston’s leadership so as to provide a leadership model that includes the most appropriate leadership qualities that can be adopted by the organization to create a dynamic healthcare environment. Essentially, the action research project will involve a qualitative analysis of case studies related to leadership mechanisms within the institution and how they influence employee and patient outcomes. Based on the findings of the studies conducted, the possibility of using the proposed leadership model to improve outcomes will also be gauged. Comment by Nita Stika: What example would you use to demonstrate how this is true? Comment by Nita Stika: Management, observation or as Dr. Z suggests. Comment by Nita Stika: To assess Comment by Nita Stika: Current administrative structure so as to construct a leadership model that includes the most compatible qualities to be adopted? Comment by Nita Stika: Again, a forgone conclusion, could.
Reference
Thompson, J.M. (2007). Health Services Administration. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.
Dageling, P. and Carr, A. (2004). Leadership for the systemization of health care: the unaddressed issue in health care reform. Journal of Health Organization and Management, 18(6), 399 – 414.
2.2 Contribution to Society
Using citations, answer the following questions in order:
1. How does your project improve a current practice?
2void . If your action research project is successful, how could your project impact your field of interest?
3. What are the practical implications of your project? For example, what will be the impa.
WHEN CHANGEBECOMESTRANSFORMATIONA case study of change.docxphilipnelson29183
WHEN CHANGE
BECOMES
TRANSFORMATION
A case study of change
management in Medicaid
offices in New York City
Kimberley R. Isett, Sherry A.M. Glied,
Michael S. Sparer and Lawrence D. Brown
Kimberley R. Isett
School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Sherry A.M. Glied
Department of Health Policy and Management
Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia
University, New York, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Michael S. Sparer
Department of Health Policy and Management
Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia
University, New York, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Lawrence D. Brown
Department of Health Policy and Management,
Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia
University, New York, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
This work was completed under contract to the
Human Resources Administration in New York City.
Abstract
This paper examines the implementation of
large, transformative change in the Medicaid
offices in New York City to improve efficiency
and consumer-friendliness. A bottom-up
process was engaged to design and imple-
ment the needed changes from those who
were most affected by the change. Key
informant interviews and observational site
visits were conducted to assess the extent to
which the change efforts were successful. We
found that the changes impacted both
quantitative measures of success (such as
client processing times and number of clients
served) as well as less tangible qualitative
indicators of success such as staff attitudes
and office climate.
Key words
Change, human services
Vol. 15 Issue 1 2013 1–17
Public Management Review ISSN 1471-9037 print/ISSN 1471-9045 online
! 2013 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandfonline.com
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2012.686230
The organizational change literature frequently stresses the difficulty of motivating
frontline employees to accept and implement change initiatives. Employees
presumably have a vested interest in maintaining status quo for a variety of reasons
including institutional pressures, power, comfort level and ambivalence towards a
proposed change (Cyert and March 1963; Piderit 2000; Tucker 1993). However,
new research refutes the traditional view of frontline employees as recalcitrant
obstacles to change, and instead sees their position and resourcefulness as a generally
untapped opportunity to make change efforts successful (e.g. Ford et al. 2008;
Kelman 2005).
One of the environments where it is thought that change is difficult to accomplish is
in public organizations. Public organizations are often structured to emulate Weber’s
ideal bureaucracy – control through rules and technical adherence to those rules is
prized (Mashaw 1983; Weber 1946). Inertia and adherence to rules can make it difficult
for real change to happen. Further, Federalist systems can exacerbate inertia through
creating layers of rules and regulations at each level of government. And in locations
with strong organized labour unions, whose mai.
Journal of Organizational Change ManagementIntegrating the o.docxtawnyataylor528
Journal of Organizational Change Management
Integrating the organizational change literature: a model for successful change
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour
Article information:
To cite this document:
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour , (2015),"Integrating the organizational change literature: a model
for successful change", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 234 - 262
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Downloaded on: 12 September 2016, At: 15:44 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 153 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 6849 times since 2015*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2011),"Managing successful change", Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 43 Iss 6 pp. 349-353
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197851111160478
(2015),"Causes of stress before, during and after organizational change: a qualitative study",
Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 301-314 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
JOCM-03-2014-0055
(2015),"Diffusion of changes in organizations", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol.
28 Iss 1 pp. 134-152 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-04-2014-0081
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by All users group
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
by
1
32
.1
34
.2
54
.2
A
t 1
5:
44
1
2
Se
pt
em
be
r
20
16
(
PT
)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Integrating the organizational
change literature: a model for
successful change
Serina Al-Haddad and Timothy Kotnour
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute a roadmap to the change management literature,
and provide definitions for describing change types, change enablers and change methods. This paper
also proposes aligning the change type with the change method to find the effect on the chan ...
A theoretical framework oforganizational changeGabriele .docxstandfordabbot
A theoretical framework of
organizational change
Gabriele Jacobs
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Arjen van Witteloostuijn
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, Tilburg University, Tilburg,
The Netherlands, and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, and
Jochen Christe-Zeyse
Fachhochschule der Polizei Brandenburg, Brandenburg, Germany
Abstract
Purpose – Organizational change is a risky endeavour. Most change initiatives fall short on their
goals and produce high opportunity and process costs, which at times outweigh the content benefits of
organizational change. This paper seeks to develop a framework, offering a theoretical toolbox to
analyze context-dependent barriers and enablers of organizational change. Starting from an
organizational identity perspective, it aims to link contingency-based approaches, such as
environmental scan, SWOT and stakeholder analysis, with insights from organizational behaviour
research, such as knowledge sharing and leadership.
Design/methodology/approach – The framework is informed by long-lasting field research into
organizational change in an international policing environment. The theories in the framework are
selected from the perspective of field validity in two ways; they were chosen because the topics
covered by these theories emerged as relevant during the field research and therefore it can be
expected they have applicability to the field. The authors’ insights and suggestions are summarised in
13 propositions throughout the text.
Findings – The analysis provides a clear warning that organizational change is more risky and
multifaceted than change initiators typically assume. It is stressed that the external environment and
the internal dynamics of organizations co-determine the meaning of managerial practices. This implies
that cure-all recipes to organizational change are bound to fail.
Originality/value – This paper makes an ambitious attempt to cross disciplinary boundaries in the
field of organizational change research to contribute to a more comprehensive and holistic
understanding of change processes by integrating perspectives that focus on the internal context and
the external environment of organizations.
Keywords Organizational change, Contingency analysis, Culture, Leadership, Environmental scan,
Police, Public security, Public management, International environment, Costs of change, Policing
Paper type Research paper
Organizational change as a risky strategy
Organizational change is omnipresent, being the raison d’être of the consultancy
industry (Sorge and van Witteloostuijn, 2004). Modern organization sciences have
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0953-4814.htm
The authors would like to thank the project partners for their contribution to this work. This
research is partially funded by the European Commission in the context of the COMPOSITE
projec.
1. What is qualified immunity 2. What is the rule regar.docxpaynetawnya
1. What is qualified immunity?
2. What is the rule regarding review of summary judgment on appeal after a final
judgment is rendered?
3. What is the rule applied to litigants that fail to timely object to evidence at trial and
attempt to raise an objection to such evidence on appeal?
4. What is the rule regarding leave to amend as it applies to the discretion of the
district court? Note underlying purpose of Fed. R. Civ. P. 15 (2015).
5. What is the rule regarding federal judges supervising trials, and how does that rule
apply to a trial judge’s behavior/rulings?
6. What is the test applied when a lawyer asserts that a member of the jury engaged in
juror misconduct by purposefully withholding information during voir dire (the
questioning of a jury panel to determine the fitness to serve on the jury) indicating bias?
7. What is the rule regarding an appellant seeking a reversal based on their own
evidentiary errors?
8. What is the rule regarding a judge participating in the examination of witnesses?
9. What is the rule regarding the authority of a federal judge to determine the extent
and nature of a post-trial evidentiary hearing?
You are limited to no more than 5 pages of text, Times Roman 12 point, 1-inch margins on
all sides, 1.5 spacing. Put the sources you use to document your responses on a separate
page as “endnotes” not footnotes.
1.Introduction- Change.docx
1 Introduction to Book 7
(Author: Jeni Grubb, with revisions by Ingrid Brooks)
In this book we introduce the important issue of change which, for Carlopio and Andrewartha (2008) is the most common activity that demonstrates leadership in organisations. In Yoder-Wise and Menix’s (2003) words: “Change is a natural social process of individuals, groups, organizations, and society” (p.322).
As we have seen in previous discussions, organisations can be conceptualised as open systems, with the forces for change coming from both inside the organisation and outside. They are essentially processes and are composed of people in relationships with other people; nothing more than relationships and social contracts between people. All organisational change therefore “requires personal change in an organisational setting” (Carlopio & Andrewartha, 2008, p.496). However personal change is not easy – it takes effort, persistence and time. With change we adapt, learn and grow although there can be a sense of loss as old ways of doing things become redundant.
Change is a generic term, which, for our purposes, can refer to macro change in the overall health care system, changes at organisational level, or micro change within your specific work unit or department. Indeed it is likely that a macro change, such as a change in the direction of health care policy by the government, can create a ripple effect throughout the health care system (including the private sector), right down to micro changes in actual service delivery. For example, if the gov ...
Section #2To be completed by Learner2.1 ProjectWrite app.docxkenjordan97598
Section #2
To be completed by Learner
2.1 Project
Write approximately one paragraph that describes the action research project and the basis for it being addressed.
The action research project seeks to explore pertinent leadership effectiveness issue created by the healthcare reform process in healthcare institutions across the United States. The reform process has created a dynamic environment that is in constant flux. Essentially, healthcare reform institutionalization has proven to be very beneficial when it comes to reducing the rising cost of healthcare. Additionally, it helps ensure that effective delivery of primary care is achieved so as to diminish the prevalence of chronic illnesses such as diabetes and cardiac-related health problems. The shift towards preventive care for the reduction of chronic illnesses requires more engagement between the patients and the doctors and closer follow-ups of patient outcomes. This requires effective leadership when it comes to the creation a workforce that is responsive to long-term patient needs. This means the healthcare professionals such as the physicians and nurses need effective leadership in hospital management so as to ensure they are motivated and engaged in the change process through teamwork and partnerships within hierarchical structures. Nonetheless, the purpose of this action research is assess Micheal E. DeBakey VA Medical Center of Houston’s leadership so as to provide a leadership model that includes the most appropriate leadership qualities that can be adopted by the organization to create a dynamic healthcare environment. Essentially, the action research project will involve a qualitative analysis of case studies related to leadership mechanisms within the institution and how they influence employee and patient outcomes. Based on the findings of the studies conducted, the possibility of using the proposed leadership model to improve outcomes will also be gauged. Comment by Nita Stika: What example would you use to demonstrate how this is true? Comment by Nita Stika: Management, observation or as Dr. Z suggests. Comment by Nita Stika: To assess Comment by Nita Stika: Current administrative structure so as to construct a leadership model that includes the most compatible qualities to be adopted? Comment by Nita Stika: Again, a forgone conclusion, could.
Reference
Thompson, J.M. (2007). Health Services Administration. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.
Dageling, P. and Carr, A. (2004). Leadership for the systemization of health care: the unaddressed issue in health care reform. Journal of Health Organization and Management, 18(6), 399 – 414.
2.2 Contribution to Society
Using citations, answer the following questions in order:
1. How does your project improve a current practice?
2void . If your action research project is successful, how could your project impact your field of interest?
3. What are the practical implications of your project? For example, what will be the impa.
WHEN CHANGEBECOMESTRANSFORMATIONA case study of change.docxphilipnelson29183
WHEN CHANGE
BECOMES
TRANSFORMATION
A case study of change
management in Medicaid
offices in New York City
Kimberley R. Isett, Sherry A.M. Glied,
Michael S. Sparer and Lawrence D. Brown
Kimberley R. Isett
School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Sherry A.M. Glied
Department of Health Policy and Management
Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia
University, New York, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Michael S. Sparer
Department of Health Policy and Management
Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia
University, New York, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Lawrence D. Brown
Department of Health Policy and Management,
Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia
University, New York, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
This work was completed under contract to the
Human Resources Administration in New York City.
Abstract
This paper examines the implementation of
large, transformative change in the Medicaid
offices in New York City to improve efficiency
and consumer-friendliness. A bottom-up
process was engaged to design and imple-
ment the needed changes from those who
were most affected by the change. Key
informant interviews and observational site
visits were conducted to assess the extent to
which the change efforts were successful. We
found that the changes impacted both
quantitative measures of success (such as
client processing times and number of clients
served) as well as less tangible qualitative
indicators of success such as staff attitudes
and office climate.
Key words
Change, human services
Vol. 15 Issue 1 2013 1–17
Public Management Review ISSN 1471-9037 print/ISSN 1471-9045 online
! 2013 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandfonline.com
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2012.686230
The organizational change literature frequently stresses the difficulty of motivating
frontline employees to accept and implement change initiatives. Employees
presumably have a vested interest in maintaining status quo for a variety of reasons
including institutional pressures, power, comfort level and ambivalence towards a
proposed change (Cyert and March 1963; Piderit 2000; Tucker 1993). However,
new research refutes the traditional view of frontline employees as recalcitrant
obstacles to change, and instead sees their position and resourcefulness as a generally
untapped opportunity to make change efforts successful (e.g. Ford et al. 2008;
Kelman 2005).
One of the environments where it is thought that change is difficult to accomplish is
in public organizations. Public organizations are often structured to emulate Weber’s
ideal bureaucracy – control through rules and technical adherence to those rules is
prized (Mashaw 1983; Weber 1946). Inertia and adherence to rules can make it difficult
for real change to happen. Further, Federalist systems can exacerbate inertia through
creating layers of rules and regulations at each level of government. And in locations
with strong organized labour unions, whose mai.
1.10 Contact Info for Site Approver & Expected Approval Date1.Je.docxjackiewalcutt
1.10 Contact Info for Site Approver & Expected Approval Date
1.Jennifer Lopez (713)770-7107-pending & pending
2.Robert Garza (713)791-1414
3. Karl Covington (713)695-8686
Section #2
To be completed by Learner
2.1 Project
Write approximately one paragraph that describes the action research project and the basis for it being addressed.
The action research project deals with a pertinent leadership effectiveness issue created by the healthcare reform process in healthcare institutions across the United States. The reform process has created a dynamic environment that is in constant flux. Essentially, healthcare reform institutionalization has proved to be very beneficial. For instance, strives to reduce high costs of healthcare. Additionally, it ensures that effective delivery of primary care is achieved so as to reduce the prevalence of chronic illnesses such as diabetes and cardiac-related health problems. The shift towards preventive care for the reduction of chronic illnesses requires more engagement between the patients and the doctors and closer follow-ups of patient outcomes. This requires a leadership that is effective in engendering a workforce that is responsive to long-term patient needs. This means the healthcare professionals such as the physicians and nurses need effective leadership in hospital management so as to ensure they are motivated and engaged in the change process through teamwork and partnerships within hierarchical structures. Therefore, the purpose of this action research is to provide a leadership model and qualities of leadership most relevant for the dynamic healthcare environment. The action research project evaluates the case about the Hospital Corporation of America (HCA), Houston, Texas, to understand the leadership mechanisms within the institution and how they influence employee and patient outcomes. Based on the findings of the studies conducted, the possibility of using the leadership model proposed to improve outcomes will be elaborated upon. Comment by Heather: Please consider revising this sentence. The project cannot deal. Comment by Zerwekh, Tyler: How so? Reference? Comment by Heather: Incomplete sentence. Please revise. Comment by Zerwekh, Tyler: Strides? Comment by Heather: I understand why you would select this word- but at quick glance it can be confusing and even mistook for engineering. You may want to reconsider a synonym like generate or produce. Comment by Heather: Will your research be providing the model or will it be looking at existing models? Will you be doing a pilot study will you introduce a model and then examining the model through prospective follow-up? Of are you just looking at the current leadership style then gaging outcomes? It is a bit ambiguous in nature how you will be conducting your study. Comment by Zerwekh, Tyler: This still reads confusing. Consider revising Comment by Heather: I think really you are looking at how the leadership mechanisms impact or influ ...
Assignment ResourcesFrom Support to Mutiny.pdfFROM SUPPOR.docxrock73
Assignment Resources/From Support to Mutiny.pdf
FROM SUPPORT TO MUTINY: SHIFTING LEGITIMACY
JUDGMENTS AND EMOTIONAL REACTIONS IMPACTING THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF RADICAL CHANGE
QUY NGUYEN HUY
INSEAD
KEVIN G. CORLEY
Arizona State University
MATTHEW S. KRAATZ
University of Illinois
Based on a three-year inductive study of one organization’s implementation of radical
organizational change, we examine the critical role played by middle managers’
judgments of the legitimacy of their top managers as change agents. Our analysis
revealed middle managers’ shifting judgments of the change agents’ legitimacy that
arose with their emotional reactions and produced rising resistance to the change
effort. Our inductive model illustrates the dynamic, relational, and iterative relation-
ships among change recipients’ legitimacy judgments of change agents and arising
emotional reactions in various phases of planned change, which explain recipients’
emergent resistance to the change effort. Our model allows us to contribute to theory
on radical organizational change, resistance to change, and legitimacy judgments.
