Challenges to human equality author(s) jeff mcmahansour

Challenges to Human Equality
Author(s): Jeff McMahan
Source: The Journal of Ethics, Vol. 12, No. 1 (2008), pp. 81-
104
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40345340
Accessed: 22-08-2016 20:32 UTC
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JEFF MCMAHAN
CHALLENGES TO HUMAN EQUALITY
(Received 9 July 2006; accepted in revised form 9 July 2006)
ABSTRACT. According to liberal egalitarian morality, all
human beings are one
another's moral equals. Nonhuman animals, by contrast, are not
considered to be our
moral equals. This essay considers two challenges to the liberal
egalitarian view. One is the
"separation problem," which is the challenge to identify a
morally significant intrinsic
difference between a//human beings and all nonhuman animals.
The other is the "equality
problem," which is to explain how all human beings can be
morally equal when there are
some human beings whose psychological capacities (and, in
some cases, their psycho-
logical potentials as well) are no higher than those of certain
nonhuman animals. The
focus throughout is on the ethics of killing but the arguments
are of broader relevance.
The essay reaches a skeptical conclusion about our ability to
meet these challenges.

KEY WORDS: animals, cognitive disability, equality, killing
1. The Separation Problem
In contemporary Western societies, common sense morality is
liberal
egalitarian in character. With the possible exception of human
beings
in their embryonic or fetal stages, all human beings are
recognized -
in principle if not in practice - as one another's moral equals.
Each
human being matters equally; each has equal value and equal
human
rights. One element of this liberal egalitarian view is the belief
that all
wrongful killings of human beings are equally wrong, except,
perhaps,
when there are relevant differences in the state of the agent,
such as
the difference between a killing that the agent intends and one
that
the agent merely foresees as a side effect of his action.1 In the
book
1 The object of evaluation here is the causing of a human being
to cease to exist,
not the manner in which the human being is killed. It may well
be more seriously
wrong to kill a person in an agonizing manner than to kill the
same person painlessly.
But this is because the former involves two distinct wrongs:
causing the agony and
causing the death. The claim of equal wrongness applies to the
causing of death

alone.
The Journal of Ethics (2008) 12:81-104
DOI 10.1007/sl0892-007-9020-9
© Springer 2007
2016 20:32:58 UTC
82 CHALLENGES TO HUMAN EQUALITY
ably and generously reviewed by Rahul Kumar in the preceding
article, I discussed a more restricted view, which I called the
"equal
wrongness thesis."2 The equal wrongness thesis applies not to
all
wrongful killings of human beings but only to wrongful
killings of
persons - that is, individuals with psychological capacities
beyond a
certain threshold of self-consciousness and minimal rationality.
According to the equal wrongness thesis, the extent to which it
is
wrong to kill a person is unaffected by facts about the victim
other
than those that may make him or her liable to be killed, or
deserve to
be killed, if indeed it is possible for a person to deserve to be
killed -
that is, facts other than those that may make the victim non-
innocent
in the relevant sense. It is, according to the equal wrongness

thesis, no
less seriously wrong to kill an old person than to kill a young
person,
or to kill a person of melancholy disposition than to kill a
person with
a happy temperament. The extent to which it is wrong to kill a
person
is, in short, unaffected by the degree of loss or harm he would
suffer
by being killed. Provided that he satisfies the criteria of
personhood,
the wrongness of killing him is also unaffected by his nature or
capacities - for example, by whether he is virtuous or vicious,
likable
or obnoxious, sensitive or insensitive, intelligent or
unintelligent, and
so on. In the book, I neither endorsed nor challenged the equal
wrongness thesis, though my discussion of it was respectful
and I
assumed it to be true for the sake of argument.
Most liberals insist that decisions not only about killing but
even
about saving lives must not be based on "quality of life"
consider-
ations, or "quantity of life" considerations. There is, however,
some
disagreement about this, even among liberals, in cases other
than
those involving wrongful killing. Some accept that when one
can save
some but not all the people who will otherwise die, it can be
permissible, at least in some instances, to give priority to those
who
would lose most by dying. And some accept that this can be
permissible as well in choices of whom to kill when

circumstances
make it permissible to kill someone. Suppose, for example, that
that a
runaway train is on a track leading to the station where another
train
full of passengers has stopped. If nothing is done, the runaway
train
will crash into the stationary train, killing hundreds of people.
But
the train can be diverted onto one of two branching tracks
before it
reaches the station. On one of these tracks there is a 20-year-
old who
2 Jeff McMahan, The Ethics of Killing: Problems at the
Margins of Life (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 233-248.
2016 20:32:58 UTC
JEFF MCMAHAN 83
cannot get off, while on the other there is a 90-year-old who
cannot
get off. Most of us believe that it would be permissible to
divert the
train onto one of the two tracks. Some liberals accept that it
would be
permissible, or perhaps even required, to choose to kill the
older
person on the ground that she would lose less by being killed,
if there

were no weightier considerations that favored killing the
younger
person instead. But many liberals believe that even in this kind
of
case, equality requires that each of the two potential victims be
given
an equal chance of surviving, so that, ideally, a randomizin g
device,
such as flipping a coin, should be used to determine onto which
track
the train should be diverted. These people believe that a killing
that
would be permissible if the choice of victim were made
randomly
would be wrongful if the choice were made on the basis of a
comparison between the potential victims' characteristics.
The equal wrongness thesis, which applies to wrongful killings
of
persons, is deeply intuitive. Yet it is too weak to capture most
people's intuitions, which extend the scope of equality beyond
persons to include all human beings, or at least all postnatal
human
beings. Almost no one, however, believes that nonhuman
animals are
our moral equals or have rights equal to ours. They are by
definition
ineligible for human rights. And virtually everyone agrees that
killing
an animal cannot be as seriously wrong as killing an innocent
human
being, or a person. Not only are animals not our equals, but
they are
not even equal among themselves; thus it is regarded as more
seriously wrong to kill a higher nonhuman animal, such as a
chimpanzee, than it is to kill a lower animal, such as a lizard.