Organizational scholars have long recognized the
severe challenges involved in organizational trans-
formation efforts and the necessary role that indi-
vidual agents play within them (Amis, Slack, &
Hinings, 2004; Hinings & Greenwood, 1996; Huy,
2002; Singh, House, & Tucker, 1986). Planned rad-
ical organizational change (PROC), which funda-
mentally alters the power structure, culture, rou-
tines, and strategy of the entire organization, often
appears to be the only option available in dire
circumstances (Miller & Friesen, 1980; Tushman &
Romanelli, 1985). As such, scholars have generally
treated radical change as an inherently volitional
phenomenon and placed change agents at the cen-
ter of their theories and empirical research (Bar-
tunek, 1984; Pettigrew, 1985). These agents can, in
principle, emerge from anywhere inside the organ-
ization (e.g., Plowman, Baker, Beck, Kulkarni, So-
lansky, & Travis, 2007); however, top managers
(TMs) have been the conventional focus—and for un-
derstandable reasons. These actors play a readily vis-
ible and public role in many change initiatives and
are often hired for the express purpose of transform-
ing failing organizations. In addition, they appear to
possess many of the resources that are most necessary
for this task, such as formal decision authority, con-
trol over resources, and centrality (e.g., Denis, Lang-
ley, & Cazale, 1996; Romanelli & Tushman, 1994).
Over the last two decades, scholars have exam-
ined many different instances of radical change and
presented ample evidence that supports an agentic
view of the process. They have also provided many
useful insights about change agents’ role within
this process and some prescribed requirements for
success in the job (e.g., Tushman & Romanelli,
1985; Wiersema & Bantel, 1992). Despite its many
important contributions, a closer examination of
this ...
Macro Environment and Organisational Structure A Reviewijtsrd
This piece of work theoretically or descriptively considered the impact of the external environment on the structure of organizations. The key variables being organizational structure the dependent variable and the external environment of the organization as the independent variable . Dimensions of organizational structure adopted were centralization, formalization, standardization, specialization and configuration while the measures of external environment applied were level of uncertainty or changeability, intolerance or xenophobia and complexity. The theoretical foundation was hinged on social identity theory and contingency theory. Meaning, types and factors affecting organizational structure were considered alongside environmental factors. It was observed that the external environment has great impact on the organization and is largely responsible for the dynamic nature of the business world. It was therefore recommended that an adequate environmental scanning be carried out to ascertain the stability or otherwise of the environment to be able to know which structural type to adopt at every point in time. Hannah Chika, Anyanwu | Dr. Justin Mgbechi. O. Gabriel "Macro Environment and Organisational Structure: A Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd35834.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/organizational-behaviour/35834/macro-environment-and-organisational-structure-a-review/hannah-chika-anyanwu
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to ChangeWilheminaRossi174
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1. Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2. Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3. Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4. Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5. Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes.
• Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to imp ...
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to Change.docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1 Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2 Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3 Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4 Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5 Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes. • Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to improve ...
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3XEOLVKHG�E\��The University of Chicago Press
6WDEOH�85/��http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778293 .
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Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure
as Myth and Ceremonyl
John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan
Stanford University
Many formal organizational structures arise as reflections of ratio-
nalized institutional rules. The elaboration of such rules in modern
states and societies accounts in part for the expansion and increased
complexity of formal organizational structures. Institutional rules
function as myths which organizations incorporate, gaining legitimacy,
resources, stability, and enhanced survival prospects. Organizations
whose structures become isomorphic with the myths of the institu-
tional environment-in contrast with those primarily structured by
the demands of technical production and exchange-decrease internal
coordination and control in order to maintain legitimacy. Structures
are decoupled from each other and from ongoing activities. In place of
coordination, inspection, and evaluation, a logic of confidence and
good faith is employed.
Formal organizations are generally understood to be systems of coordinated
and controlled activities that arise when work is embedded in complex
networks of technical relations and boundary-spanning exchanges. But in
modern societies formal organizational structures arise in highly institu-
tionalized contexts. Professions, policies, and programs are created along
with the products and services that they are understood to produce rational-
ly. This permits many new organizations to spring up and forces existing
ones to incorporate new practices and procedures. That is, organizations are
driven to incorporate the prac ...
Impact of business model change onorganizational successMalikPinckney86
Impact of business model change on
organizational success
Steven H. Appelbaum, Edmiela Profka, Aleksandra Monika Depta and Bartosz Petrynski
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of organizational change, more specifically
business model change, on corporate employees’ motivation and, consequently, performance.
Design/methodology/approach – The main approaches and managerial frameworks on organization
change implementation, as well as the assessment methods on whether the company is ready to implement
the change, were identified by reviewing the current literature on the subject between 1940 and 2016.
Findings – Reviewed individual behavioral reactions and provided steps to encourage favorable individual
employee perceptions.
Research limitations/implications – Existing gaps in supporting empirical data on the subject and a
limited number of direct case studies and real-life scenarios. The research was primarily focused on employee
motivation during the initial planning phase of organizational change, with lesser focus on motivation
throughout and especially after the change process.
Practical implications – To benefit from the change, organizations must avoid improvising and should
follow specific and formal change management procedures which take employee motivation and individual
response towards change under consideration.
Social implications – By providing real-life illustrations of successful business model change
implementations, current and future companies facing this type of change in the future can learn from
these specific scenarios.
Originality/value – The distinction of business model change as a sub-type of organizational change and the
study of employee motivation under a business model change specifically is the novel contribution of the paper.
Keywords Performance, Change management, Business model change, Employee motivation,
Organizational change
Paper type General review
Background and objective
To survive and grow in today’s economic climate, organizations need to react quickly to changes
occurring on a national or global level. They are forced to make changes by updating their
technology, remodeling strategies or, in certain cases, even changing their business model. Per
Womack et al. (1990), the demands for organizational change grow mainly due to the increasing
speed of technological development and international competition (Antoni, 2004).
Edmonds (2011) states that change takes time and effort, leaving employees and managers
unsure on how to adapt to new working practices. Adapting to change is not an easy transition;
moreover, organizations failing to meet their stated objectives can pay a high price. “Failure can
lead to loss of market position and credibility with stakeholders as well as decreased morale
among management and staff resulting in a demotivated workforce, or worse still, the loss of key
employees” (Edmonds, 2011).
Porras and Robertson (1992) recognized the ...
Abstract
Corporate governance is very important in our business world today, especially after the frequent non-stop worldwide financial crises. Strong corporate governance is now considered a basic condition to accept and register an organization in most of the Stock Exchange Markets all over the world. The audit committee plays a major role in corporate governance regarding the organization’s direction, control, and accountability. As a representative of the board of directors and main part of the corporate governance mechanism, the audit committee is involved in the organization’s both internal and external audits, internal control, accounting and financial reporting, regulatory compliance, and risk management. This paper focuses on the audit committee’s powers, functions, responsibilities, and relationships within the framework of corporate governance.
There has been a consideration of several different aspects and dimensions with respect to change. These concepts have been related for analysis with the case study of BTS. Based on this analysis and application of theory, a number of factors have been identified with respect to communication, personal transition and motivation. Further ahead, different models have been represented followed by the application of theory on the case. Based on the analysis, it has been found that there are close parallels amongst BTS and Avinor. This is with respect to the lack of different factors in both the companies and hence, recommendations have been provided in accordance with it.
Chapter 1 Overview of geneticsQUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DISCUSSMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 Overview of genetics
QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION
7. What criteria would you use to determine whether synesthesia is a disorder or a variation of normal sensation and perception?
8. Why do you think that synesthesia is more common today than it was 20 years ago?
9. Why might it be possible for infants to have synesthesia, but the ability is gradually lost?
10. Would you want to take a genetic test for synesthesia? Cite a reason for your answer.
11. Do you think that synesthesia should be regarded as a learning disability, an advantage, or neither?
Chapter 2 Cells
10. Historical references as well as current anecdotal reports suggest that under very unusual circumstances, males can breastfeed. The Talmud, a book of Jewish law, discusses a man whose wife died and who had no money to pay a wet nurse (a woman who breastfeeds another woman’s child). He was able to nourish the child with his own body. The writings of other religions report similar tales. In agriculture, male goats can receive hormonal treatments and make milk. Do you think that it is possible for a human male to breastfeed, and if so, what conditions must be provided to coax his body to produce and secrete milk?
12. Compare the roles of mitosis and apoptosis in remodeling Sheila’s breast from a fatty sac to an active milk gland.
You are to prepare 16 slides PowerPoints of health care system in Cuba. Rubric includes: type of Government Demographics Population, type of health care system currently in place, History of the health care system, including changes and recent developments, How is the delivery system organized and financed? Who is covered and how is insurance financed? What is covered? What is the role of government? What are the key entities for health system governance? World Health Organization rankings in major indices of health (infant mortality, life expectancy, etc.). Strengths and weaknesses of the system. Popularity of system among citizens. (5-6) reputable and current sources (within 5 years).
CHAPTER 1 Overview of Genetics
Senses Working Overtime Eighteen-year-old Sean Maxwell has always perceived the world in an unusual way. To most people, color is a characteristic of an object—a cherry is red; a hippo, gray. To Sean, colors are much more. When he plays a note on his guitar, or hears it from another instrument, a distinctively colored shape pops into his mind. His brain, while perceiving the note as an E flat or a C sharp, creates an overwhelming feeling of iridescent orange-yellow diamonds, or a single, shimmering sky blue crescent. Soaring crescendos of sound become detailed landscapes, peppered with alternating black and white imagery that parallels the staccato notes. These images flash by his consciousness in such rapid succession that he is barely aware of them, yet they seem to burst through his fingers in the patterns of notes that he plays. Sean has experienced these peculiar specific sound-color-shape associations for as ...
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2.Robert Garza (713)791-1414
3. Karl Covington (713)695-8686
Section #2
To be completed by Learner
2.1 Project
Write approximately one paragraph that describes the action research project and the basis for it being addressed.
The action research project deals with a pertinent leadership effectiveness issue created by the healthcare reform process in healthcare institutions across the United States. The reform process has created a dynamic environment that is in constant flux. Essentially, healthcare reform institutionalization has proved to be very beneficial. For instance, strives to reduce high costs of healthcare. Additionally, it ensures that effective delivery of primary care is achieved so as to reduce the prevalence of chronic illnesses such as diabetes and cardiac-related health problems. The shift towards preventive care for the reduction of chronic illnesses requires more engagement between the patients and the doctors and closer follow-ups of patient outcomes. This requires a leadership that is effective in engendering a workforce that is responsive to long-term patient needs. This means the healthcare professionals such as the physicians and nurses need effective leadership in hospital management so as to ensure they are motivated and engaged in the change process through teamwork and partnerships within hierarchical structures. Therefore, the purpose of this action research is to provide a leadership model and qualities of leadership most relevant for the dynamic healthcare environment. The action research project evaluates the case about the Hospital Corporation of America (HCA), Houston, Texas, to understand the leadership mechanisms within the institution and how they influence employee and patient outcomes. Based on the findings of the studies conducted, the possibility of using the leadership model proposed to improve outcomes will be elaborated upon. Comment by Heather: Please consider revising this sentence. The project cannot deal. Comment by Zerwekh, Tyler: How so? Reference? Comment by Heather: Incomplete sentence. Please revise. Comment by Zerwekh, Tyler: Strides? Comment by Heather: I understand why you would select this word- but at quick glance it can be confusing and even mistook for engineering. You may want to reconsider a synonym like generate or produce. Comment by Heather: Will your research be providing the model or will it be looking at existing models? Will you be doing a pilot study will you introduce a model and then examining the model through prospective follow-up? Of are you just looking at the current leadership style then gaging outcomes? It is a bit ambiguous in nature how you will be conducting your study. Comment by Zerwekh, Tyler: This still reads confusing. Consider revising Comment by Heather: I think really you are looking at how the leadership mechanisms impact or influ ...
Assignment ResourcesFrom Support to Mutiny.pdfFROM SUPPOR.docxrock73
Assignment Resources/From Support to Mutiny.pdf
FROM SUPPORT TO MUTINY: SHIFTING LEGITIMACY
JUDGMENTS AND EMOTIONAL REACTIONS IMPACTING THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF RADICAL CHANGE
QUY NGUYEN HUY
INSEAD
KEVIN G. CORLEY
Arizona State University
MATTHEW S. KRAATZ
University of Illinois
Based on a three-year inductive study of one organization’s implementation of radical
organizational change, we examine the critical role played by middle managers’
judgments of the legitimacy of their top managers as change agents. Our analysis
revealed middle managers’ shifting judgments of the change agents’ legitimacy that
arose with their emotional reactions and produced rising resistance to the change
effort. Our inductive model illustrates the dynamic, relational, and iterative relation-
ships among change recipients’ legitimacy judgments of change agents and arising
emotional reactions in various phases of planned change, which explain recipients’
emergent resistance to the change effort. Our model allows us to contribute to theory
on radical organizational change, resistance to change, and legitimacy judgments.
Organizational scholars have long recognized the
severe challenges involved in organizational trans-
formation efforts and the necessary role that indi-
vidual agents play within them (Amis, Slack, &
Hinings, 2004; Hinings & Greenwood, 1996; Huy,
2002; Singh, House, & Tucker, 1986). Planned rad-
ical organizational change (PROC), which funda-
mentally alters the power structure, culture, rou-
tines, and strategy of the entire organization, often
appears to be the only option available in dire
circumstances (Miller & Friesen, 1980; Tushman &
Romanelli, 1985). As such, scholars have generally
treated radical change as an inherently volitional
phenomenon and placed change agents at the cen-
ter of their theories and empirical research (Bar-
tunek, 1984; Pettigrew, 1985). These agents can, in
principle, emerge from anywhere inside the organ-
ization (e.g., Plowman, Baker, Beck, Kulkarni, So-
lansky, & Travis, 2007); however, top managers
(TMs) have been the conventional focus—and for un-
derstandable reasons. These actors play a readily vis-
ible and public role in many change initiatives and
are often hired for the express purpose of transform-
ing failing organizations. In addition, they appear to
possess many of the resources that are most necessary
for this task, such as formal decision authority, con-
trol over resources, and centrality (e.g., Denis, Lang-
ley, & Cazale, 1996; Romanelli & Tushman, 1994).
Over the last two decades, scholars have exam-
ined many different instances of radical change and
presented ample evidence that supports an agentic
view of the process. They have also provided many
useful insights about change agents’ role within
this process and some prescribed requirements for
success in the job (e.g., Tushman & Romanelli,
1985; Wiersema & Bantel, 1992). Despite its many
important contributions, a closer examination of
this ...
Macro Environment and Organisational Structure A Reviewijtsrd
This piece of work theoretically or descriptively considered the impact of the external environment on the structure of organizations. The key variables being organizational structure the dependent variable and the external environment of the organization as the independent variable . Dimensions of organizational structure adopted were centralization, formalization, standardization, specialization and configuration while the measures of external environment applied were level of uncertainty or changeability, intolerance or xenophobia and complexity. The theoretical foundation was hinged on social identity theory and contingency theory. Meaning, types and factors affecting organizational structure were considered alongside environmental factors. It was observed that the external environment has great impact on the organization and is largely responsible for the dynamic nature of the business world. It was therefore recommended that an adequate environmental scanning be carried out to ascertain the stability or otherwise of the environment to be able to know which structural type to adopt at every point in time. Hannah Chika, Anyanwu | Dr. Justin Mgbechi. O. Gabriel "Macro Environment and Organisational Structure: A Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd35834.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/organizational-behaviour/35834/macro-environment-and-organisational-structure-a-review/hannah-chika-anyanwu
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to ChangeWilheminaRossi174
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1. Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2. Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3. Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4. Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5. Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes.
• Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to imp ...
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to Change.docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1 Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2 Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3 Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4 Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5 Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes. • Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to improve ...
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Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure
as Myth and Ceremonyl
John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan
Stanford University
Many formal organizational structures arise as reflections of ratio-
nalized institutional rules. The elaboration of such rules in modern
states and societies accounts in part for the expansion and increased
complexity of formal organizational structures. Institutional rules
function as myths which organizations incorporate, gaining legitimacy,
resources, stability, and enhanced survival prospects. Organizations
whose structures become isomorphic with the myths of the institu-
tional environment-in contrast with those primarily structured by
the demands of technical production and exchange-decrease internal
coordination and control in order to maintain legitimacy. Structures
are decoupled from each other and from ongoing activities. In place of
coordination, inspection, and evaluation, a logic of confidence and
good faith is employed.