When pressed to explain why animals lie outside the scope of
liberal egalitarian principles, such as the equal wrongness
thesis, that
are thought to govern our treatment of other human beings,
most
liberals respond initially by appealing to certain psychological
capacities that human beings possess but that animals lack.
Human
beings, they point out, have capacities for self-consciousness,
rationality, autonomy, the use of language, action on the basis
of
reasons, and so on. Some one or combination of these
capacities is
what relevantly distinguishes human beings from animals and
provides the foundation for human equality. Yet according to
the
common understanding of what it is to have a capacity, some
human
beings lack all such capacities. Some, such as the severely
demented
and the irreversibly comatose, lack them now but had them in
the
past. Others, such as most fetuses and newborn infants, lack
them
2016 20:32:58 UTC
now but have the potential to have them in the future.3 But
some

human beings - namely, those that are congenitally and
radically
cognitively impaired - have never had the capacities and also
seem to
lack the potential to have them. And even among those human
beings
who possess some of the capacities, there are some who do not
possess them all, while among those who possess them all,
there are
some in whom the relevant capacities are more highly
developed than
they are in others. How, then, can such capacities provide a
basis for
human equality?
There are here two related but distinguishable problems for
liberal
egalitarianism. One is to defend the common sense view that
all human
beings are owed a form of consideration that is different from
and
higher than that which is owed to other animals. The other is to
show
how that form of consideration can be owed equally to all
human
beings. I will call these the "separation problem" and the
"equality
problem," respectively. I believe that the separation problem
cannot be
solved. If some individuals are owed a higher form of
consideration
than is owed to any animal, that must be because they have
certain
higher psychological capacities. An acceptable form of
separation may
place most human beings above a relevant threshold of

psychological
capacity, but it will leave some human beings below it and may
place
some nonhuman animals above it. And if the threshold is
defined by
psychological capacity, the equality problem will remain,
though not
with respect to all human beings but with respect to all those
individuals above the relevant threshold.
Most philosophers believe that both these problems for liberal
egalitarianism can be solved. They believe that we can identify
a basis
for distinguishing morally between human beings and
nonhuman
animals that is not variable. They accept the relevance of
psychological
capacities but claim that, while possession of higher
psychological
capacities is sufficient for inclusion within the scope of liberal
egalitarian principles, such as the equal wrongness thesis, it is
not
necessary. Human beings who lack the relevant capacities may
nevertheless be within the scope of the principles by virtue of
having
a closely related characteristic. This type of response is
defended by
Kumar, who contends that "claims about the life-cycle of a
particular
3 Liberal egalitarians who believe that abortion can be
permissible may take the
fact that fetuses lack the relevant capacities as partial
confirmation that it is these
capacities that distinguish most human beings from other
animals. But if so, they

have a problem if they share the common opposition to
infanticide (See Jeff
McMahan, "Infanticide," Utilitas, forthcoming).
2016 20:32:58 UTC
JEFF MCMAHAN 85
kind of living thing, or species, are just constitutive of what it
is to be a
member of that species" and that liberal egalitarian principles
are
"responsive, not just to the particular properties of an
individual, but to
the characteristic life-cycle of the species to which that
individual
belongs."4
There are two ways in which Kumar's remarks can be
interpreted.
In one passage he writes that
claims about species are not statistical generalizati ons. Rather,
what they concern
is the essential nature of a living kind, revealing facts about the
normal life-cycle
of that kind of living thing. The use of "normal" here is
unashamedly normative.
... What respect for the value of a living thing requires will
depend on the charac-
teristic life-cycle, or nature, of members of that [individual's]
species.5

This passage suggests that in order to have the same moral
status as a
normal human being, it is not necessary for an individual
actually to
have a rational nature or to be internally directed toward the
development of a rational nature. Instead, these properties are
normatively characteristic of human beings - that is, all human
beings
ought to have them even if there are some that do not. Because
of this,
those human beings who will not have the normal or
characteristic
human life-cycle, or who do not have the nature characteristic
of
human beings, must nevertheless be accorded the same respect
that
would be due to them if they did.
This view raises the question why facts about the nature of
some
individuals could determine how other individuals that lack
that
nature ought to be treated. Somehow membership in the same
biological kind is supposed to produce the requisite moral
alchemy,
but it is opaque to me how this is supposed to work. I will not,
however, pursue this issue further here, as I have done so
elsewhere.6
I will also not address certain other questions raised by this
interpretation, such as whether there is any basis for what is
normatively characteristic of a species other than what is
statistically
characteristic of it, and, if not, why we should suppose that
what is
statistically characteristic is invested with normative

significance.
I will focus instead on a second interpretation of Kumar's view.
According to this interpretation, what Kumar claims is that all
human
beings are equal in their possession of the essential nature of
human
4 Rahul Kumar, "Permissible Killing and the Irrelevance of
Being Human," The
Journal of Ethics, this issue (cited from two different
paragraphs). Emphasis added.
5 Kumar, "Permissible Killing and the Irrelevance of Being
Human."
6 Jeff McMahan, '"Our Fellow Creatures'," The Journal of
Ethics 9 (2005),
pp. 355-359.
2016 20:32:58 UTC
beings - the nature that defines their characteristic life-cycle
and
includes having (or, perhaps, having had) a capacity for
"rational self-
governance," or being internally directed toward the
development of such
a capacity.1 It is the possession of this essential nature that
brings all