Formal organizations are generally understood to be systems of coordinated
and controlled activities that arise when work is embedded in complex
networks of technical relations and boundary-spanning exchanges. But in
modern societies formal organizational structures arise in highly institu-
tionalized contexts. Professions, policies, and programs are created along
with the products and services that they are understood to produce rational-
ly. This permits many new organizations to spring up and forces existing
ones to incorporate new practices and procedures. That is, organizations are
driven to incorporate the prac ...
Impact of business model change onorganizational successMalikPinckney86
Impact of business model change on
organizational success
Steven H. Appelbaum, Edmiela Profka, Aleksandra Monika Depta and Bartosz Petrynski
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of organizational change, more specifically
business model change, on corporate employees’ motivation and, consequently, performance.
Design/methodology/approach – The main approaches and managerial frameworks on organization
change implementation, as well as the assessment methods on whether the company is ready to implement
the change, were identified by reviewing the current literature on the subject between 1940 and 2016.
Findings – Reviewed individual behavioral reactions and provided steps to encourage favorable individual
employee perceptions.
Research limitations/implications – Existing gaps in supporting empirical data on the subject and a
limited number of direct case studies and real-life scenarios. The research was primarily focused on employee
motivation during the initial planning phase of organizational change, with lesser focus on motivation
throughout and especially after the change process.
Practical implications – To benefit from the change, organizations must avoid improvising and should
follow specific and formal change management procedures which take employee motivation and individual
response towards change under consideration.
Social implications – By providing real-life illustrations of successful business model change
implementations, current and future companies facing this type of change in the future can learn from
these specific scenarios.
Originality/value – The distinction of business model change as a sub-type of organizational change and the
study of employee motivation under a business model change specifically is the novel contribution of the paper.
Keywords Performance, Change management, Business model change, Employee motivation,
Organizational change
Paper type General review
Background and objective
To survive and grow in today’s economic climate, organizations need to react quickly to changes
occurring on a national or global level. They are forced to make changes by updating their
technology, remodeling strategies or, in certain cases, even changing their business model. Per
Womack et al. (1990), the demands for organizational change grow mainly due to the increasing
speed of technological development and international competition (Antoni, 2004).
Edmonds (2011) states that change takes time and effort, leaving employees and managers
unsure on how to adapt to new working practices. Adapting to change is not an easy transition;
moreover, organizations failing to meet their stated objectives can pay a high price. “Failure can
lead to loss of market position and credibility with stakeholders as well as decreased morale
among management and staff resulting in a demotivated workforce, or worse still, the loss of key
employees” (Edmonds, 2011).
Porras and Robertson (1992) recognized the ...
Abstract
Corporate governance is very important in our business world today, especially after the frequent non-stop worldwide financial crises. Strong corporate governance is now considered a basic condition to accept and register an organization in most of the Stock Exchange Markets all over the world. The audit committee plays a major role in corporate governance regarding the organization’s direction, control, and accountability. As a representative of the board of directors and main part of the corporate governance mechanism, the audit committee is involved in the organization’s both internal and external audits, internal control, accounting and financial reporting, regulatory compliance, and risk management. This paper focuses on the audit committee’s powers, functions, responsibilities, and relationships within the framework of corporate governance.
There has been a consideration of several different aspects and dimensions with respect to change. These concepts have been related for analysis with the case study of BTS. Based on this analysis and application of theory, a number of factors have been identified with respect to communication, personal transition and motivation. Further ahead, different models have been represented followed by the application of theory on the case. Based on the analysis, it has been found that there are close parallels amongst BTS and Avinor. This is with respect to the lack of different factors in both the companies and hence, recommendations have been provided in accordance with it.
Similar to CHANGE AGENTS, NETWORKS, AND INSTITUTIONSA CONTINGENCY THEO (20)
Chapter 1 Overview of geneticsQUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DISCUSSMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 Overview of genetics
QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION
7. What criteria would you use to determine whether synesthesia is a disorder or a variation of normal sensation and perception?
8. Why do you think that synesthesia is more common today than it was 20 years ago?
9. Why might it be possible for infants to have synesthesia, but the ability is gradually lost?
10. Would you want to take a genetic test for synesthesia? Cite a reason for your answer.
11. Do you think that synesthesia should be regarded as a learning disability, an advantage, or neither?
Chapter 2 Cells
10. Historical references as well as current anecdotal reports suggest that under very unusual circumstances, males can breastfeed. The Talmud, a book of Jewish law, discusses a man whose wife died and who had no money to pay a wet nurse (a woman who breastfeeds another woman’s child). He was able to nourish the child with his own body. The writings of other religions report similar tales. In agriculture, male goats can receive hormonal treatments and make milk. Do you think that it is possible for a human male to breastfeed, and if so, what conditions must be provided to coax his body to produce and secrete milk?
12. Compare the roles of mitosis and apoptosis in remodeling Sheila’s breast from a fatty sac to an active milk gland.
You are to prepare 16 slides PowerPoints of health care system in Cuba. Rubric includes: type of Government Demographics Population, type of health care system currently in place, History of the health care system, including changes and recent developments, How is the delivery system organized and financed? Who is covered and how is insurance financed? What is covered? What is the role of government? What are the key entities for health system governance? World Health Organization rankings in major indices of health (infant mortality, life expectancy, etc.). Strengths and weaknesses of the system. Popularity of system among citizens. (5-6) reputable and current sources (within 5 years).
CHAPTER 1 Overview of Genetics
Senses Working Overtime Eighteen-year-old Sean Maxwell has always perceived the world in an unusual way. To most people, color is a characteristic of an object—a cherry is red; a hippo, gray. To Sean, colors are much more. When he plays a note on his guitar, or hears it from another instrument, a distinctively colored shape pops into his mind. His brain, while perceiving the note as an E flat or a C sharp, creates an overwhelming feeling of iridescent orange-yellow diamonds, or a single, shimmering sky blue crescent. Soaring crescendos of sound become detailed landscapes, peppered with alternating black and white imagery that parallels the staccato notes. These images flash by his consciousness in such rapid succession that he is barely aware of them, yet they seem to burst through his fingers in the patterns of notes that he plays. Sean has experienced these peculiar specific sound-color-shape associations for as ...
Chapter 1 OutlineI. Thinking About DevelopmentA. What Is HumMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 Outline
I. Thinking About Development
A. What Is Human Development?
1. Human development is the multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they remain the same over time.
2. The science of human development (1) reflects the complexity and uniqueness of each person and their experiences, (2) seeks to understand commonalities and patterns across people, (3) is firmly grounded in theory, and (4) seeks to understand human behavior.
B. Recurring Issues in Human Development: Three fundamental issues dominate the study of human development.
1. Nature Versus Nurture is the degree to which genetic influences (nature) or experiential/environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you are. Despite the ongoing debate as to which influence is greater, theorists and researchers recognize that development is always shaped by both—nature and nurture are mutually interactive influences.
2. Continuity Versus Discontinuity focuses on whether a particular developmental phenomenon represents a smooth progression throughout the life span (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity).
3. Universal Versus Context-Specific Development focuses on whether there is just one path of development or several. In other words, does development follow the same general path in all people, or is it fundamentally different, depending on the sociocultural context?
C. Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework. This framework emphasizes that these four forces are mutually interactive and that development cannot be understood by examining them in isolation. By combining the four developmental forces, we have a view of human development that encompasses the life span, yet appreciates the unique aspects of each phase of life.
1. Biological forces include genetic and health-related factors that affect development. Some biological forces, such as puberty and menopause, are universal and affect people across generations, whereas others, such as diet or disease, affect people in specific generations or occur in a small number of people.
2. Psychological forces include all internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors that affect development. Psychological forces are the ones used most often to describe the characteristics of a person and have received the most attention.
3. Sociocultural forces include interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors that affect development. Culture refers to the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors associated with a group of people. Overall, sociocultural forces provide the context or backdrop for development. Consequently, there is a need for research on different cultural groups. Another practical problem is how to describe racial and ethnic groups.
4. Life-cycle forces reflect differences in how the same event affects people of different ages. The influence of life-cycle forces reflects the influences of biological, psychological, and sociocultural force ...
Chapter 1 Juvenile Justice Myths and RealitiesMyths and RealiMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 Juvenile Justice: Myths and RealitiesMyths and Realities
It’s only me.” These were the tragic words spoken by Charles “Andy” Williams as the San Diego Sheriff’s Department SWAT team closed in
on the frail high school sophomore who had just turned 15 years old. Williams had just shot a number of his classmates at Santana High
School, killing two and wounding 13. This was another in a series of school shootings that shocked the nation; however, the young Mr.
Williams did not fit the stereotype of the “superpredator” that has had an undue influence on juvenile justice policy for decades. There have
been other very high-profile cases involving children and teens that have generated a vigorous international debate on needed changes in the
system of justice as applied to young people.
In Birmingham, Alabama, an 8-year-old boy was charged with “viciously” attacking a toddler, Kelci Lewis, and murdering her (Binder, 2015).
The law enforcement officials announced their intent to prosecute the boy as an adult. The accused perpetrator would be among the youngest
criminal court victims in U.S. history. The 8-year-old became angry and violent, and beat the toddler because she would not stop crying. Kelci
suffered severe head trauma and injuries to major internal organs. The victim’s mother, Katerra Lewis, left the two children alone so that she
could attend a local nightclub. There were six other children under the age of 8 also left alone in the house. Within days, the mother was
arrested and charged with manslaughter and released on a $15,000 bond after being in custody for less than 90 minutes. The 8-year-old was
held by the Alabama Department of Human Services pending his adjudication.
A very disturbing video showed a Richland County, South Carolina, deputy sheriff grab a 16-year-old African American teen by her hair,
flipping her out her chair and tossing her across the classroom. The officer wrapped his forearm around her neck and then handcuffed her. It is
alleged that the teen refused to surrender her phone to the deputy. She received multiple injuries from the encounter. The classroom teacher and
a vice principal said that they believed the police response was “appropriate.” The deputy was suspended and subsequently fired after the
Richland County Sheriff reviewed the video. There is a civil suit against the school district and the sheriff’s department for the injuries that
were sustained (Strehike, 2015).
One of the highest profile cases involving juvenile offenders was known as the New York Central Park jogger case (Burns, 2011; Gray, 2013).
In 1989 a young female investment banker was raped, attacked, and left in a coma. The horrendous crime captured worldwide attention.
Initially, 11 young people were arrested and five confessed to the crimes. These five juvenile males, four African American and one Latino,
were convicted for a range of crimes including assault, robbery, rape, and attempted murder. There were two separate jury t ...
CHAPTER 1 Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum DecisioMaximaSheffield592
CHAPTER
1
Philosophy as a Basis for
Curriculum Decisions
ALLAN C. ORNSTEIN
FOCUSING QUESTIONS . . d implementation of curriculum?
hil h uide the orgaruzation an
1. How does p osop y g 1 d that shape a person's philosophy of
2. What are the sources of know e ge
curriculum? d that shape your philosophical view of 1
What are the sources of know e ge3.
curriculum? · diff
. d ends of education er.
?
4. How do the auns, means, an_ . at must be determined before we can
What is the major philosop~cal is~ue th
5. define a philosophy of curncul~- hil hies that have influenced curriculum
What are the four major educational p osop .6.
in the United States?
7. What is your philosophy of curriculum?
P
d still do have an impact on schools and
hilosophic issues always h~ve had ~ hools are changing fundamental~y and
society. Contemporary society ~d its :cThere is a special urgency that dictate~
rapidly, much more so th~ m e ~a:oie of schools, and calls for a philosophy o
continuous appraisal and reappraisal of th directionless in the whats and hows of
education. Without philosophy, educators a~ing to achieve. In short, our philo~~phy
organizing and implementing what we ar~ t determines, our educational decisions,
of education influences, and to a large ex en
choices, and alternatives.
PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM . 1· ts with a framework for
. 11 curriculum specia is , h
Philosophy provides educators, espect i{e1 s them answer questions about what t e
organizing schools and classrooms. t f 1 how students learn, and what methods
school's purpose is, what subjects are: va;~ with a framework for broad issues and
and materials to use. Philosophy provi es e
CHAPTER ONE Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum Decisions 3
tasks, such as determining the goals of edu and activities, and dealing with verbal traps
cation, subject content and its organization, (what we see versus what is read). Curricu
the process of teaching and learning, and, in lum theorists, they point out, often fail to rec
general, what experiences and activities to ognize both how important philosophy is to
stress in schools and classrooms. It also pro developing curriculum and how it influences
vides educators with a basis for making such aspects of curriculum.
decisions as what workbooks, textbooks, or
other cognitive and noncognitive activities to
Philosophy and the Curriculum Sp
utilize and how to utilize them, what and
how much homework to assign, how to test The philosophy of curriculum sp
students and how to use the test results, and reflects their life experiences, comma
what courses or subject matter to emphasize. social and economic background, ed
The importance of philosophy in deter and general beliefs about people. f._•• .....u
mining curriculum decisions is expressed vidual's philosophy evolves and continues
well by the classic statement of Thomas to evolve as long as there is personal growth,
Hopkins (1941): "Philosop ...
Chapter 1 Introduction Criterion• Introduction – states general MaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 Introduction Criterion
• Introduction – states general nature of problem
• Identifies project as quality or leadership focused project
• Background – briefly describes general context of the topic
• Statement of the problem – ‘Therefore the problem/topic addressed in this study is…’
• Purpose of the study – describes specific objectives of the study, related to the problem described above.
• Rationale – Ties together the identified problem, the purpose/goal of the study, and identifies how the writer intends the results will be used to accomplish identified goals.
• Research questions – lists 2-4 specific research questions/objectives for the study.
• Nature of the study – identifies method of study to be used (descriptive, relational, causal, exploratory, or predictive}
• Significance of the study – personal, professional, and/or research.
• Definition of terms
• Assumptions and Limitations
Writing the Personal Statement
The personal statement is an important document in your application packet. Admissions committees not only read them, they remember the memorable ones! A strong personal statement can be make-or-break for your application process.
What is it? It’s a combination of things:
· It is a business document: you are selling yourself, and need to know how to do so persuasively.
· It is an argument: you are showing the reader that they need and want you in their
program, but rather than convince with reasons, you are often arguing using narrative.
· It is an assignment, and your target audience is looking for you to show them that you know how to give what is asked for.
Consider your audience. Beware of Web sites and other sources that simply tell you to “tell your story.” Which story will you choose and for which purpose?
Medical and Law Schools
Science Programs
Humanities MA Programs
Humanities PhD Programs
Diplomatic
Service Scholarships
Want to know
Want to know
Want to see that
Want to know
Want to know
you as a person
your work as a
you are
how you will
you as a person
researcher and
interested in
succeed both in
your work ethic
further study and
and beyond the
know your long-
program
term goals
Remember that your resume tells them that you can do good undergraduate or graduate work. Now they need to know that they are choosing a winner, one who can perform at a higher level and will finish!
Five Standard Topics:
1. your motivation for your career
2. the influence of your family or early experiences
3. the influence of extracurricular, work, or volunteer experiences
4. your long-term goals
5. your personal philosophy
Activity One:
Below is a list of attributes that applicants to professional programs highlight in their personal statements. On the right is a list of indications of the attribute. Read through the list and
· Check off those attributes you want to highlight.
· List possible stories you can tell about yourself, your family, your extracurricular activities, your goals, or your personal ph ...
Chapter 1 IntroductionThis research paper seeks to examine the reMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1: Introduction
This research paper seeks to examine the relationship between strategic performance and appraisal systems in contemporary organizations. Strategic management in organizations refers to setting goals, procedures, and objectives to gain a competitive advantage. The strategies aim at making businesses distinct from their competitors while attracting consumers to the market. Stakeholders in business entities use strategic management approaches to execute short- and long-term organizational projects. Some strategies include innovation, product segmentation, and corporate social responsibility. On the other hand, a performance appraisal system refers to identifying, evaluating, and developing the work performance of employees to aid in the process of achieving the organization's goals and processes. The organization has to track the performance progress of each employee to keep them accountable for their roles at the workplace.
The definition of the appraisal system and strategic management incorporates objectives and goals. Consequently, the purpose of both strategic management and performance appraisal is to deliver the existing objectives and stay ahead of competitors. The performance appraisal system denotes the type of assessment used by an organization to measure performance. There are different assessment methods. One of the evaluation techniques is straight ranking appraisal where employees are ranked from the best performers to poor performers. Another assessment criterion is grading where employees are assigned specific grades for their performance in different areas. There is also the management-by-objective method of review. The employees and managers set goals under the approach and measure them at the end of the agreed time. Organizations may also assess their employees based on their behaviors and conduct at the workplace. Lastly, organizations can adopt a 360-degree assessment method where employees and managers are assessed. Organizations use one or a combination of the frameworks to evaluate the employees with a view of improving performance.