human beings within the scope of liberal egalitarian principles.
This view has much to recommend it. If successful, it brings all
human beings within the scope of liberal egalitarian principles,
while
excluding all or most nonhuman animals. This does not mean,
however, that the view is committed to endorsing commo n
sense
morality's assignment of a vastly lower status to animals. It
could
deny that most animals are our moral equals and yet concede
that
perhaps some few of the higher animals are, while claiming
that
others are worthy of significantly better treatment than they are
accorded by current practices. Admittedly, the view would
disqualify
liberals who defend the permissibility of abortion from
appealing for
support to claims about fetal status, such as the claim that
fetuses are
not persons; yet these liberals could, as Kumar suggests, appeal
to
arguments that focus instead on the fetus's lack of a right to the
use of
the pregnant woman's body as a means of life support. Unlike
arguments for abortion that appeal to fetal status, this sort of
argument has no tendency to support the permissibility of
infanticide
- surely an advantage if we want to preserve deeply held
intuitions.
Many of Kumar's claims refer at least implicitly to biologically
immature human beings that lack the present capacity for
rational
self-governance but nevertheless have the potential to develop

that
capacity. He claims that respecting these individuals' nature as
human beings involves not impeding and even facilitating the
full
realization of their potential and thus their essential nature. In
the
case of a human being that in a clear sense lacks even the
potential for
rational self-governance, such as a fetus with defective genes
that
direct the growth of the brain, he believes that respecting its
nature
involves providing that potential if possible - for example, by
supplying it with properly functional genes for brain growth.
For
given its nature as a human being, its lack of those genes is a
Human." For a
similar view, see Robert P. George and Alfonso Gomez-Lobo,
"Statement of Pro-
fessor George (Joined by Dr. Gomez-Lobo)," an appendix to
Human Cloning and
Human Dignity: An Ethical Inquiry, a report by the President's
Council on Bioethics,
available at http://www.bioethics.gov/topics/cloningjndex.html
(accessed on 30
June 2006). And compare S. Matthew Liao, "Virtually All
Human Beings as
Rightholders," unpublished manuscript.
2016 20:32:58 UTC

JEFF MCMAHAN 87
misfortune, though the absence of those genes, and the
associated
apparent lack of potential for rational self-governance, are not
misfortunes for a nonhuman animal.
There is a challenge here that I have not adequately addressed
either in my book or in a recent article in The Journal of Ethics
in
which I advanced various arguments against views, such as
Kumar's,
that claim that "the morality of our treatment of an individual
ought
to be... guided by the moral norms that regulate how members
of that
individual's species ought to be treated."8 The challenge
derives from
the view that the reason why all human beings are included
within the
scope of liberal egalitarian principles, such as the equal
wrongness
thesis, is that they all have, as part of their essential nature or
constitution at all times at which they exist, either certain
higher
psychological capacities, such as the capacity for rational self-
governance, or an inner directedness toward the possession or
development of those capacities. On this view, membership in
the
human species is not morally significant only, or primarily, or
perhaps at all, because it involves a significant relation to other
human beings. It is significant because it is sufficient for the
possession of an intrinsically significant nature, whether or not
that
nature is fully realized.9

Most mature human beings have a rational nature and most
immature human beings do seem to be inherently or internally
directed toward the development of the capacity for rationality.
Suppose we grant - what I believe to be plausible - that the
actual
Human." See
McMahan, "'Our Fellow Creatures'."
9 What about human beings who once had higher psychological
capacities but
have irreversibly lost them? There are two ways in which this
view can attempt to
accommodate such individuals within the scope of liberal
egalitarian principles. One
is to claim that even if the acquisition of a certain moral status
requires the possession
of or potential for certain capacities, that status can
nevertheless survive the loss of
those capacities and even the loss of the potential for those
capacities. The other is to
claim that even if the areas of the brain that are the physical
basis of an individual's
higher psychological capacities are destroyed, that individual
remains genetically or
otherwise constituted to be directed toward the possession
(though not the develop-
ment) of those capacities as long as he or she remains alive. I
think the former of
these two claims is more plausible, in part because it provides
a basis for the pos-
sibility of wronging the dead. Moral claims can not only
survive an individual's loss

of capacities the possession of which was once necessary for
the individual to be able
to exert those claims, but can even survive the death of the
person who is the source
of the claims.
2016 20:32:58 UTC
possession of a rational nature is sufficient to bring an
individual
within the scope of liberal egalitarian principles.10 There
remains the
familiar question about the potential for rationality as a basis
for this
moral status: namely, why should an immature human being's
internal directedness toward the development of a rational
nature
affect how we ought to treat that individual now? There is, of
course,
a good answer to that question in cases in which how we treat
the
individual now will affect her for better or worse later, when
she
actually has a rational nature. But there are certain types of act
the
effects of which are limited entirely to the present, including -
crucially - acts of killing. Why should the morality of an act of
killing
be governed by the kind of respect that is appropriate for a
nature

that the individual killed does not have now but may have later,
though only if it is not killed? Why should an act of killing not
be
governed instead by due consideration for the nature of the
individual at the time of action (or of the death, if it occurs
later)?
I believe, as I argued in The Ethics of Killing, that there are no
good answers to these questions. I will not rehearse those
arguments
here but will instead raise what I think is a more difficult
question.
What reason is there to suppose that all human beings are in
fact
internally directed or programmed toward the development of a
rational nature? There are some human beings - those who are
congenitally and radically cognitively impaired (henceforth the
"radically impaired") - who in at least one obvious sense lack
the
potential for the development of a rational nature. While most
immature human beings (embryos, fetuses, newborn infants)
will,
given a favorable environment, develop a capacity for
rationality,
those immature human beings that are radically cognitively
impaired
cannot develop this category, even with the most extensive
forms of
assistance that we are currently able to provide.
For Kumar's suggested strategy to succeed, there must be a
clear
and morally significant sense in which the present nature of the
radically impaired is internally directed toward the
development or
realization of a capacity for rationality, or rational self-

governance.
Perhaps the most plausible claim for the defender of this
strategy to
make is that the inherent tendency toward rationality is present
in the
human genome, which the radically impaired share with the
rest of
10 Perhaps there are exceptions in rare cases, such as extreme
instances of psy-
chopathy, in which a human being has a developed capacity for
instrumental
rationality but utterly lacks certain other capacities necessary
for moral agency. I will
not explore this possibility here.
2016 20:32:58 UTC
JEFF MCMAHAN 89
us. Their essential nature is thus inherent in their genes, but its
development or expression is impeded because the action of the
genes
that direct the proper growth of the brain is somehow blocked.
It may
be that their action is countermanded by some other
malfunctioning
genes, or that something that is required for their activation is
missing, or that some of them are defective in some way.
If the genes for the proper growth of the brain are present but
something prevents their activation or blocks their action, there

is a
clear sense in which the potential for a rational nature is
present. But
it is less clear how long that potential persists. For the
potential
consists in the ability of the genes to direct the growth of a
normal
human brain, which is the physical basis of the capacity for
rationality. But if the action of the genes is impaired and the
brain
grows abnormally, it appears that the potential for the growth
of a
normally functioning brain has been lost. For the genes cannot
direct
the growth of the brain once it already exists. If, even at this
point,
those genes could direct the reconstruction or augmentation of
the
defective brain in an identity-preserving way, then the
potential, or
inner directedness, toward a rational nature would remain; but
to the
best of my knowledge there is no reason to believe that the
relevant
genes have that capacity. If that is right, then radically
impaired
human beings whose condition results from the blocked
functioning
of normal genes lose their internal directedness toward the
possession
of a rational nature very early in life, when the development of
their
brains passes a certain point.
What if the defective growth of the brain results not from the
blocked action of normal genes but from defects in the genes

themselves? Is it nonetheless the nature of these radically
impaired
human beings to be rationally self-governing? It seems as if
these
individuals were never internally directed toward the
development of
the capacity for rationality but were always directed toward the
development of the cognitive capacities that they in fact have.
Consider an instance in which defective human genes direct a
human
brain to grow in such a way that, when fully developed, its
cognitive
powers are no higher than those of some lower animal.
Certainly in
functional terms, and perhaps in structural terms as well, these
genes
more closely resemble the corresponding genes of a lower
animal than
they do their normally functioning human counterparts. Indeed,
because these defective human genes function to produce a
brain with
powers of cognition similar to those of a lower animal, they are
less
similar in functional terms to their properly functioning human
2016 20:32:58 UTC
counterparts than are the corresponding genes in a higher
animal,
which function to produce a brain with cognitive capacities

closer to
those of a normal human brain. On what basis, then, can it be
claimed that it is the inherent nature of the individual whose
genes
these are, but not the nature of a higher animal, to be internally
directed toward the realization of a capacity for rationality?
We have thus far considered that radical impairment could
result
either from the suppression of the action of certain genes that
carry
the code for the development of the human brain, or from
defects in
the genes themselves. But there is another possibility. Some of
the
relevant genes could be entirely absent. Whether such cases
occur or
have occurred naturally is a question on which I have no
information.
But even if they do not occur spontaneously in nature, they
could
presumably be created by manipulating a pair of human
gametes
prior to fertilization in a way that would ensure the deletion of
certain
genes necessary for directing the normal growth of the brain.
The
resulting radically impaired individual would certainly be a
human
being by any reasonable criterion of species membership,
whether
that criterion referred to genes, genealogy, capacity for
interbreeding,
or whatever. There would then be a human being without any
genetic
basis for the development of a rational nature. It would

therefore be
hard to make sense of the idea that this human being would be
internally directed toward the full realization of its inherent
nature as
a rational being.
Suppose there were a human fetus in this condition - that is,
one
lacking some of the genes necessary for the development of a
brain
with the capacity for rational thought. There is one sense in
which
this individual might have the potential for a rational nature.
Suppose there were a therapy that could supply the missing
gene or
genes and that if it were administered to the fetus, that fetus
would
grow to produce a person with normal cognitive capacities
rather
than being radically impaired. And suppose further that the
transformation would be identity-preserving, in that the person
would be the same individual that the radically impaired
individual
would have been. The therapy, in other words, would determine
whether one and the same individual would have normal …
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WHY ABORTION IS IMMORAL 183

WHY ABORTION IS IMMORAL
T n HE view that abortion is, with rare exceptions, seriously im-
moral has received little support in the recent philosophical
literature. No doubt most philosophers affiliated with secular
institutions of higher education believe that the anti-abortion
posi-
tion is either a symptom of irrational religious dogma or a
conclusion
generated by seriously confused philosophical argument. The
pur-
pose of this essay is to undermine this general belief. This essay
sets
out an argument that purports to show, as well as any argument
in
ethics can show, that abortion is, except possibly in rare cases,
seri-
ously immoral, that it is in the same moral category as killing
an
innocent adult human being.
The argument is based on a major assumption. Many of the most
insightful and careful writers on the ethics of abortion-such as
Joel
Feinberg, Michael Tooley, Mary Anne Warren, H. Tristram
Engel-
hardt, Jr., L. W. Sumner, John T. Noonan, Jr., and Philip
Devine'-
believe that whether or not abortion is morally permissible
stands or
falls on whether or not a fetus is the sort of being whose life it
is
seriously wrong to end. The argument of this essay will assume,
but
not argue, that they are correct.

Also, this essay will neglect issues of great importance to a
complete
ethics of abortion. Some anti-abortionists will allow that certain
abortions, such as abortion before implantation or abortion
when
the life of a woman is threatened by a pregnancy or abortion
after
rape, may be morally permissible. This essay will not explore
the
casuistry of these hard cases. The purpose of this essay is to
develop a
general argument for the claim that the overwhelming majority
of
deliberate abortions are seriously immoral.
I.
A sketch of standard anti-abortion and pro-choice arguments ex-
hibits how those arguments possess certain symmetries that
explain
why partisans of those positions are so convinced of the
correctness
of their own positions, why they are not successful in
convincing
' Feinberg, "Abortion," in Matters of Life and Death: New
Introductory Essays
in Moral Philosophy, Tom Regan, ed. (New York: Random
House, 1986), pp.
256-293; Tooley, "Abortion and Infanticide," Philosophy and
Public Affairs, ii, 1
(1972):37-65, Tooley, Abortion and Infanticide (New York:
Oxford, 1984); War-
ren, "On the Moral and Legal Status of Abortion," The Monist,
I.vii, 1 (1973):43-
61; Engelhardt, "The Ontology of Abortion," Ethics, lxxxiv, 3