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between strategic management and performance appraisal systems. The study will evaluate whether managers consider their strategies when selecting the appraisal system or consider other factors. Also, the study will assess the implications of selecting an appraisal system based on the existing strategies in different organizations and the impacts of ignoring organizational strategies when deciding on the performance of the appraisal system. The findings will be crucial in the organizational and human resource management field setting the stage for further research.
Statement of Problem
A brief literature review reveals that there is little to no information on balancing between appraisal systems and organizational strategies. Most researchers in the field tend to focus on how appraisal systems boost organizatio ...
Chapter 1 Introduction to Career Development in the Global EconoMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1: Introduction to Career Development in the Global Economy and Its Role in Social Justice
Things to Remember
· The reality of the global economy and its implications for employment in the United States
· Why the need for career development services may be at its highest level in half a century
· The language of career development The reasons that careers and career development are important in the fight for social justice
· The major events in the history of career development
History of Vocational Guidance and Career Development
As will be discussed later in this chapter, there are currently calls for the adoption of a new paradigm for the theory and practice of career counseling and career development services that focuses on both individuals and the social contexts in which they function. These ideas are not new, but throughout much of the twentieth century they were neglected. The call for understanding the individual and how he or she is influenced by his or her context is a century-old echo of the voices of the social reformers who founded the vocational guidance movement in education, business, industry, and elsewhere. Reformers in Boston, Massachusetts; San Francisco, California; and Grand Rapids, Michigan, focused on immigrants from Europe who came to the United States by the tens of thousands; high school dropouts who were unprepared for the changing workplace; oppression in the workplace; substandard public schools; and the need to apply scientific principles to career planning and vocational education. It is the latter idea, the focus on scientific principles that has received the most criticism, along with the failure to adequately address multicultural issues. Currently, some career development specialists are urging practitioners to abandon theories and strategies rooted in modern philosophies in favor of those rooted in postmodernism.
Looking backward to 1913 and earlier, it is worth noting that social reformers formed the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education (NSPIE) in 1906, which became the parent organization of the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) in 1913. These reformers were advocates for vocational education, and they carried their fight to state legislators, to the National Education Association, and beyond. One of NSPIE’s achievements was drafting and successfully lobbying for the passage of the Smith–Hughes act in 1917, legislation that laid the foundation for land grant universities and vocational education in public schools (Stephens, 1970).
These earlier reformers were advocates. One mechanism they used to initiate local reforms was the settlement house, which was a place in a working-class neighborhood that housed researchers who studied people’s lives and problems in that neighborhood. In 1901, Frank Parsons founded the Civic Service House in Boston’s North End, and in 1908, the Vocation Bureau, an adjunct of the Boston Civic Service House, was opened. Leader ...
Chapter 1 Goals and Governance of the CorporationChapter 1 LeMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1: Goals and Governance of the Corporation
Chapter 1 Learning Objectives
1. Give examples of the investment and financing decisions that financial managers make.
2. Distinguish between real and financial assets.
3. Cite some of the advantages and disadvantages of organizing a business as a corporation.
4. Describe the responsibilities of the CFO, treasurer, and controller.
5. Explain why maximizing market value is the logical financial goal of the corporation.
6. Explain why value maximization is not inconsistent with ethical behavior.
7. Explain how corporations mitigate conflicts and encourage cooperative behavior.
Goals and Governance of the Corporation
This chapter introduces the corporation, its goals, and the roles of financial managers.
Chapter 1 Outline
· Investment and Financing Decisions
· The Corporation
· The Financial Managers
· Goals of the Corporation
· Value Maximization
· Corporate Governance
Note: What are the primary differences among the various legal forms of business?
Investment and Financing Decisions
· The Investment Decision
· Real Assets
· The Financial Assets
· Financial Assets
The Investment Decision– Decision to invest in tangible or intangible assets.
Also known as the “capital budgeting” or “CAPEX” decision.
The Financing Decision– The form and amount of financing of a firm’s investments.
Real Assets– Assets used to produce goods and services.
Financial Assets– Financial claims to the income generated by the firm’s real assets.
Are the following capital budgeting or financing decisions?
· Apple decides to spend $500 million to develop a new iPhone.
· GE borrows $400 million from bond investors.
· Microsoft issues 100 million shares to buy a small technology company.
· When Apple spends $500 million to develop a new iPhone it is investing in real assets and is making a capital budgeting decision.
· When GE borrows $400 million from bond investors it is investing in financial assets and is making a financing decision.
· When Microsoft issues 100 million shares to buy a smaller company it is investing in both financial and real assets. It is making both a capital budgeting and financing decision.
What is a Corporation?
· Corporation-A business organized as a separate legal entity owned by stockholders.
· Types of Corporations:
· Public Corporations
· Private Corporations
Corporation – A business organized as a separate legal entity owned by stockholders.
Public Company – A corporation whose shares are traded in public markets such as the New York Stock Exchange or NASDAQ.
Private Corporation – A corporation whose shares are not traded publicly.
Benefits of the Corporation
· Limited liability
· Infinite lifespan
· Ease of raising capital
Limited Liability – The owners of a corporation are not personally liable for its obligation.
Drawbacks of the Corporation
· Corporation face the problem of double taxation
· Improper corporate structures may lead to “Agency Problem”
Double Taxation– Corpor ...
Chapter 1 Adjusting to Modern Life EXERCISE 1.1 Self-AssessmMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 Adjusting to Modern Life
EXERCISE 1.1 Self-Assessment: Narcissistic Personality Inventory
Instructions
Read each pair of statements below and place an "X" by the one that comes closest to describing your
feelings and beliefs about yourself. You may feel that neither statement describes you well, but pick the
one that comes closest. Please complete all pairs.
The Scale
1. _A. I have a natural talent for influencing people.
_B. I am not good at influencing people.
2. _A. Modesty doesn't become me.
_B. I am essentially a modest person.
3. _A. I would do almost anything on a dare.
_B. I tend to be a fairly cautious person.
4. _A. When people compliment me I sometimes get
embarrassed.
B. I know that I am good because everybody keeps telling
me so.
5. _A. The thought of ruling the world frightens the hell out
of me.
_B. If I ruled the world it would be a better place.
6. A. I can usually talk my way out of anything.
_B. I try to accept the consequences of my behavior.
7. A. I prefer to blend in with the crowd.
B. I like to be the center of attention.
8. A. I will be a success.
B. I am not too concerned about success.
9. A. I am no better or worse than most people.
_B. I think I am a special person.
10. A. I am not sure if I would make a good leader.
B. I see myself as a good leader.
11. A. I am assertive.
B. I wish I were more assertive.
12. _A. I like to have authority over other people.
_B. I don't mind following orders.
13. _A. I find it easy to manipulate people.
B. I don't like it when I find myself manipulating people.
14. _A. I insist upon getting the respect that is due me.
_B. I usually get the respect that I deserve.
15. _A. I don't particularly like to show off my body.
_B. I like to show off my body.
16. _A. I can read people like a book.
_B. People are sometimes hard to understand.
17. _A. If I feel competent I am willing to take responsibility for
making decisions.
_B. I like to take responsibility for making decisions.
18. _A. I just want to be reasonably happy.
_B. I want to amount to something in the eyes of the world.
19. _A. My body is nothing special.
_B. I like to look at my body.
20. _A. I try not to be a show off.
_B. I will usually show off if I get the chance.
21. _A. I always know what I am doing.
_B. Sometimes I am not sure of what I am doing.
22. _A. I sometimes depend on people to get things done.
B. I rarely depend on anyone else to get things done.
23. _A. Sometimes I tell good stories.
_B. Everybody likes to hear my stories.
24. _A. I expect a great deal from other people.
B. I like to do things for other people.
25. A. I will never be satisfied until I get all that I deserve.
_B. I take my satisfactions as they come.
26. _A. Compliments embarrass me.
_B. I like to be complimented.
27. _A. I have a strong will to power.
B. Power for its own sake doesn't interest me.
28. A. I don't care about new fads and fashion ...
Chapter 1 The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492 MaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 | The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
CHAPTER 1
The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
Chapter Outline
1.1 The Americas
1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change
1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery
Introduction
Globalization, the ever-increasing interconnectedness of the world, is not a new phenomenon,
but it accelerated when western Europeans discovered the riches of the East. During the
Crusades (1095–1291), Europeans developed an appetite for spices, silk, porcelain, sugar, and
other luxury items from the East, for which they traded fur, timber, and Slavic people they
captured and sold (hence the word slave). But when the Silk Road, the long overland trading
route from China to the Mediterranean, became costlier and more dangerous to travel, Europeans
searched for a more efficient and inexpensive trade route over water, initiating the development
of what we now call the Atlantic World.
In pursuit of commerce in Asia, fifteenth-century traders unexpectedly encountered a “New
World” populated by millions and home to sophisticated and numerous peoples. Mistakenly
believing they had reached the East Indies, these early explorers called its inhabitants Indians.
West Africa, a diverse and culturally rich area, soon entered the stage as other nations exploited
its slave trade and brought its peoples to the New World in chains. Although Europeans would
come to dominate the New World, they could not have done so without Africans and native
peoples.
1.1 The Americas
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
● Locate on a map the major American civilizations before the arrival of the Spanish
● Discuss the cultural achievements of these civilizations
● Discuss the differences and similarities between lifestyles, religious practices, and
customs among the native peoples
Chapter 1 | The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
Between nine and fifteen thousand years ago, some scholars believe that a land bridge existed
between Asia and North America that we now call Beringia . The first inhabitants of what would
be named the Americas migrated across this bridge in search of food. When the glaciers melted,
water engulfed Beringia, and the Bering Strait was formed. Later settlers came by boat across the
narrow strait. (The fact that Asians and American Indians share genetic markers on a Y
chromosome lends credibility to this migration theory.) Continually moving southward, the
settlers eventually populated both North and South America, creating unique cultures that ranged
from the highly complex and urban Aztec civilization in what is now Mexico City to the
woodland tribes of eastern North America. Recent research along the west coast of South
America suggests that migrant populations may have traveled down this coast by water as well
as by land.
Researchers believe that about ten thousand years ago, humans also began the domestication of
plants and animals, a ...
Chapter 1 - Overview Gang Growth and Migration Studies v AMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 - Overview
Gang Growth and Migration Studies
v A
Now we will examine the problems and issues of not having a nationally accepted definition for a street gang. We will also examine mechanisms that influence gang migration and growth. After reading this section you will also understand that there are sub-populations within the general gang population.
Two of the most frequently asked questions about the gang sub-culture are: Why do gangs grow? Why do gangs migrate? Some law enforcement officials, politicians, educators and parents might suggest and believe that youth in their city are only “imitating” tougher L.A. street gangs or that the gang problem in their jurisdiction is result of migrating gang members from Los Angeles or Chicago. You will hear the terms “wanna be” or “street comer groups” or “misguided youth” used to describe the groups and you can be given a number of reasons why the groups in these areas are not gangs. You might also hear comments suggesting that gang imitation and migration are the reasons why street gangs have now been reported in all 50 states.
Gang Definition
There is another issue here that has to be addressed before the questions can be asked. It is accepting a standard to measure gang growth and migration. That standard is the definition of a street gang. Developing and then using a nationally accepted definition for a street gang becomes the fundamental basis to build examination of growth and migration. Having a standard definition becomes the fundamental building block to answer the two questions.
Studying gang growth is a little more complicated than just surveying cities for data. Without a standard gang definition to identify a gang, any official findings could be biased and misleading. Any responding jurisdiction could potentially use a different definition to identify the gangs in their area. Often, law enforcers, the public, educators and politicians use a penal code gang based definitions of a criminal street gang as a general working definition for a street gang. If the gang does fit within this legal definition used for penalty enhancement only, then the group is not reported as a gang according to this philosophy. The jurisdiction has no gangs. You can clearly see the issue here.
This will certainly lead to under reporting the number and types of street gangs present. Using a legal based definition of a street gang is appropriate from a prosecutor’s point of view. Unfortunately, too many communities, politicians, educators, parents and law enforcement officials use this philosophy. This way of thinking will only reinforce denial and delay the identification and treatment of the gang-community issue.
Many states now have gang enhancement laws similar to California Penal Code Section 186.22. In California this law is commonly known as the STEP Act. It outlines a legal definition for a violent criminal street gang. That definition is used to qualify a defendant(s) for sentencing
46
...
Chapter 06 Video Case - Theo Chocolate CompanyVideo TranscriptMaximaSheffield592
Chapter 06: Video Case - Theo Chocolate Company
Video Transcript:
>> It's rich, it's velvety, it's almost sinful. But creating the perfect bar at this Seattle chocolate factory is about more than just the ingredients on the wrapper.
>> I feel that everybody in the whole supply chain, all he way back to the farmers, should be better off as a result of this delicious food that we use to share with the people we love.
>> So these are these are the beans.
>> These are the beans; this is cacao.
>> At Theo Chocolate, owner Joe Whinney pays farmers two to three times more than the going rate to buy this cacao from the Democratic Republic of Congo, or DRC.
>> Where does cocoa come from? It's coming from farmers in Africa, and in Indonesia, and in Central and South America.
>> Whinney believes that Americans will be willing to pay more for chocolate if they know that, in turn, impoverished farmers will earn more.
>> Of all places, why Congo
>> Why Congo? Well, it was really Ben Affleck's fault.
>> Yes. That Ben Affleck.
>> Like this?
>> Like -- yeah. See that's really well fermented, this isn't.
>> Earlier this year, we joined Ben Affleck and Joe Whinney on a trip to the DRC. Cacao can only grow within a narrow climate zone close to the equator. In 2009, Affleck started a charity called Eastern Congo Initiative to spur economic development in this war-torn region. Five million people have died here due to decades of conflict.
>> As I was reading and I just sort of stumbled upon some of the statistics, and I was struck not only by the numbers, but by the fact that, you know, I hadn't heard about it.
>> So Affleck decided to use his celebrity as a sort of currency to attract investment. He led a small group of philanthropists, protected by armed guards, through jungles where cacao trees thrived and farmers struggled.
>> The cocoa industry here has potential if the value can be increased.
>> For the last two years, Affleck's Eastern Congo Initiative has worked with Whinney and local groups to train farmers to improve the crop. Cacao grows in these greenish-yellow pods that are cracked open to harvest. It's quite slimy, huh?
>> It is. But when you suck on it, it's absolutely delicious.
>> It doesn't taste like chocolate at all.
>> Not at all, does it.
>> It tastes like passion fruit or something.
>> Theo Chocolate has now committed to buy 340 tons of cacao from the DRC --
>> This is really good quality.
>> -- creating a dependable export market.
>> We have brought these people together. They're selling to a chocolate company in the United States. Those markets had been completely closed off to them in the past. And it's not just aid, it's investment.
>> We have security guards around us. There have been attacks recently. This is a tough place to do business.
>> It is, but that's also a place that really needs this kind of business.
>> Business in Seattle is a little sweeter these days. Theo is raising money for charity with its $5 Congo ...
Chapter 08 Motor Behavior
8
Motor Behavior
Katherine T. Thomas and Jerry R. Thomas
C H A P T E R
What Is Motor Behavior?The study of how motor skills are learned, controlled, and developed across the lifespan. Applications often focus on what, how, and how much to practice.Motor behavior guides us in providing better situations for learning and practice, including the selection of effective of cues and feedback.
(continued)
(continued)
What Is Motor Behavior? (continued)Valuable to performers and those who teach motor skills (e.g. physical education teachers, adapted physical educators, gerontologists, physical therapists and coaches)
Figure 8.1
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
What Does a Motor Behaviorist Do?Colleges or universitiesTeachingResearchService
Other research facilities: hospitals, industrial, militaryResearch with applications related to settingGrant writing
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
Goals of Motor BehaviorTo understand how motor skills are learnedTo understand how motor skills are controlledTo understand how the learning and control of motor skills change across the life spanThree subdisciplinesMotor learningMotor controlMotor development
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
Three Subdisciplines of Motor BehaviorMotor LearningMotor ControlMotor Development
Goals of Motor LearningTo explain how processes such as feedback and practice improve the learning and performance of motor skillsTo explain how response selection and response execution become more efficient and effective
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
Goals of Motor ControlTo analyze how the mechanisms in response selection and response execution control the body’s movementTo explain how environmental and individual factors affect the mechanisms of response selection and response execution
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
To explain how motor learning and control improve during childhood and adolescenceTo explain how motor learning and control deteriorate with aging
Goals of Motor Development
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
Motor Movements Studied Beyond SportBabies learning to use a fork and spoonDentists learning to control the drill while looking in a mirrorSurgeons controlling a scalpel; microsurgeons using a laser Children learning to ride a bicycle or to roller skate
(continued)
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
Motor Movements Studied Beyond Sport (continued)Teenagers learning to driveDancers performing choreographed movementsPilots learning to control an airplaneYoung children learning to control a pencil when writing or learning to type on a computer
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
History of Motor Behavior
Five themes have persisted over the years in motor behavior research
Knowledge of results (feedback)
Distribution of practice
Transfer of training
Retention
Individual differences
(continued)
Chapter 8 - Hoffman (2005)
*
Late 1800s and early 1900s: Motor skills to understand cognition and neura ...