(1974):217-234;
Sumner, Abortion and Moral Theory (Princeton: University
Press, 1981); Noonan,
"An Almost Absolute Value in History," in The Morality of
Abortion: Legal and
Historical Perspectives, Noonan, ed. (Cambridge: Harvard,
1970); and Devine,
The Ethics of Homicide (Ithaca: Cornell, 1978).
0022-362X /89/8604/183-22 (? 1989 The Journal of Philosophy,
Inc.
2014 13:21:31 PM
184 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
their opponents, and why, to others, this issue seems to be
unresolv-
able. An analysis of the nature of this standoff suggests a
strategy for
surmounting it.
Consider the way a typical anti-abortionist argues. She will
argue
or assert that life is present from the moment of conception or
that
fetuses look like babies or that fetuses possess a characteristic
such as
a genetic code that is both necessary and sufficient for being
human.
Anti-abortionists seem to believe that (1) the truth of all of

these
claims is quite obvious, and (2) establishing any of these claims
is
sufficient to show that abortion is morally akin to murder.
A standard pro-choice strategy exhibits similarities. The pro-
choicer will argue or assert that fetuses are not persons or that
fetuses are not rational agents or that fetuses are not social
beings.
Pro-choicers seem to believe that (1) the truth of any of these
claims
is quite obvious, and (2) establishing any of these claims is
sufficient
to show that an abortion is not a wrongful killing.
In fact, both the pro-choice and the anti-abortion claims do
seem
to be true, although the "it looks like a baby" claim is more
difficult
to establish the earlier the pregnancy. We seem to have a
standoff.
How can it be resolved?
As everyone who has taken a bit of logic knows, if any of these
arguments concerning abortion is a good argument, it requires
not
only some claim characterizing fetuses, but also some general
moral
principle that ties a characteristic of fetuses to having or not
having
the right to life or to some other moral characteristic that will
gener-
ate the obligation or the lack of obligation not to end the life of
a
fetus. Accordingly, the arguments of the anti-abortionist and the
pro-choicer need a bit of filling in to be regarded as adequate.

Note what each partisan will say. The anti-abortionist will claim
that her position is supported by such generally accepted moral
principles as "It is always prima facie seriously wrong to take a
human life" or "It is always prima facie seriously wrong to end
the
life of a baby." Since these are generally accepted moral
principles,
her position is certainly not obviously wrong. The pro-choicer
will
claim that her position is supported by such plausible moral
princi-
ples as "Being a person is what gives an individual intrinsic
moral
worth" or "It is only seriously prima facie wrong to take the life
of a
member of the human community." Since these are generally ac-
cepted moral principles, the pro-choice position is certainly not
ob-
viously wrong. Unfortunately, we have again arrived at a
standoff.
Now, how might one deal with this standoff? The standard ap-
proach is to try to show how the moral principles of one's
opponent
lose their plausibility under analysis. It is easy to see how this
is
2014 13:21:31 PM
WHY ABORTION IS IMMORAI, 185

possible. On the one hand, the anti-abortionist will defend a
moral
principle concerning the wrongness of killing which tends to be
broad in scope in order that even fetuses at an early stage of
preg-
nancy will fall under it. The problem with broad principles is
that
they often embrace too much. In this particular instance, the
princi-
ple "It is always prima facie wrong to take a human life" seems
to
entail that it is wrong to end the existence of a living human
cancer-
cell culture, on the grounds that the culture is both living and
human. Therefore, it seems that the anti-abortionist's favored
princi-
ple is too broad.
On the other hand, the pro-choicer wants to find a moral
principle
concerning the wrongness of killing which tends to be narrow in
scope in order that fetuses will not fall under it. The problem
with
narrow principles is that they often do not embrace enough.
Hence,
the needed principles such as "It is prima facie seriously wrong
to kill
only persons" or "It is prima facie wrong to kill only rational
agents"
do not explain why it is wrong to kill infants or young children
or the
severely retarded or even perhaps the severely mentally ill.
There-
fore, we seem again to have a standoff. The anti-abortionist
charges,

not unreasonably, that pro-choice principles concerning killing
are
too narrow to be acceptable; the pro-choicer charges, not
unreason-
ably, that anti-abortionist principles concerning killing are too
broad
to be acceptable.
Attempts by both sides to patch up the difficulties in their posi-
tions run into further difficulties. The anti-abortionist will try
to
remove the problem in her position by reformulating her
principle
concerning killing in terms of human beings. Now we end up
with:
"It is always prima facie seriously wrong to end the life of a
human
being." This principle has the advantage of avoiding the
problem of
the human cancer-cell culture counterexample. But this
advantage is
purchased at a high price. For although it is clear that a fetus is
both
human and alive, it is not at all clear that a fetus is a human
being.
There is at least something to be said for the view that
something
becomes a human being only after a process of development,
and
that therefore first trimester fetuses and perhaps all fetuses are
not
yet human beings. Hence, the anti-abortionist, by this move, has
merely exchanged one problem for another.2
The pro-choicer fares no better. She may attempt to find reasons
why killing infants, young children, and the severely retarded is