Changes in APA Writing Style 6th Edition (2006) to 7th Edition OMaximaSheffield592
Changes in APA Writing Style 6th Edition (2006) to 7th Edition OCT 2019 according to Streefkerk, 2019.
References and in-text citations in APA Style
When it comes to citing sources, more guidelines have been added that make citing online sources easier and clearer. The biggest changes in the 7th edition are:
1. The publisher location is no longer included in the reference.
Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in personal change. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in personal change. Simon & Schuster.
2. The in-text citation for works with three or more authors is now shortened right from the first citation. You only include the first author’s name and “et al.”.
(Taylor, Kotler, Johnson, & Parker, 2018)
(Taylor et al., 2018)
3. Surnames and initials for up to 20 authors (instead of 7) should be provided in the reference list.
Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B., Kelly, R. S., Turner, S. T., … Lee, L. H. (2018).
Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B., Kelly, R. S., Turner, S. T., Lewis, F., Lee, L. H., Cox, G., Harris, H. L., Martin, P., Gonzalez, W. L., Hughes, W., Carter, D., Campbell, C., Baker, A. B., Flores, T., Gray, W. E., Green, G., … Nelson, T. P. (2018).
4. DOIs are formatted the same as URLs. The label “DOI:” is no longer necessary.
doi: 10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
5. URLs are no longer preceded by “Retrieved from,” unless a retrieval date is needed. The website name is included (unless it’s the same as the author), and web page titles are italicized.
Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession but growth remains weak. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50419127
Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession but growth remains weak. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50419127
6. For ebooks, the format, platform, or device (e.g. Kindle) is no longer included in the reference, and the publisher is included.
Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish astronomy: Stars and satellites [Kindle version]. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish astronomy: Stars and satellites. Springer Nature. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
7. Clear guidelines are provided for including contributors other than authors and editors. For example, when citing a podcast episode, the host of the episode should be included; for a TV series episode, the writer and director of that episode are cited.
8. Dozens of examples are included for online source types such as podcast episodes, social media posts, and YouTube videos. The use of emojis and hashtags is also explained.
Inclusive and bias-free language
Writing inclusively and without bias is the new standard, and APA’s new publication manual contains a separate chapter on this topi ...
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
CHANGE AGENTS, NETWORKS, AND INSTITUTIONSA CONTINGENCY THEO
1. CHANGE AGENTS, NETWORKS, AND INSTITUTIONS:
A CONTINGENCY THEORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE
JULIE BATTILANA
Harvard University
TIZIANA CASCIARO
University of Toronto
We develop a contingency theory for how structural closure in a
network, defined as
terms of the extent to which an actor’s network contacts are
connected to one another,
affects the initiation and adoption of change in organizations.
Using longitudinal
survey data supplemented with eight in-depth case studies, we
analyze 68 organiza-
tional change initiatives undertaken in the United Kingdom’s
National Health Service.
We show that low levels of structural closure (i.e., “structural
holes”) in a change
agent’s network aid the initiation and adoption of changes that
diverge from the
institutional status quo but hinder the adoption of less divergent
changes.
Scholars have long recognized the political na-
ture of change in organizations (Frost & Egri, 1991;
Pettigrew, 1973; Van de Ven & Poole, 1995). To
implement planned organizational changes—that
is, premeditated interventions intended to modify
2. the functioning of an organization (Lippitt, 1958)—
change agents may need to overcome resistance
from other members of their organization and en-
courage them to adopt new practices (Kanter, 1983;
Van de Ven, 1986). Change implementation within
an organization can thus be conceptualized as an
exercise in social influence, defined as the alteration
of an attitude or behavior by one actor in response to
another actor’s actions (Marsden & Friedkin, 1993).
Research on organizational change has improved
understanding of the challenges inherent in change
implementation, but it has not accounted system-
atically for how characteristics of a change initia-
tive affect its adoption in organizations. Not all
organizational changes are equivalent, however.
One important dimension along which they vary is
the extent to which they break with existing insti-
tutions in a field of activity (Battilana, 2006; Green-
wood & Hinings, 2006). Existing institutions are
defined as patterns that are so taken-for-granted
that actors perceive them as the only possible ways
of acting and organizing (Douglas, 1986). Consider
the example of medical professionalism, the insti-
tutionalized template for organizing in the United
Kingdom’s National Health Service (NHS) in the
early 2000s. According to this template, physicians
are the key decision makers in both the administra-
tive and clinical domains. In this context, central-
izing information to enable physicians to better
control patient discharge decisions would be
aligned with the institutionalized template. By con-
trast, implementing nurse-led discharge or pread-
mission clinics would diverge from the institu-
tional status quo by transferring clinical tasks and
3. decision-making authority from physicians to
nurses. Organizational changes may thus converge
with or diverge from an institutional status quo
(Amis, Slack, & Hinings, 2004; D’Aunno, Succi, &
Alexander, 2000; Greenwood & Hinings, 1996).
Changes that diverge from the status quo, hereafter
referred to as divergent organizational changes, are
particularly challenging to implement. They re-
quire change agents to distance themselves from
their existing institutions and persuade other or-
ganization members to adopt practices that not
only are new, but also break with the norms of their
institutional environment (Battilana, Leca, & Box-
enbaum, 2009; Greenwood & Hinings, 1996; Kel-
logg, 2011).
We would like to thank Wenpin Tsai and three anon-
ymous reviewers for their valuable comments on earlier
versions of this article. We also wish to acknowledge the
helpful comments we received from Jeffrey Alexander,
Michel Anteby, Joel Baum, Peter Bracken, Thomas
d’Aunno, Stefan Dimitriadis, Martin Gargiulo, Mattia
Gilmartin, Ranjay Gulati, Morten Hansen, Herminia
Ibarra, Sarah Kaplan, Otto Koppius, Tal Levy, Christo-
pher Marquis, Bill McEvily, Jacob Model, Lakshmi Ra-
marajan, Metin Sengul, Bill Simpson, Michael Tushman,
and seminar participants at INSEAD, McGill, Harvard,
Bocconi, and HEC Paris.
Both authors contributed equally to this article.
Editor’s note: The manuscript for this article was ac-
cepted for publication during the term of AMJ’s previous
editor-in-chief, R. Duane Ireland.
� Academy of Management Journal
4. 2012, Vol. 55, No. 2, 381–398.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.0891
381
Copyright of the Academy of Management, all rights reserved.
Contents may not be copied, emailed, posted to a listserv, or
otherwise transmitted without the copyright holder’s express
written permission. Users may print, download, or email articles
for individual use only.
In this article, we examine the conditions under
which change agents are able to influence other
organization members to adopt changes with differ-
ent degrees of divergence from the institutional
status quo. Because informal networks have been
identified as key sources of influence in organiza-
tions (Brass, 1984; Brass & Burkhardt, 1993; Gar-
giulo, 1993; Ibarra, 1993; Ibarra, 1993; Krackhardt,
1990) and policy systems (Laumann, Knoke, & Kim,
1985; Padgett & Ansell, 1993; Stevenson & Green-
berg, 2000), we focus on how change agents’ posi-
tions in such networks affect their success in initi-
ating and implementing organizational change.
Network research has shown that the degree of
structural closure in a network, defined as the ex-
tent to which an actor’s network contacts are con-
nected to one another, has important implications
for generating novel ideas and exercising social
influence. A high degree of structural closure cre-
ates a cohesive network of tightly linked social
actors, and a low degree of structural closure cre-
ates a network with “structural holes” and broker-
5. age potential (Burt, 2005; Coleman, 1988). The ex-
isting evidence suggests that actors with networks
rich in structural holes are more likely to generate
novel ideas (e.g., Burt, 2004; Fleming, Mingo, &
Chen, 2007; Rodan & Galunic, 2004). Studies that
have examined the effect of network closure on
actors’ ability to implement innovative ideas, how-
ever, have yielded contradictory findings, some
showing that high levels of network closure facili-
tate change adoption (Fleming et al., 2007; Obst-
feld, 2005), others showing that low levels of net-
work closure do so (Burt, 2005).
In this study, we aim to reconcile these findings
by developing a contingency theory of the role of
network closure in the initiation and adoption of
organizational change. We posit that the informa-
tion and control benefits of structural holes (Burt,
1992) take different forms in change initiation than
in change adoption, and these benefits are strictly
contingent on the degree to which a change di-
verges from the institutional status quo in the or-
ganization’s field of activity. Accordingly, struc-
tural holes in a change agent’s network aid the
initiation and adoption of changes that diverge
from the institutional status quo but hinder the
adoption of less divergent changes.
In developing a contingency theory of the hith-
erto underspecified relationship between network
closure and organizational change, we draw a the-
oretical link between individual-level analyses of
network bases for social influence in organizations
and field-level analyses of institutional pressures
on organizational action. We thus aim to demon-
strate the explanatory power that derives from rec-
6. ognizing the complementary roles of institutional
and social network theory in a model of organiza-
tional change. To test our theory, we collected data
on 68 organizational changes initiated by clinical
managers in the United Kingdom’s National Health
Service (NHS) from 2004 to 2005 through longitu-
dinal surveys and eight in-depth case studies.
NETWORK CLOSURE AND DIVERGENT
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
In order to survive, organizations must convince
the public of their legitimacy (Meyer & Rowan,
1977) by conforming, at least in appearance, to the
prevailing institutions that define how things are
done in their environment. This emphasis on legit-
imacy constrains change by exerting pressure to
adopt particular managerial practices and organiza-
tional forms (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983); therefore,
organizations embedded in the same environment,
and thus subject to the same institutional pres-
sures, tend to adopt similar practices.
Organization members are thus motivated to ini-
tiate and implement changes that do not affect their
organizations’ alignment with existing institutions
(for a review, see Heugens and Lander [2009]). Nev-
ertheless, not all organizational changes will be
convergent with the institutional status quo. In-
deed, within the NHS, although many of the
changes enacted have been convergent with the
institutionalized template of medical professional-
ism, a few have diverged from it. The variability in
the degree of divergence of organizatio nal changes
poses two questions: (1) what accounts for the like-
7. lihood that an organization member will initiate a
change that diverges from the institutional status
quo and (2) what explains the ability of a change
agent to persuade other organization members to
adopt such a change.
Research into the enabling role of actors’ social
positions in implementing divergent change
(Greenwood & Hinings, 2006; Leblebici, Salancik,
Copay, & King, 1991; Maguire, Hardy, & Lawrence,
2004; Sherer & Lee, 2002) has tended to focus on
the position of the organization within its field of
activity, eschewing the intraorganizational level of
analysis. The few studies that have accounted for
intraorganizational factors have focused on the in-
fluence of change agents’ formal position on the
initiation of divergent change and largely over-
looked the influence of their informal position in
organizational networks (Battilana, 2011). This is
surprising in light of well-established theory and ev-
idence concerning informal networks as sources of
influence in organizations (Brass, 1984; Brass &
Burkhardt, 1993; Gargiulo, 1993; Ibarra & Andrews,
382 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
1993; Ibarra, 1993; Krackhardt, 1990). To the extent
that the ability to implement change hinges on
social influence, network position should signifi-
cantly affect actors’ ability to initiate divergent
changes and persuade other organization members
to adopt them.
A network-level structural feature with theoreti-
8. cal relevance to generating new ideas and social
influence is the degree of network closure. A con-
tinuum of configurations exists: cohesive networks
of dense, tightly knit relationships among actors’
contacts are at one end, and networks of contacts
separated by structural holes that provide actors
with brokerage opportunities are at the other. A
number of studies have documented the negative
relationship between network closure and the gen-
eration of new ideas (Ahuja, 2000; Burt, 2004;
Fleming et al., 2007; Lingo & O’Mahony, 2010; Mc-
Fadyen, Semadeni, & Cannella, 2009). Two mech-
anisms account for this negative association: re-
dundancy of information and normative pressures
(Ruef, 2002). With regard to the former, occupying
a network position rich in structural holes exposes
an actor to nonredundant information (Burt, 1992).
To the extent that it reflects originality and new-
ness, creativity is more likely to be engendered by
exposure to nonredundant than to repetitious in-
formation. As for normative pressure, network co-
hesion not only limits the amount of novel infor-
mation that reaches actors, but also pressures them
to conform to the modus operandi and norms of the
social groups in which they are embedded (Cole-
man, 1990; Krackhardt, 1999; Simmel, 1950),
which reduces the extent to which available infor-
mation can be deployed.
Thus far, no study has directly investigated the
relationship between network closure and the char-
acteristics of change initiatives in organizations.
We propose that the informational and normative
mechanisms that underlie the negative association
between network cohesion and the generation of
new ideas imply that organizational actors embed-
9. ded in networks rich in structural holes are more
likely to initiate changes that diverge from the in-
stitutional status quo. Bridging structural holes ex-
poses change agents to novel information that
might suggest opportunities for change not evident
to others, and it reduces normative constraints on
how agents can use information to initiate changes
that do not conform to prevailing institutional
pressures.
Hypothesis 1. The richer in structural holes a
change agent’s network, the more likely the
agent is to initiate a change that diverges from
the institutional status quo.
With respect to the probability that a change
initiative will actually modify organizational func-
tioning, few studies have explored how the degree
of closure in change agents’ networks affects the
adoption of organizational changes. This dearth of
empirical evidence notwithstanding, Burt (2005:
86 – 87) suggested several ways in which brokerage
opportunities provided by structural holes in an
actor’s network may aid adaptive implementation,
which he defined as the ability to carry out projects
that take advantage of opportunities—as distinct
from the ability to detect opportunities. Structural
holes may equip a potential broker with a broad
base of referrals and knowledge of how to pitch a
project so as to appeal to different constituencies,
as well as the ability to anticipate problems and
adapt the project to changing circumstances
(Burt, 1992).
These potential advantages suggest that struc-
tural holes may aid change initiation differently
10. from how they aid change adoption. In change ini-
tiation, the information and control benefits of
structural holes give a change agent greater expo-
sure to opportunities for change, and creative free-
dom from taken-for-granted institutional norms.
These are, therefore, mainly incoming benefits that
flow in the direction of the change agent. By con-
trast, in change adoption, the information and con-
trol benefits of structural holes are primarily out-
going, in that they are directed to the organizational
constituencies the change agent is aiming to per-
suade. These benefits can be characterized as struc-
tural reach and tailoring. Reach concerns a change
agent’s social contact with the constituencies that a
change project would affect, information about the
needs and wants of these constituencies, and infor-
mation about how best to communicate how the
project will benefit them. Tailoring refers to a
change agent’s control over when and how to use
available information to persuade diverse audi-
ences to mobilize their resources in support of a
change project. Being the only connection among
otherwise disconnected others, brokers can tailor
their use of information and their image in accor-
dance with each network contact’s preferences and
requirements. Brokers can do this with minimal
risk that potential inconsistencies in the presenta-
tion of the change will become apparent (Padgett &
Ansell, 1993) and possibly delegitimize them.
The argument that structural holes may facilitate
change adoption stands in contrast to the argument
that network cohesion enhances the adoption of
innovation (Fleming et al., 2007; Obstfeld, 2005).
Proponents of network cohesion maintain that peo-
ple and resources are more readily mobilized in a
11. cohesive network because multiple connections
2012 383Battilana and Casciaro
among members facilitate the sharing of knowledge
and meanings and generate normative pressures for
collaboration (Coleman, 1988; Gargiulo, Ertug, &
Galunic, 2009; Granovetter, 1985; Tortoriello &
Krackhardt, 2010). Supporting evidence is pro-
vided by Obstfeld (2005), who found cohesive net-
work positions to be positively correlated with in-
volvement in successful product development, and
by Fleming and colleagues (2007), who found col-
laborative brokerage to aid in the generation of
innovative ideas but maintained that it is network
cohesion that facilitates the ideas’ diffusion and
use by others.
These seemingly discrepant results are resolved
when organizational change is recognized to be a
political process that unfolds over time and takes
on various forms. The form taken by a change ini-
tiative is contingent on the extent to which it di-
verges from the institutional status quo. Obstfeld
described innovation as
an active political process at the microsocial
level. . . . To be successful, the tertius needs to iden-
tify the parties to be joined and establish a basis on
which each alter would participate in the joining
effort. The logic for joining might be presented to
both parties simultaneously or might involve ap-
peals tailored to each alter before the introduction or
on an ongoing basis as the project unfolds. (2005: 188)
12. Change implementation, according to this ac-
count, involves decisions concerning not only
which network contacts should be involved, but
also the timing and sequencing of appeals directed
to different constituencies. A network rich in struc-
tural holes affords change agents more freedom in
deciding when and how to approach these constit-
uencies and facilitate connections among them.
Building on this argument, we predict that in the
domain of organizational change the respective ad-
vantages of cohesion and structural holes are
strictly contingent on whether a change diverges
from the institutional status quo, thereby disrupt-
ing extant organizational equilibria and creating
the potential for significant opposition. Such diver-
gent changes are likely to engender greater resis-
tance from organization members, who are in turn
likely to attempt building coalitions with organiza-
tional constituencies to mobilize them against the
change initiative. In this case, a high level of net-
work cohesion among a change agent’s contacts
makes it easy for them to mobilize and form a
coalition against the change. By contrast, a network
rich in structural holes affords change agents flex-
ibility in tailoring arguments to different constitu-
encies and deciding when to connect to them,
whether separately or jointly, simultaneously or
over time. Less divergent change, because it is less
likely to elicit resistance and related attempts at
coalition building, renders the tactical flexibility
afforded by structural holes unnecessary. Under
these circumstances, the advantages of the cooper-
ative norms fostered in a cohesive network are
13. more desirable for the change agent. Consequently,
we do not posit a main effect for network closure on
change implementation, but only predict an inter-
action effect, the direction of which depends on a
change’s degree of divergence. Figure 1 graphically
summarizes the predicted moderation pattern.
Hypothesis 2. The more a change diverges from
the institutional status quo, the more closure in
a change agent’s network of contacts dimin-
ishes the likelihood of change adoption.
METHODS
Site
We tested our model using quantitative and qual-
itative data on 68 change initiatives undertaken in
the United Kingdom’s National Health Service, a
government-funded health care system consisting
of more than 600 organizations that fall into three
broad categories: administrative units, primary care
service providers, and secondary care service pro-
viders. In 2004, when the present study was con-
ducted, the NHS had a budget of more than £60 bil-
lion and employed more than one million people,
including health care professionals and managers
specializing in the delivery of guaranteed universal
health care free at the point of service.
FIGURE 1
Predicted Interactive Effects of Network Closure
and Divergence from Institutional Status Quo on
Change Adoption
14. +
+
–
–
High
High
Low
Low
Network
Closure
Change Divergence
384 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
The NHS, being highly institutionalized, was a
particularly appropriate context in which to test
our hypotheses. Like other health care systems
throughout the Western world (e.g., Kitchener,
2002; Scott, Ruef, Mendel, & Caronna, 2000), the
NHS is organized according to the model of medi-
cal professionalism (Giaimo, 2002), which pre-
scribes specific role divisions among professionals
and organizations.1 The model of professional
groups’ role division is predicated on physicians’
dominance over all other categories of health care
15. professionals. Physicians are the key decision mak-
ers, controlling not only the delivery of services,
but also, in collaboration with successive govern-
ments, the organization of the NHS (for a review,
see Harrison, Hunter, Marnoch, and Pollitt [1992]).
The model of role division among organizations
places hospitals at the heart of the health care sys-
tem (Peckham, 2003). Often enjoying a monopoly
position as providers of secondary care services in
their health communities (Le Grand, 1999), hospi-
tals ultimately receive the most resources. The em-
phasis on treating acute episodes of disease in a
hospital over providing follow-up and preventive
care in home or community settings under the re-
sponsibility of primary care organizations is char-
acteristic of an acute episodic health system.
In 1997, under the leadership of the Labour Gov-
ernment, the NHS embarked on a ten-year modern-
ization effort aimed at improving the quality, reli-
ability, effectiveness, and value of its health care
services (Department of Health, 1999). The initia-
tive was intended to imbue the NHS with a new
model for organizing that challenged the institu-
tionalized model of medical professionalism. De-
spite the attempt to shift from an acute episodic
health care system to one focused on providing con-
tinuing care by integrating services and increasing
cooperation among professional groups, at the time of
the study, a distinct dominance order persisted across
NHS organizations, with physicians (Ferlie, Fitzger-
ald, Wood, & Hawkins, 2005; Harrison et al., 1992;
Richter, West, Van Dick, & Dawson, 2006) and hos-
pitals (Peckham, 2003) at the apex. This context—
wherein the extant model of medical professionalism
continued to define the institutional status quo in
16. these organizations—afforded a unique opportunity
to study organizational change in an entrenched
system in which enhancing the capacity for inno-
vation and adaptation had potentially vast societal
implications.
Sample
The focus of the study being on variability in
divergence and adoption of organizational change
initiatives, the population germane to our model
was that of self-appointed change agents, actors
who voluntarily initiate planned organizational
changes. Our sample is comprised of 68 clinical
managers (i.e., actors with both clinical and mana-
gerial responsibilities) responsible for initiating
and attempting to implement change initiatives.
All had worked in different organizations in the
NHS and participated in the Clinical Strategists
Programme, a two-week residential learning expe-
rience conducted by a European business school.
The first week focused on cultivating skills and
awareness to improve participants’ effectiveness in
their immediate spheres of influence and leader-
ship ability within the clinical bureaucracies, the
second week on developing participants’ strategic
change capabilities at the levels of the organization
and the community health system. Applicants were
asked to provide a description of a change project
they would begin to implement within their organ-
ization upon completing the program. Project im-
plementation was a required part of the program,
which was open to all clinical managers in the NHS
and advertised both online and in NHS brochures.
There was no mention of divergent organizational
17. change in either the title of the executive program
or its presentation. Participation was voluntary. All
95 applicants were selected and chose to attend
and complete the program.
The final sample of 68 observations, which cor-
responds to 68 change projects, reflects the omis-
sion of 27 program participants who did not re-
spond to a social network survey administered in
the first week of the program. Participants ranged
in age from 35 to 56 years (average age, 44). All had
clinical backgrounds as well as managerial respon-
sibilities. Levels of responsibility varied from mid-
to top-level management. The participants also rep-
resented a variety of NHS organizations (54 percent
primary care organizations, 26 percent hospitals or
other secondary care organizations, and 19 percent
administrative units) and professions (25 percent
physicians and 75 percent nurses and allied health
professionals). To control for potential nonre-
sponse bias, we compared the full sample for
which descriptive data were available with the fi-
nal sample. Unpaired t-tests showed no statistically
1 This characterization of the NHS’s dominant tem-
plate for organizing is based on a comprehensive review
of NHS archival data and the literature on the NHS, as
well as on 46 semistructured interviews with NHS pro-
fessionals and 3 interviews with academic experts on the
NHS analyzed with the methodology developed by Scott
and colleagues (2000).
2012 385Battilana and Casciaro
18. significant differences for individual characteris-
tics recorded in both samples.
Procedures and Data
Data on the demographic characteristics, formal
positions, professional trajectories, and social net-
works of the change agents, together with detailed
information on the proposed changes, were col-
lected over a period of 12 months. The demo-
graphic and professional trajectories data were ob-
tained from participants’ curricula vitae, and data
on their formal positions were gathered from the
NHS’s human resource records. Data on social net-
works were collected during the first week of the
executive program, during which participants com-
pleted an extensive survey detailing their social
network ties both in their organizations and in the
NHS more broadly.
Participants were assured that data on the con-
tent of the change projects, collected at different
points during their design and implementation,
would remain confidential. They submitted de-
scriptions of their intended change projects upon
applying to the program and were asked to write a
refined project description three months after im-
plementation. The two descriptions were very sim-
ilar; the latter were generally an expansion of the
former. One-on-one (10 –15 minute) telephone in-
terviews conducted with the participants and
members of their organizations four months after
implementation of the change projects enabled us
to ascertain whether they had been implemented—
all had been—and whether the changes being im-
plemented corresponded to those described in the
19. project descriptions, which all did.
During two additional (20 – 40 minute) telephone
interviews conducted six and nine months after
project implementation, participants were asked to
(1) describe the main actions taken in relation to
implementing their changes, (2) identify the main
obstacles (if any) to implementation, (3) assess their
progress, and (4) describe their next steps in imple-
menting the changes. We took extensive notes dur-
ing the interviews, which were not recorded for
reasons of confidentiality. The change agents also
gave us access to all organizational documents and
NHS official records related to the change initia-
tives generated during the first year of implemen-
tation. We created longitudinal case studies of each
of the 68 change initiatives by aggregating the data
collected throughout the year from change agents
and other organization members and relevant or-
ganizational and NHS documents.
After 12 months of implementation, we con-
ducted another telephone survey to collect infor-
mation about the outcomes of the change projects
with an emphasis on the degree to which the
changes had been adopted. We corroborated the
information provided by each change agent by con-
ducting telephone interviews with two informants
who worked in the same organization. In most
cases, one informant was directly involved in the
change effort, and the other was either a peer or
superior of the agent who knew about, but was not
directly involved in, the change effort. These infor-
mants’ assessments of the adoption of the change
projects were, again for reasons of confidentiality,
20. not recorded; as during the six- and nine-month
interviews, we took extensive notes.
At the beginning of the study, we randomly se-
lected eight change projects to be the subjects of
in-depth case studies. Data on these projects were
collected over a year via both telephone and in-
person interviews. One year after implementation,
at each of the eight organizations, we conducted
between 12 and 20 interviews of 45 minutes to two
hours in duration. On the basis of these interviews,
all of which were transcribed, we wrote eight in-
depth case studies about the selected change initia-
tives. The qualitative data used to verify the con-
sistency of change agents’ reports with the reports
made by other organization members provided
broad validation for the survey data.
Dependent and Independent Variables
Divergence from the institutional status quo.
The institutional status quo for organizing within
the NHS is defined by the model of medical pro-
fessionalism that prescribes specific role divisions
among professionals and organizations (Peckham,
2003). To measure each change project’s degree of
divergence from the institutionalized model of pro-
fessionals’ and organizations’ role division, we
used two scales developed by Battilana (2011). The
first scale measures the degree to which change
projects diverged from the institutionalized model
of role division among professionals using four
items aimed at capturing the extent to which the
change challenged the dominance of doctors over
other health care professionals in both the clinical
and administrative domains. The second scale
21. measures the degree to which change projects di-
verged from the institutionalized model of role di-
vision among organizations using six items aimed
at capturing the extent to which the change chal-
lenged the dominance of hospitals over other types
of organizations in both the clinical and adminis-
trative domains. Each of the ten items in the ques-
386 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
tionnaire was assessed using a three-point rank-
ordered scale.2
Two independent raters blind to the study’s hy-
potheses used the two scales to code the change
project descriptions written by the participants af-
ter three months’ of implementation. The descrip-
tions averaged three pages and followed the same
template: presentation of project goals, resources
required to implement the project, people in-
volved, key success factors, and measurement of
outcomes. Interrater reliability, as assessed by the
kappa correlation coefficient, was .90. The raters
resolved coding discrepancies identifying and dis-
cussing passages in the change project descriptions
deemed relevant to the codes until they reached
consensus. Scores for the change projects on each
of the two scales corresponded to the average of the
items included in each scale. To account for change
projects that diverged from the institutionalized
models of both professionals’ and organizations’
role division, and thereby assess each project’s
overall degree of divergence, we measured change
divergence as the unweighted average of the scores
22. received on both scales. Table 1 provides examples
of change initiatives characterized by varying de-
grees of divergence from the institutionali zed mod-
els of role division among organizations or profes-
sionals or both.
Change adoption. We measured level of adop-
tion using the following three-item scale from the
telephone survey administered one year after im-
plementation: (1) “On a scale of 1–5, how far did
you progress toward completing the change project,
where 1 is defining the project for the clinical strat-
egists program and 5 is institutionalizing the im-
plemented change as part of standard practice in
your organization.” (2) “In my view, the change is
now part of the standard operating practice of the
organization.” (3) “In my view, the change was not
adopted in the organization.” The third item was
reverse-coded. The last two items were assessed
using a five-point scale that ranged from 1
(“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). Cron-
bach’s alpha for the scale was .60, which is the
acceptable threshold value for exploratory studies
such as ours (Nunnally, 1978). Before gathering the
change agents’ responses, the research team that
had followed the evolution of the change projects
and collected all survey and interview data
throughout the year produced a joint assessment of
the projects’ level of adoption using the same three-
item scale later presented to the change agents. The
correlation between the responses produced by the
research team and those generated by the telephone
survey administered to the change agents was .98.
To further validate the measure of change adop-
23. tion, two additional raters independently coded the
notes taken during the interviews using the same
three-item scale as was used in the telephone sur-
vey. They based their coding on the entire set of
qualitative data collected from organizational infor-
mants on each change project’s level of adoption.
Interrater reliability, as assessed by the kappa cor-
relation coefficient, was .88, suggesting a high level
of agreement among the raters (Fleiss, 1981; Landis
& Koch, 1977). We then asked the two raters to
reconcile the differences in their respective assess-
ments and produce a consensual evaluation
(Larsson, 1993). The resulting measures were vir-
tually identical to the self-reported measures col-
lected from the change agents.
We also leveraged the case studies developed for
each change initiative from the participant inter-
views and relevant sets of organizational docu-
ments and NHS official records collected through-
out the year. Eight of these were in-depth case
studies for which extensive qualitative data were
collected. Two additional independent raters, for
whom a high level of interrater reliability was ob-
tained (� � .90), coded all case studies to assess the
level of adoption of the changes, and reconciled the
differences in their assessments to produce a con-
sensual evaluation. The final results of this coding
were nearly indistinguishable from the self-re-
ported measures of level of change adoption, fur-
ther alleviating concerns about potential self-report
biases.
Network closure. We measured network closure
using ego network data collected via a name gener-
ator survey approach commonly used in studies of
24. organizational networks (e.g., Ahuja, 2000; Burt,
1992; Podolny & Baron, 1997; Reagans & McEvily,
2003; Xiao & Tsui, 2007). In name generator sur-
veys, respondents are asked to list contacts (i.e.,
alters) with whom they have one or more criterion
relationships and specify the nature of the relation-
ships that link contacts to one another. As detailed
below, we corroborated our ego network data with
qualitative evidence from the eight in-depth case
studies.
To measure the degree of closure in a change
agent’s network, we followed the seminal approach
developed by Burt (1992), who measured the con-
tinuum of configurations between structural holes
2 Research on radical organizational change typically
measures the extent to which organizational transforma-
tions diverge from previous organizational arrangements
(Romanelli & Tushman, 1994). By contrast, we measured
the extent to which the changes in our sample diverged
from the institutional status quo in the field of the NHS.
2012 387Battilana and Casciaro
and cohesion in terms of the absence or presence of
constraint, defined as:
ci � �
j�i
�pij � �
k�i,k�j
25. pikpkj�2,
where pij is the proportion of time and effort in-
vested by i in contact j. Contact j constrains i to the
extent that i has focused a large proportion of time
and effort to reach j and j is surrounded by few
structural holes that i can leverage to influence j.
Unlike other measures of structural holes and
cohesion, such as effective size or density, con-
straint captures not only redundancy in a net-
work, but also an actor’s dependence on network
TABLE 1
Examples of Change Initiatives with High, Medium, and Low
Divergence from the Institutional Status Quoa
High Divergence Medium Divergence Low Divergence
Example 1. Initiative to transfer stroke
rehabilitation services, such as
language retraining, from a hospital-
based unit to a PCT (i.e., from the
secondary to the primary care sector).
Prior to the change, stroke patients
were stabilized and rehabilitated in
the acute ward of the hospital. This
resulted in long hospital stays and
occupied resources that were more
appropriate for the acute treatment
than for the rehabilitation phase. As a
result, there was often not enough
room to admit all stroke patients to
the acute ward, as many beds were
used for patients undergoing
rehabilitation. With the transfer of
service, postacute patients, once they
26. were medically stable and ready for
rehabilitation, were relocated to a
unit operated by the PCT, ensuring
that the acute unit would be dealing
only with patients who were truly in
need of acute care. This transfer of
the delivery of rehabilitation services
from the secondary to the primary
care sector greatly diverged from the
institutionalized model of role
division among organizations.
Example 2. Initiative to develop nurse-
led discharge that would transfer
clinical tasks and decision-making
authority from physicians to nurses.