2 For interesting discussions of this issue, see Warren Quinn,
"Abortion: Identity
and Loss," Philosophy and Public Affairs, xiii, 1 (1984):24-54;
and Lawrence C.
Becker, "Human Being: The Boundaries of the Concept,"
Philosophy and Public
Affairs, iv, 4 (1975):334-359.
2014 13:21:31 PM
wrong which are independent of her major principle that is sup-
posed to explain the wrongness of taking human life, but which
will
not also make abortion immoral. This is no easy task. Appeals
to
social utility will seem satisfactory only to those who resolve
not to
think of the enormous difficulties with a utilitarian account of
the
wrongness of killing and the significant social costs of
preserving the
lives of the unproductive.3 A pro-choice strategy that extends
the
definition of 'person' to infants or even to young children seems
just
as arbitrary as an anti-abortion strategy that extends the
definition of
'human being' to fetuses. Again, we find symmetries in the two

posi-
tions and we arrive at a standoff.
There are even further problems that reflect symmetries in the
two
positions. In addition to counterexample problems, or the
arbitrary
application problems that can be exchanged for them, the
standard
anti-abortionist principle "It is prima facie seriously wrong to
kill a
human being," or one of its variants, can be objected to on the
grounds of ambiguity. If 'human being' is taken to be a
biological
category, then the anti-abortionist is left with the problem of
ex-
plaining why a merely biological category should make a moral
dif-
ference. Why, it is asked, is it any more reasonable to base a
moral
conclusion on the number of chromosomes in one's cells than on
the
color of one's skin?4 If 'human being', on the other hand, is
taken to
be a moral category, then the claim that a fetus is a human
being
cannot be taken to be a premise in the anti-abortion argument,
for it
is precisely what needs to be established. Hence, either the anti -
abortionist's main category is a morally irrelevant, merely
biological
category, or it is of no use to the anti-abortionist in establishing
(noncircularly, of course) that abortion is wrong.
Although this problem with the anti-abortionist position is often
noticed, it is less often noticed that the pro-choice position

suffers
from an analogous problem. The principle "Only persons have
the
right to life" also suffers from an ambiguity. The term 'person'
is
typically defined in terms of psychological characteristics,
although
there will certainly be disagreement concerning which
characteristics
are most important. Supposing that this matter can be settled,
the
pro-choicer is left with the problem of explaining why
psychological
characteristics should make a moral difference. If the pro-
choicer
should attempt to deal with this problem by claiming that an
explana-
'For example, see my "Ethics and The Elderly: Some Problems,"
in Stuart
Spicker, Kathleen Woodward, and David Van Tassel, eds.,
Aging and the Elderly:
Humanistic Perspectives in Gerontology (Atlantic Highlands,
NJ: Humanities,
1978), pp. 341-355.
4See Warren, op. cit., and Tooley, "Abortion and Infanticide."
2014 13:21:31 PM

tion is not necessary, that in fact we do treat such a cluster of
psycho-
logical properties as having moral significance, the sharp-witted
anti-abortionist should have a ready response. We do treat being
both living and human as having moral significance. If it is
legitimate
for the pro-choicer to demand that the anti-abortionist provide
an
explanation of the connection between the biological character
of
being a human being and the wrongness of being killed (even
though
people accept this connection), then it is legitimate for the anti -
abortionist to demand that the pro-choicer provide an
explanation
of the connection between psychological criteria for being a
person
and the wrongness of being killed (even though that connection
is
accepted). 5
Feinberg has attempted to meet this objection (he calls
psychologi-
cal personhood "commonsense personhood"):
The characteristics that confer commonsense personhood are not
arbi-
trary bases for rights and duties, such as race, sex or species
member-
ship; rather they are traits that make sense out of rights and
duties and
without which those moral attributes would have no point or
function. It
is because people are conscious; have a sense of their personal
identities;

have plans, goals, and projects; experience emotions; are liable
to pains,
anxieties, and frustrations; can reason and bargain, and so on-it
is
because of these attributes that people have values and interests,
desires
and expectations of their own, including a stake in their own
futures,
and a personal well-being of a sort we cannot ascribe to
unconscious or
nonrational beings. Because of their developed capacities they
can as-
sume duties and responsibilities and can have and make claims
on one
another. Only because of their sense of self, their life plans,
their value
hierarchies, and their stakes in their own futures can they be
ascribed
fundamental rights. There is nothing arbitrary about these
linkages
(op. cit., p. 270).
The plausible aspects of this attempt should not be taken to
obscure
its implausible features. There is a great deal to be said for the
view
that being a psychological person under some description is a
neces-
sary condition for having duties. One cannot have a duty unless
one
is capable of behaving morally, and a being's capability of
behaving
morally will require having a certain psychology. It is far from
obvi-
ous, however, that having rights entails consciousness or
rationality,

as Feinberg suggests. We speak of the rights of the severely
retarded
or the severely mentally ill, yet some of these persons are not
ra-
tional. We speak of the rights of the temporarily unconscious.
The
New Jersey Supreme Court based their decision in the Quinlan
case
' This seems to be the fatal flaw in Warren's treatment of this
issue.
2014 13:21:31 PM
on Karen Ann Quinlan's right to privacy, and she was known to
be
permanently unconscious at that time. Hence, Feinberg's claim
that
having rights entails being conscious is, on its face, obviously
false.
Of course, it might not make sense to attribute rights to a being
that would never in its natural history have certain
psychological
traits. This modest connection between psychological
personhood
and moral personhood will create a place for Karen Ann
Quinlan
and the temporarily unconscious. But then it makes a place for

fetuses also. Hence, it does not serve Feinberg's pro-choice pur-
poses. Accordingly, it seems that the pro-choicer will have as
much
difficulty bridging the gap between psychological personhood
and
personhood in the moral sense as the anti-abortionist has
bridging
the gap between being a biological human being and being a
human
being in the moral sense.
Furthermore, the pro-choicer cannot any more escape her prob-
lem by making person a purely moral category than the anti-
abor-
tionist could escape by the analogous move. For if person is a
moral
category, then the pro-choicer is left without the resources for
es-
tablishing (noncircularly, of course) the claim that a fetus is not
a
person, which is an essential premise in her argument. Again,
we
have both a symmetry and a standoff between pro-choice and
anti-
abortion views.
Passions in the abortion debate run high. There are both plausi -
bilities and difficulties with the standard positions.
Accordingly, it is
hardly surprising that partisans of either side embrace with
fervor
the moral generalizations that support the conclusions they
preana-
lytically favor, and reject with disdain the moral generalizations
of
their opponents as being subject to inescapable difficulties. It is

easy
to believe that the counterexamples to one's own moral
principles
are merely temporary difficulties that will dissolve in the wake
of
further philosophical research, and that the countere xamples to
the
principles of one's opponents are as straightforward as the
contra-
diction between A and 0 propositions in traditional logic. This
might
suggest to an impartial observer (if there are any) that the
abortion
issue is unresolvable.
There is a way out of this apparent dialectical quandary. The
moral
generalizations of both sides are not quite correct. The
generaliza-
tions hold for the most part, for the usual cases. This suggests
that
they are all accidental generalizations, that the moral claims
made by
those on both sides of the dispute do not touch on the essence of
the
matter.
This use of the distinction between essence and accident is not
meant to invoke obscure metaphysical categories. Rather, it is
in-
2014 13:21:31 PM

tended to reflect the rather atheoretical nature of the abortion
dis-
cussion. If the generalization a partisan in the abortion dispute
adopts were derived from the reason why ending the life of a
human
being is wrong, then there could not be exceptions to that
general-
ization unless some special case obtains in which there are even
more
powerful countervailing reasons. Such generalizations would
not be
merely accidental generalizations; they would point to, or be
based
upon, the essence of the wrongness of killing, what it is that
makes
killing wrong. All this suggests that a necessary condition of
resolving
the abortion controversy is a more theoretical account of the
wrongness of killing. After all, if we merely believe, but do not
un-
derstand, why killing adult human beings such as ourselves is
wrong,
how could we conceivably show that abortion is either immoral
or
permissible?
II.
In order to develop such an account, we can start from the
following
unproblematic assumption concerning our own case: it is wrong
to
kill us. Why is it wrong? Some answers can be easily

eliminated. It
might be said that what makes killing us wrong is that a killing
bruta-
lizes the one who kills. But the brutalization consists of being
inured
to the performance of an act that is hideously immoral; hence,
the
brutalization does not explain the immorality. It might be said
that
what makes killing us wrong is the great loss others would
experience
due to our absence. Although such hubris is understandable,
such an
explanation does not account for the wrongness of killing
hermits, or
those whose lives are relatively independent and whose friends
find it
easy to make new friends.
A more obvious answer is better. What primarily makes killing
wrong is neither its effect on the murderer nor its effect on the
victim's friends and relatives, but its effect on the victim. The
loss of
one's life is one of the greatest losses one can suffer. The loss
of one's
life deprives one of all the experiences, activities, projects, and
en-
joyments that would otherwise have constituted one's future.
There-
fore, killing someone is wrong, primarily because the killing
inflicts
(one of) the greatest possible losses on the victim. To describe
this as
the loss of life can be misleading, however. The change in my
biologi-
cal state does not by itself make killing me wrong. The effect of

the
loss of my biological life is the loss to me of all those
activities,
projects, experiences, and enjoyments which would otherwise
have
constituted my future personal life. These activities, projects,
experi-
ences, and enjoyments are either valuable for their own sakes or
are
means to something else that is valuable for its own sake. Some
parts
of my future are not valued by me now, but will come to be
valued by
2014 13:21:31 PM
me as I grow older and as my values and capacities change.
When I
am killed, I am deprived both of what I now value which would
have
been part of my future personal life, but also what I would come
to
value. Therefore, when I die, I am deprived of all of the value
of my
future. Inflicting this loss on me is ultimately what makes
killing me
wrong. This being the case, it would seem that what makes
killing any
adult human being prima facie seriously wrong is the loss of his

or
her future.6
How should this rudimentary theory of the wrongness of killing
be
evaluated? It cannot be faulted for deriving an 'ought' from an
'is',
for it does not. The analysis assumes that killing me (or you,
reader) is
prima facie seriously wrong. The point of the analysis is to
establish
which natural property ultimately explains the wrongness of the
kill-
ing, given that it is wrong. A natural property will ultimately
explain
the wrongness of killing, only if (1) the explanation fits with
our
intuitions about the matter and (2) there is no other natural
property
that provides the basis for a better explanation of the wrongness
of
killing. This analysis rests on the intuition that what makes
killing a
particular human or animal wrong is what it does to that
particular
human or animal. What makes killing wrong is some natural
effect or
other of the killing. Some would deny this. For instance, a
divine-
command theorist in ethics would deny it. Surely this denial is,
how-
ever, one of those features of divine-command theory which
renders
it so implausible.
The claim that what makes killing wrong is the loss of the

victim's
future is, directly supported by two considerations. In the first
place,
this theory explains why we regard killing as one of the worst
of
crimes. Killing is especially wrong, because it deprives the
victim of
more than perhaps any other crime. In the second place, people
with
AIDS or cancer who know they are dying believe, of course,
that
dying is a very bad thing for them. They believe that the loss of
a
future to them that they would otherwise have experienced is
what
makes their premature death a very bad thing for them. A better
theory of the wrongness of killing would require a different
natural
property associated with killing which better fits with the
attitudes of
the dying. What could it be?
The view that what makes killing wrong is the loss to the victim
of
the value of the victim's future gains additional support when
some
of its implications are examined. In the first place, it is
incompatible
h I have been most influenced on this matter byJonathan Glover,
Causing Death
and Saving Lives (New York: Penguin, 1977), ch. 3; and Robert
Young, "What Is
So Wrong with Killing People?" Philosophy, l iv, 210
(1979):515-528.