Traditionally, discharge decisions
were under the exclusive control of
physicians. With the new nurse-led
initiatives, nurses would take over
responsibility from specialist
physicians and make the final
decision to discharge patients, thus
assuming more responsibility as well
as accountability and risk for clinical
decisions. Physicians ceded control
over some aspects of decision-
making, freeing them to focus on
more complex patients and tasks.
Example 3. Initiative involving primary
and secondary care service providers
aimed at developing a day hospital
for elderly patients. The day hospital
was to facilitate continued care,
reduce hospital stays, and decrease
27. hospital readmission for frail elderly
patients too ill to be cared for at
home but not sufficiently ill to justify
full admission to the hospital.
Patients would check into the
hospital-operated day unit for a few
hours and receive services from both
primary and secondary care
professionals. Because the primary
care service providers were engaged
in the provision of services formerly
provided only by secondary care
service providers, there was
increased collaboration between the
primary and secondary care service
providers involved in this project.
Even so, the project diverged from
the institutionalized model of role
division among organizations only to
some extent because the new service
was still operated by the hospital.
Example 4. Initiative to have
ultrasound examinations performed
by nurses rather than by physicians.
Although this project enabled nurses
to perform medical examinations
they usually did not perform, the
nurses gained no decision-making
power in either the clinical or
administrative domain. Consequently,
this project diverged from the
institutionalized model of role
division among professionals only to
some extent.
28. Example 5. Initiative to transfer a ward
specializing in the treatment of
elderly patients from a PCT to a
hospital. Prior to the change, both the
PCT and hospitals provided services
for the elderly, who make up the
bulk of patients receiving care in the
hospital setting. Rather than
diverging from the institutionalized
model of role division among organi-
zations, the transfer of responsibility
for all elderly care services to the
hospital reinforced the centralization
of health care services around the
hospital, strengthening the dominant
role of the hospital over the PCT in
the institutionalized delivery model.
Example 6. Initiative of a general
practice to hire an administrative
assistant to implement and manage a
computerized appointment booking
system. The addition of this assistant
to the workforce changed neither the
division of labor nor the balance of
power between health care
professionals within the general
practice.
a A PCT is a primary care trust. At the time this study was
conducted, all NHS professionals who provided primary care
services
(services provided to patients when they first report health
problems) were managed by primary care trusts (PCTs) serving
populations of
250,000 or more. General practices were required to join PCTs
29. when they were created in 1988. PCTs were thus local health
organizations
responsible for managing health services in a given area. They
provided primary care services and commissioned secondary
care services
from hospitals.
388 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
contacts. This is a more pertinent measure of the
potential for tailoring because it assesses not only
whether two contacts are simply linked, but also
the extent to which social activity in the network
revolves around a given contact, making a link to
that actor more difficult to circumvent in present-
ing tailored arguments for change to different
contacts.
We measured alter-to-alter connections in a re-
spondent’s ego network using a survey item that
asked respondents to indicate, on a three-point
scale (1, “not at all”; 2, “somewhat”; and 3, “very
well”), how well two contacts knew each other. We
included relevant network contacts in the calcula-
tion of constraint based on two survey items that
measured the frequency and closeness of contact
between an actor and each network contact. The
first item (“How frequently have you interacted
with this person over the last year?”) used an eight-
point scale with point anchors ranging from “not at
all” to “twice a week or more.” The second item
(“How close would you say you are with this per-
son?”) used a seven-point scale that ranged from
“especially close” to “very distant,” with 4, “nei-
30. ther close nor distant,” as the neutral point and was
accompanied by the following explanation: “(Note
that ‘Especially close’ refers to one of your closest
personal contacts and that ‘Very distant’ refers to
the contacts with whom you do not enjoy spending
time, that is, the contacts with whom you spend
time only when it is absolutely necessary).” From
these survey items, we constructed four measures
of constraint to test the sensitivity of our prediction
to more or less inclusive specifications of agents’
networks. The first measure included alters with
whom ego was at least somewhat close. The second
measure, based on frequency of interaction, in-
cluded only alters with whom ego interacted at
least twice a month. The third measure combined
the first two by calculating constraint on the basis
of alters with whom ego either interacted at least
twice monthly or to whom ego was at least some-
what close. The fourth measure included every ac-
tor nominated by ego in the network survey.
We used the eight in-depth case studies to assess
convergence between the change agents’ and inter-
viewees’ perceptions of the relationships among
the people in the change agents’ networks. Two
external coders identified all the information in
the interviews that pertained to the extent to
which the people in change agents’ networks
knew each other and coded this information us-
ing the same scale used in the social network
survey. The interviews provided data on the re-
lationships among more than 75 percent of the
change agents’ contacts. For all these relation-
ships, the coders’ assessments of alter-to-alter
ties based on the interview data were consistent
31. with each other and with the measures reported
by change agents, thereby increasing our confi-
dence in the validity of the survey reports.
Control variables. We used five characteristics
of the change agents (hierarchical level, tenure in
current position, tenure in management role, pro-
fessional status, and prominence in the task-advice
network), two characteristics of the change agents’
organizations (size and status), and one character-
istic of the change (creation of new service) as con-
trols. We measured actors’ hierarchical position
with a rank-ordered categorical variable based on
formal job titles;3 tenure in current position was the
number of years change agents had spent in their
current formal roles, and tenure in management
position was the number of years they had spent in
a management role. As for the status of the profes-
sional group to which actors belonged, in the NHS,
as in most health care systems, physicians’ status is
superior to that of other health care professionals
(Harrison et al., 1992). Accordingly, we measured
professional status with a dummy variable coded 0
for low-status professionals (i.e., nurses and allied
health professionals) and 1 for high-status profes-
sionals (i.e., physicians). To account for change
agents’ informal status in their organizations, we
constructed a measure of the structural prominence
that accrues to asymmetrical advice-giving ties
(Jones, 1964; Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). To that end,
we used two network survey items: (1) “During the
past year, are there any individuals in your Primary
Care Trust/Hospital Trust/Organization (delete as
appropriate) from whom you regularly sought in-
formation and advice to accomplish your work?
(Name up to 5 individuals),” and (2) “During the
32. past year, are there any individuals in your Primary
Care Trust/Hospital Trust/Organization (delete as
appropriate) who regularly came to you for infor-
mation and advice to accomplish their work?
(Name up to 5 individuals. Some of these may be
the same as those named before).” We measured
actors’ prominence in the task-advice network as
the difference between the number of “received”
advice ties and number of “sent” advice ties.
We also controlled for organization-level factors
including organizational size, which we measured
in units of total full-time equivalents, and organi-
3 The NHS, being a government-run set of organiza-
tions, has standardized definitions and pay scales for all
positions that assure uniformity of roles, responsibilities,
and hierarchical positions across organizational sites, ac-
cording to the Department of Health (2006).
2012 389Battilana and Casciaro
zational status. Of the three types of organizations
that compose the NHS, primary care organizations
were considered to be of lower status than hospitals
and administrative units (Peckham, 2003), but
there was no clear status hierarchy between the
latter (Peckham, 2003). Accordingly, we measured
organizational status with a dummy variable coded
1 for low-status organizations (i.e., primary care
trusts) and 0 for high-status organizations (i.e., hos-
pitals and administrative organizations). Finally,
although we theorize that a change’s degree of di-
vergence from the institutional status quo operates
33. as the key contingency in our model, other change
characteristics may affect adoption. In particular,
whether a change involves the redesign of an exist-
ing service or creation of a new one may play an
important role (Van de Ven, Angle, & Poole, 1989).
Our models therefore included a dummy variable
for creation of a new service.
RESULTS
Table 2 includes the descriptive statistics and
correlation matrix for all variables. Correlation co-
efficients greater than .30 are statistically signifi -
cant (p � .01). Most of the correlation coefficients
are modest in size and not statistically significant.
Table 3 presents the results of ordinary least
squares (OLS) regressions that predict change ini-
tiatives’ degree of divergence from the institutional
status quo. Model 1 includes control variables
likely to influence change initiatives’ degree of di-
vergence. The positive and significant effects of
tenure in a management role and of organizational
status and size are consistent with existing research
(Battilana, 2011). Model 2 introduces ego network
constraint, which measures the degree of structural
closure in a network. As predicted by Hypothesis 1,
the effect is negative and statistically significant
and increases model fit significantly (�1 � 3.85,
p � .05), which implies a positive association be-
tween structural holes in a change agent’s network
and the agent’s change initiative’s degree of diver-
gence.4
Our qualitative data provided several illustra-
34. tions of this effect. A case in point is a change
initiative aimed at replacing the head of the reha-
bilitation unit for stroke patients— historically a
4 Supplemental regression models incorporated a host
of additional control variables including gender, age, ed-
ucational background, and organizational budget.
Whether added separately or in clusters, none of these
variables had statistically significant effects in any
model, nor did they affect the sign or significance of any
variables of interest. Consequently, we have excluded
them from the final set of regression models reported
here, mindful that our sample size constrains the model’s
degrees of freedom.
TABLE 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlationsa
Variable Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Change adoption 3.91 0.82
2. Change divergence 1.14 0.38 .09
3. Senior management 10.37 5.94 �.05 .18
4. Seniority in role 2.32 2.05 �.03 .05 .11
5. Hierarchical level 3.85 0.95 �.07 �.11 �.02 �.03
6. Professional status (doctor) 0.25 0.43 .03 �.09 �.41 .02 .33
7. Organizational status (PCT) 0.52 0.50 .09 .35 �.12 �.06 .10
.06
8. Organizational size 22.70 21.20 �.13 �.04 .04 .06 �.20 �.20
–.59
9. Prominence in task advice
network
0.03 1.09 .25 .08 .22 �.02 .18 �.10 –.11 .08
10. Ego network constraint 0.34 0.12 .14 �.23 �.05 �.01 .03
35. .13 –.07 –.05 .09
11. Constraint � divergence �0.01 0.04 �.27 �.38 .01 .00 .01
�.14 –.19 .09 .12 –.11
a Correlation coefficients greater than .30 are statistically
significant at p � .01.
TABLE 3
Results of OLS Regression Analyses Predicting Degree
of Change Divergencea
Variable Model 1 Model 2
Tenure in management role 0.02* (0.01) 0.02* (0.01)
Tenure in current role 0.01 (0.02) 0.01 (0.02)
Hierarchical level �0.07 (0.05) �0.08 (0.05)
Professional status (doctor) 0.08 (0.09) 0.11 (0.09)
Organizational status (PCT) 0.42*** (0.09) 0.40*** (0.09)
Organizational size 0.04* (0.02) 0.04 (0.02)
Prominence in task advice
network
0.03 (0.04) 0.04 (0.05)
Ego network constraint �0.68* (0.34)
R2 0.24 0.28
a Standard errors are in parentheses; n � 68.
* p � .05
*** p � .001
Two-tailed tests.
390 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
36. medical consultant—with a physiotherapist. This
change initiative diverged from the institutional
status quo in transferring decision-making power
from a doctor to a nondoctor. The change agent
responsible for the initiative described her motiva-
tion as follows:
In my role as head of physiotherapy for this health
community, I have had the opportunity to work
with doctors, nurses, allied health professionals,
managers and representatives of social services. . . .
Although I was aware of the challenges of coordi-
nating all the different players involved in stroke
care, I was also aware that it was key if we wanted to
improve our services. . . . I recommended the ap-
pointment of a non-medical consultant to lead the
rehabilitation unit because, based on my experience
working with the different players involved in
stroke services, I thought that it would be the best
way to insure effective coordination.
Table 4 presents the results of OLS regressions
that predict the likelihood of change adoption.
Model 3 includes the control variables, none of
which was significant except prominence in the
task advice network. This result suggests that
change agents’ informal status in their organiza-
tions is a critical source of social influence.5
Model 4 introduces the measure of constraint in
change agents’ networks. The coefficient is not sta-
tistically significant, providing no evidence of a
main effect of structural holes on change imple-
mentation. The coefficient for the multiplicative
37. term for ego network constraint and change diver-
gence (model 5) is negative and significant, sup-
porting Hypothesis 2. A postestimation test of joint
significance of the main effect and interaction term
for constraint was statistically significant (F[2,
52] � 4.87, p � .05), offering further evidence of the
robustness of this moderation effect. The multipli-
cative term for constraint and divergence from the
institutional status quo increased model fit signifi-
cantly (�1 � 6.40, p � .05). These findings, being
robust to all four specifications of the measure of
constraint, indicate a strong boundary condition on
the effect of network closure on change adoption,
with the degree of divergence from the institutional
status quo intrinsic to a change initiative operating
as a strict contingency.6, 7
Our qualitative data offered numerous illustra-
tions of this finding. For example, a change agent
with a network rich in structural holes who was
attempting to transfer a medical unit from the hos-
pital to the primary care trust (PCT; see Table 1) in
his health community (a change that diverged from
the institutionalized model of role division be-
tween organizations) explained the following:
Because of my role, I worked both in the hospital
and in the PCT. I also was part of the steering group
that looked at how the new national guidelines
would be implemented across our health commu-
nity. . . . Having the responsibility to work in more
than one organization gives you many advan-
tages. . . . I knew all the stakeholders and what to
expect from them. . . . It helped me figure out what I
should tell to each of these different stakeholders to
38. convince them that the project was worth their time
and energy.
The people we interviewed in both the hospital
and the PCT confirmed that they knew the change
agent well. Stated a hospital employee:
He is one of us, but he also knows the PCT environ-
ment well. His experience has helped him identify
opportunities for us to cooperate with the PCT. If it
was not for him, I do not think that we would have
launched this project. . . . He was able to bring us on
board as well as the PCT staff.
Similarly, a nurse trying to implement nurse-led
discharge in her hospital explained how her con-
nections to managers, nurses, and doctors helped
her to tailor and time her appeals to each constitu-
ency relevant to her endeavor:
I first met with the management of the hospital to
secure their support. . . . I insisted that nurse-led
discharge would help us reduce waiting times for
patients, which was one of the key targets that the
government had set. . . . I then focused on nurses. I
wanted them to understand how important it was to
increase the nursing voice in the hospital and to
demonstrate how nursing could contribute to the
organizational agenda. . . . Once I had the full sup-
port of nurses, I turned to doctors. . . . I expected
that they would stamp their feet and dig their heels
5 We also ran supplemental analyses that including
the control variables listed in footnote 4 as well as a
squared term for hierarchical level to account for the
possibility that middle managers may be particularly
39. well positioned in their organizations to implement
change. As with Hypothesis 1, none of the variables had
statistically significant effects in any model, nor did they
affect the sign or significance of any variables of interest.
6 Testing Hypothesis 2 using effective size and density
as alternative measures of closure yields findings consis-
tent with, albeit less robust than, those obtained using
constraint, as we expected, given the conceptual differ-
ences between these measures.
7 We tested the effects of several additional interaction
terms including one for divergence and prominence in
the task advice network. None of these moderations were
significant.
2012 391Battilana and Casciaro
in and say “no we’re not doing this.” . . . To over-
come their resistance, I insisted that the new dis-
charge process would reduce their workload,
thereby enabling them to focus on complex cases
and ensure quicker patient turnover, which, for spe-
cialists with long waiting lists of patients, had an
obvious benefit.
These quotes illustrate the positive association
between structural holes and the adoption of diver-
gent change. Our qualitative evidence also offers
examples of the flip side of this association, the
negative relationship between network cohesion
and the adoption of changes that diverge from the
institutional status quo. For instance, a nurse who
tried to establish nurse-led discharge in her hospi-
40. tal, a change that would have diverged from the
institutionalized model of role division between
professionals, explained how lack of connection to
some key stakeholders in the organization (in par-
ticular, doctors) handicapped her.
I actually know many of the nurses working in this
hospital and I get on well with them, but I do not
know all the doctors and the administrative
staff. . . . When I launched this change initiative, I
was convinced that it would be good for the hospi-
tal, but maybe I rushed too much. I should have
taken more time to get to know the consultants, and
to convince them of the importance of nurse-led
discharge for them and for the hospital.
A doctor we interviewed confirmed the change
agent’s assessment of the situation:
I made it clear to the CEO of this hospital that I
would not do it. This whole initiative will increase
my workload. I feel it is a waste of time. Nurses
should not be the ones making discharge deci-
sions. . . . The person in charge of this initiative
doesn’t know how we work here.
The foregoing examples illustrate the utility of
structural holes in a change agent’s network when
it comes to persuading other organization members
to adopt a change that diverges from the institu-
tional status quo. However, networks rich in struc-
tural holes are not always an asset. When it comes
to the adoption of changes that do not diverge from
the institutional status quo, change agents with rel-
atively closed networks fared better. The cases of
41. two change agents involved in similar change ini-
tiatives in their respective primary care organiza-
tions are a telling example. Both were trying to
convince other organization members of the merits
of a new computerized booking system, the adop-
tion of which would not involve a divergence from
the institutional status quo, affecting neither the
division of labor nor the balance of power among
the health care professionals in the respective or-
ganizations. Moreover, other primary care organi-
zations had already adopted the system. The net-
work of one of the change agents was highly
cohesive, that of the other rich in structural holes.
Whereas the former was able to implement the new
booking system, the latter encountered issues. A
receptionist explained what happened in the case
of the former organization:
I trust [name of the change agent]. Everyone does
here. . . . We all know each other and we all care
about what is best for our patients. . . It was clear
when [name of the change agent] told us about the
new booking system that we would all be better off
using it.
TABLE 4
Results of OLS Regression Analyses Predicting Degree of
Change Adoptiona
Variable Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Tenure in management role �0.02 (0.02) �0.02 (0.02) –0.02
(0.02)
Tenure in current role 0.02 (0.04) 0.02 (0.04) 0.02 (0.04)
Hierarchical level �0.14 (0.09) �0.13 (0.08) –0.13 (0.09)
Professional status (doctor) 0.18 (0.26) 0.14 (0.24) 0.07 (0.24)
42. Change divergence 0.09 (0.33) 0.14 (0.34) –0.11 (0.30)
Creation of new service �0.31 (0.23) �0.30 (0.25) –0.28 (0.23)
Organizational status (PCT) 0.04 (0.33) 0.04 (0.33) 0.03 (0.32)
Organizational size �0.01 (0.01) �0.01 (0.01) –0.01 (0.01)
Prominence in task advice network 0.30*** (0.07) 0.29***
(0.08) 0.33** (0.10)
Ego network constraint 0.69 (1.33) 0.30 (1.28)
Constraint � divergence –5.83** (2.04)
R2 .21 .22 .29
a Standard errors are in parentheses; n � 68.
** p � .01
*** p � .001
Two-tailed tests.
392 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
A receptionist in the latter organization de-
scribed her relationship with the change agent who
was struggling with the implementation of the
system:
I do not know (name of the change agent) well. . . .
One of my colleagues knows her. . . . One of the
doctors and some nurses seem to like her, but I think
that others in the organization feel just like me that
they do not know her.
Figure 2 graphs the moderation between diver-
gence and constraint observed in our data, using
the median split of the distribution of change di-
vergence. The crossover interaction is explained by
the influence mechanisms available to change
43. agents at opposite ends of the distribution of clo-
sure, with both cohesion and structural holes con-
ferring potential advantages. The graph also shows
that, in spite of the tendency of change agents with
networks rich in structural holes to initiate more
divergent changes, our sample included a sizable
number of observations in all four cells of the 2�2
in Figure 1. The matching of type of change to the
network structure most conducive to its adoption
was therefore highly imperfect in our sample.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The notion that change agents’ structural posi-
tions affect their ability to introduce change in or-
ganizations is well established, but because re-
search on organizational change has thus far not
systematically accounted for the fact that all
changes are not equivalent, we have not known
whether the effects of structural position might
vary with the nature of change initiatives. The pres-
ent study provides clear support for a contingency
theory of organizational change and network struc-
ture. Structural holes in change agents’ networks
increase the likelihood that these actors will initi-
ate organizational changes with a higher degree of
divergence from the institutional status quo. The
effects of structural holes on a change agent’s abil-
ity to persuade organizational constituencies to
adopt a change, however, are strictly contingent on
the change’s degree of divergence from the institu-
tional status quo. Structural holes in a change
agent’s network aid the adoption of changes that
diverge from the institutional status quo, but they
hinder the adoption of less divergent changes.
44. Contributions
These findings and the underlying contingency
theory that explains them advance current research
on organizational change and social networks in
several ways. First, we contribute to the organiza-
tional change literature by showing that the degree
to which organizational changes diverge from the
institutional status quo may have important impli-
cations for the factors that enable adoption. In do-
ing so, our study bridges the organizational change
and institutional change literatures that have
tended to evolve on separate tracks (Greenwood &
Hinings, 2006). The literature on organizational
change has not systematically accounted for the
institutional environment in which organizations
are embedded, and the institutional change litera-
ture has tended to neglect intraorganizational dy-
namics in favor of field dynamics. By demonstrat-
ing that the effect of network closure on change
initiation and adoption is contingent on the degree
to which an organizational change initiative di-
verges from the institutional status quo, this study
paves the way for a new direction in research on
organizational change that accounts for whether a
change breaks with practices so taken-for-granted
in a field of activity as to have become institution-
alized (Battilana et al., 2009).
Second, research on organizational change has
focused on the influence of change agents’ posi-
tions in their organizations’ formal structures over
their informal positions in organizational net-
works. Ibarra (1993) began to address this gap by
suggesting that actors’ network centrality might af-
45. fect the likelihood of their innovating successfully.
Our study complements her work by highlighting
the influence of structural closure in change agents’
networks on their ability to initiate and implement
change.
Third, our study advances the body of work on
social networks in organizations. Network scholars
have contributed greatly to understanding organi-
FIGURE 2
Observed Interactive Effect of Ego Network
Constraint and Divergence from Institutional
Status Quo on Change Adoption
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Change
Adoption
Ego Network Constraint
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6
Low divergence High divergence
2012 393Battilana and Casciaro
46. zational phenomena associated with change, in-
cluding knowledge search and transfer (Hansen,
1999; Levin & Cross, 2004; Reagans & McEvily,
2003; Tsai, 2002) and creativity and innovatio n
(Burt, 2004; Fleming et al., 2007; Obstfeld, 2005;
Tsai, 2001). We extend this literature with insights
into the structural mechanism for social influence
through which network closure aids or impedes
change agents’ attempts to initiate and implement
organizational change. We thus build on the long-
standing tradition of scholarship on the relation-
ship between network position and social influ-
ence (Brass, 1984; Brass & Burkhardt, 1993;
Gargiulo, 1993; Ibarra, 1993; Krackhardt, 1990).
Finally, despite its remarkable impact on net-
work research, structural holes theory remains un-
derspecified with regard to boundary conditions.
By documenting that the benefits of structural
holes are strictly contingent on an organizational
change initiative’s degree of divergence from an
institutional status quo, we join other scholars in
highlighting the need to specify the contextual
boundaries of brokerage and closure in organiza-
tions (Fleming et al., 2007; Gargiulo et al., 2009;
Stevenson & Greenberg, 2000; Tortoriello & Krack-
hardt, 2010; Xiao & Tsui, 2007). As for the phe-
nomenological boundaries, scholars have thus far
focused primarily on the notion that the nonredun-
dant information generated by bridging structural
holes is germane to idea generation (Burt, 2004)
and identifying opportunities for change, and they
have attended less to the role of structural holes in
capitalizing on opportunities for change once they
47. are identified. Yet gains from new ideas are real-
ized only when an organization adopts them (Klein
& Sorra, 1996; Meyer & Goes, 1988). Our findings
move beyond anecdotal evidence (Burt, 2005) to
show the relevance of structural holes in the do-
main of change implementation.
In addition to these theoretical contributions, our
findings can advance public policy and managerial
practice by informing the development and selec-
tion of change agents in organizations. The ques-
tion of how to reform existing institutions, such as
financial and health care systems, has taken on
great urgency all over the world. A better under-
standing of the factors that facilitate the initiation
and adoption of change that diverges from an insti-
tutional status quo is crucial to ensuring successful
institutional reforms. A key question policy makers
face when executing major public sector reforms,
such as the NHS reforms that the Labour govern-
ment attempted to implement at the turn of this
century, is how to identify champions who will
become local change agents in their organizations.
Our study suggests that one important dimension
in selecting local champions is the pattern of their
connections with others in their organizations.
Change agents can be unaware that their social
networks in their organizations may be ill suited to
the type of change they wish to introduce. In our
sample, although change agents with networks rich
in structural holes were more likely to initiate di-
vergent changes, mismatches between the degree of
divergence of a change initiative and the network
structure most conducive to its adoption were com-
mon (see Figure 2). Because managers can be taught
48. how to identify structural hole positions and mod-
ify their networks to occupy brokerage roles in
them (Burt & Ronchi, 2007), organizations can im-
prove the matching of change agents to change type
by educating aspiring change agents to recognize
structural holes in organizational networks. Orga-
nizations can also leverage change agents who al-
ready operate as informal brokers by becoming
aware of predictors of structural holes, such as ac-
tors’ personality traits (Burt, Jannotta, & Mahoney,
1998) and characteristics of the structural positions
they have occupied in their organizations over time
(Zaheer & Soda, 2009).
Limitations and Future Research Directions
Our study can be extended in several directions.
With regard to research design, because collecting
data on multiple change initiatives over time is
arduous (Pettigrew, Woodman, & Cameron, 2001),
constructing a sizable sample of observations in the
domain of change implementation constitutes an
empirical challenge. Despite the limited statistical
power afforded by the phenomenon we studied, the
data confirmed our predictions, increasing our con-
fidence in the robustness of our findings. But these
reassuring findings notwithstanding, future re-
search would benefit from investigating these re-
search questions with larger samples of observa-
tions, laborious as they may be to assemble. Our
sample was also nonprobabilistic in that we pur-
posefully selected self-appointed change agents.
This is a population of interest in its own right,
because the change initiatives embarked upon by
change agents can vary considerably in type and
the degree to which they are adopted. Although
49. pursuing an understanding of the determinants of
change agents’ performance is a worthy endeavor
even when the process of self-selection into the role
is not analyzed, why and how organizational actors
become change agents are as important questions as
why and how they succeed.
Our use of ego network data might also be viewed
as a limitation. In-depth interviews with a substan-
tial number of organizational actors in a subsample
394 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
of eight change projects enabled us to corroborate
change agents’ self-reports and reduce perceptual
bias concerns. This validation notwithstanding,
ego network data remain an oft-used but subopti-
mal alternative to whole network data. Although
ego network data correlate well with dyadic data
based on information gathered from both members
of each pair (Bondonio, 1998; McEvily, 1997), and
measures from ego network data correlate highly
with measures from whole-network data (Everett &
Borgatti, 2005), several studies have documented
inaccuracies in how respondents perceive their so-
cial networks (for a review, see Bernard, Killworth,
Kronenfeld, and Sailer [1984]). Future research can
productively complement our analysis with fully
validated ego-network data or whole-network data.
The time structure of our data can also be further
enriched. Collecting data on adoption 12 months
after the initiation of a change enabled us to sepa-
rate the outcome of the change initiative from its
50. inception, and the qualitative evidence provided
by our case studies suggested intervening mecha-
nisms that might affect the change process. Our
data do not, however, support a systematic study of
the process through which change unfolds over
time and change agents’ networks evolve. Future
studies can extend work in this direction.
With regard to context, although we were able to
control for the influence of organizational size and
status on the initiation and adoption of divergent
change, studies are needed that will provide a fin-
er-grained account of the possible influence of the
organizational contexts in which change agents op-
erate. The NHS is a highly institutionalized envi-
ronment in which the dominant template of medi-
cal professionalism contributed to making the
culture of NHS organizations highly homogenous
(Giaimo, 2002). In environments characterized by
greater cultural heterogeneity, organizational dif-
ferences may influence the relationship between
change agents’ network features and the ability to
initiate and implement more or less divergent
change. Future research should explore the influ-
ence of other germane organizational characteris-
tics, such as the organizational climate for imple-
menting innovations (Klein & Sorra, 1996).
Because our analysis concerned a sample of
planned organizational change projects initiated by
clinical managers in the NHS, the external validity
of our findings is also open to question. The hier-
archical nature of this large public sector organiza-
tion can increase both the constraints faced by
change agents and the importance of informal
channels of influence for overcoming resistance in
51. the entrenched organizational culture. These idio-
syncratic features that make the NHS an ideal set-
ting for the present study call for comparative stud-
ies conducted in different settings that better
account for the potentially interactive effects of
actors’ positions in organizational networks and
contextual factors on the adoption of planned
changes. Given that this study of the NHS explores
a mature field with institutionalized norms, it
would be fruitful to examine the influence of ac-
tors’ network positions in emerging fields.
These questions and concerns notwithstand-
ing, our findings demonstrate the explanatory
power that derives from recognizing the comple-
mentary roles of institutional theory and social
network theory for understanding organizational
change. The informal channels of influence on
which change agents rely to build coalitions,
overcome resistance, and shift attitudes toward
new ideas emerge from our research as important
engines of change within an organization; their
effects, however, can be fully understood only
when the institutional pressures that constrain
an organization and the actions of the change
agents in it are included in a comprehensive
model of organizational change.
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Julie Battilana ([email protected]) is an associate pro-
fessor of business administration in the Organizational
Behavior Unit at Harvard Business School. She holds a
joint Ph.D. in organizational behavior from INSEAD and
in management and economics from École Normale Su-
périeure de Cachan. Her research examines the process
by which organizations or individuals initiate and imple-
ment changes that diverge from the taken-for-granted
practices in a field of activity.
Tiziana Casciaro ([email protected])
is an assistant professor of organizational behavior at the
Rotman School of Management of the University of To-
ronto. She received her Ph.D. in organizational theory
and sociology from the Department of Social and Deci-
sion Sciences at Carnegie Mellon University. Her re-
search focuses on organizational networks, with particu-
lar emphasis on affect and cognition in interpersonal
networks and the power structure of interorganizational
relations.
398 AprilAcademy of Management Journal
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1
Title of the Paper in Full Goes Here
Student Name Here
Walden University
Abstract
Abstracts are not required for all course papers. Please ask
your instructor if you have questions regarding whether an
abstract is required for a particular assignment.
Title of the Paper in Full Goes Here
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References
(Please note that the following references are intended as
examples only.)
Alexander, G., & Bonaparte, N. (2008). My way or the highway
that I built. Ancient Dictators, 25(7), 14-31.
doi:10.8220/CTCE.52.1.23-91
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Bumstead, D. (2009). The essentials: Sandwiches and sleep.
Journals of Famous Loafers, 5, 565-582.
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Hansel, G., & Gretel, D. (1973). Candied houses and unfriendly
occupants. Thousand Oaks, CA: Fairy Tale Publishing.
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Goddess Sore Spots, 20(4), 19-21. doi: 15.555/GGE.64.1.76-82
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2007). How to cite a
video: The city is always Baltimore [DVD]. Baltimore, MD:
Author.
Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010). Name of program
[Video webcast]. Retrieved from http://www.courseurl.com
Sinatra, F. (2008). Zing! Went the strings of my heart. Making
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PAGE
Writing Style Prose
Michael Anonymous
Walden University
This paper contains improper writing formats. As I pretend I am
an instructor, I will use the Track Changes feature of my Word
document tool, and I will use my Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (APA) text as my guide to
identify the errors within this paper. Some of the common
things I should look for include: (a) anthropomorphisms, (b)
improper citation formats, (c) passive voice, (d) improperly
formatted reference list, (e) improperly APA formatted paper,
and (f) seriation issues, among other errors.
Pursuing a Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) Degree is
a journey that provides an opportunity for both personal and
professional growth. The writing of this paper is occurring
during a time when the United States is in an economic crisis.
Research studies (Curtis, 2014; Williams, 2014Schildkraut,
68. 2014, , Zack, 2015, Adelino, 2014) regarding foreclosures;
other research studies (Jurinski, 2016; Ryan, 2014) concerning
the decline in small business startups, and scholarly dialogue
(Atkinson, 2012; crossley, 2014; Jin, 2014; Jolly, 2015;
McGuinness, 2014) regarding job loss and its effects on various
aspects of life are affecting the economy. In fact, the state of
the economy has therefore caused many individuals to return to
higher educational institutions for the purpose of enhancing
their professional skills and expanding their horizons. For some
who have taken on the challenge of completing a doctoral
degree, they struggle to understand the appropriate scholarly
writing prose expected by their selected educational institution
academicians. In fact, writing at the doctoral level presents a
unique set of challenges. Much has been written about research
methods and designs (Moustakas, 1994; Yin, 2014; Zikmund,
2013) and how to structure dissertations and research studies.
Laboratories for practicing scholarly writing prose are
nonexistent and doctoral students practice in the natural
classroom setting. I realize like some doctoral students I may
struggle to understand the appropriate steps to take when
developing my scholarly writing prose. In fact, the anxiety of
beginning the DBA journey, focusing on my writing prose, and
understanding the various phases of the doctoral program are a
bit overwhelming. However, I will overcome my anxiety as I
must prioritize those things I find require strengthening, and my
scholarly writing prose is primary. I began perusing the Walden
University Writing Center and I found common APA nuances
that, if understood and applied, will enhance my scholarly
writing prose. Below are those APA nuances.
1. Use the proper basic document template thus resulting in
correct (e.g. fonts, line spacing, margins, and punctuation)
formatting.
2. Apply properly formatted citations.
3. Properly format my reference list.
4. Minimize the use of passive voice.