2014 13:21:31 PM
with the view that it is wrong to kill only beings who are
biologically
human. It is possible that there exists a different species from
an-
other planet whose members have a future like ours. Since
having a
future like that is what makes killing someone wrong, this
theory
entails that it would be wrong to kill members of such a species.
Hence, this theory is opposed to the claim that only life that is
biologically human has great moral worth, a claim which many
anti-
abortionists have seemed to adopt. This opposition, which this
theory has in common with personhood theories, seems to be a
merit
of the theory.
In the second place, the claim that the loss of one's future is the
wrong-making feature of one's being killed entails the
possibility that
the futures of some actual nonhuman mammals on our own
planet
are sufficiently like ours that it is seriously wrong to kill them
also.
Whether some animals do have the same right to life as human
beings
depends on adding to the account of the wrongness of killing

some
additional account ofjust what it is about my future or the
futures of
other adult human beings which makes it wrong to kill us. No
such
additional account will be offered in this essay. Undoubtedly,
the
provision of such an account would be a very difficult matter.
Un-
doubtedly, any such account would be quite controversial.
Hence, it
surely should not reflect badly on this sketch of an elementary
theory
of the wrongness of killing that it is indeterminate with respect
to
some very difficult issues regarding animal rights.
In the third place, the claim that the loss of one's future is the
wrong-making feature of one's being killed does not entail, as
sanc-
tity of human life theories do, that active euthanasia is wrong.
Per-
sons who are severely and incurably ill, who face a future of
pain and
despair, and who wish to die will not have suffered a loss if
they are
killed. It is, strictly speaking, the value of a human's future
which
makes killing wrong in this theory. This being so, killing does
not
necessarily wrong some persons who are sick and dying. Of
course,
there may be other reasons for a prohibition of active
euthanasia, but
that is another matter. Sanctity-of-human-life theories seem to
hold

that active euthanasia is seriously wrong even in an individual
case
where there seems to be good reason for it independently of
public
policy considerations. This consequence is most implausible,
and it is
a plus for the claim that the loss of a future of value is what
makes
killing wrong that it does not share this consequence.
In the fourth place, the account of the wrongness of killing de-
fended in this essay does straightforwardly entail that it is
prima facie
seriously wrong to kill children and infants, for we do presume
that
they have futures of value. Since we do believe that it is wrong
to kill
2014 13:21:31 PM
defenseless little babies, it is important that a theory of …
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JUDITH JARVIS THOMSON A Defense of Abortion'

Most opposition to abortion relies on the premise that the fetus
is a
human being, a person, from the moment of conception. The
premise
is argued for, but, as I think, not well. Take, for example, the
most
common argument. We are asked to notice that the development
of
a human being from conception through birth into childhood is
con-
tinuous; then it is said that to draw a line, to choose a point in
this
development and say "before this point the thing is not a person,
after
this point it is a person" is to make an arbitrary choice, a choice
for
which in the nature of things no good reason can be given. It is
con-
cluded that the fetus is, or anyway that we had better say it is, a
per-
son from the moment of conception. But this conclusion does
not fol-
low. Similar things might be said about the development of an
acorn
into an oak tree, and it does not follow that acorns are oak trees,
or
that we had better say they are. Arguments of this form are
sometimes
called "slippery slope arguments"-the phrase is perhaps self-
explana-
tory-and it is dismaying that opponents of abortion rely on them
so
heavily and uncritically.
I am inclined to agree, however, that the prospects for "drawing

a
line" in the development of the fetus look dim. I am inclined to
think
also that we shall probably have to agree that the fetus has
already
become a human person well before birth. Indeed, it comes as a
sur-
prise when one first learns how early in its life it begins to
acquire
human characteristics. By the tenth week, for example, it
already has
i. I am very much indebted to James Thomson for discussion,
criticism, and
many helpful suggestions.
2014 13:20:33 PM
48 Philosophy & Public Affairs
a face, arms and legs, fingers and toes; it has internal organs,
and
brain activity is detectable.2 On the other hand, I think that the
prem-
ise is false, that the fetus is not a person from the moment of
con-
ception. A newly fertilized ovum, a newly implanted clump of
cells, is
no more a person than an acorn is an oak tree. But I shall not
discuss
any of this. For it seems to me to be of great interest to ask

what
happens if, for the sake of argument, we allow the premise.
How, pre-
cisely, are we supposed to get from there to the conclusion that
abor-
tion is morally impermissible? Opponents of abortion commonly
spend most of their time establishing that the fetus is a person,
and
hardly any time explaining the step from there to the
impermissibility
of abortion. Perhaps they think the step too simple and obvious
to
require much comment. Or perhaps instead they are simply
being eco-
nomical in argument. Many of those who defend abortion rely
on the
premise that the fetus is not a person, but only a bit of tissue
that
will become a person at birth; and why pay out more arguments
than
you have to? Whatever the explanation, I suggest that the step
they
take is neither easy nor obvious, that it calls for closer
examination
than it is commonly given, and that when we do give it this
closer
examination we shall feel inclined to reject it.
I propose, then, that we grant that the fetus is a person. from the
moment of conception. How does the argument go from here?
Some-
thing like this, I take it. Every person has a right to life. So the
fetus
has a right to life. No doubt the mother has a right to decide
what
shall happen in and to her body; everyone would grant that. But

surely
a person's right to life is stronger and more stringent than the
mother's
right to decide what happens in and to her body, and so
outweighs it.
So the fetus may not be killed; an abortion may not be
performed.
It sounds plausible. But now let me ask you to imagine this.
You
wake up in the morning and find yourself back to back in bed
with
an unconscious violinist. A famous unconscious violinist. He
has been
found to have a fatal kidney ailment, and the Society of Music
Lovers
2. Daniel Callahan, Abortion: Law, Choice and Morality (New
York, 1970),
p. 373. This book gives a fascinating survey of the available
information on
abortion. The Jewish tradition is surveyed in David M. Feldman,
Birth Control in
Jewish Law (New York, i968), Part 5, the Catholic tradition in
John T. Noonan,
Jr., "An Almost Absolute Value in History," in The Morality of
Abortion, ed. John
T. Noonan, Jr. (Cambridge, Mass., 1970).
2014 13:20:33 PM

49 A Defense of Abortion
has canvassed all the available medical records and found that
you
alone have the right blood type to help. They have therefore
kidnapped
you, and last night the violinist's circulatory system was
plugged into
yours, so that your kidneys can be used to extract poisons from
his
blood as well as your own. The director of the hospital now tells
you,
"Look, we're sorry the Society of Music Lovers did this to you-
we
would never have permitted it if we had known. But still, they
did it,
and the violinist now is plugged into you. To unplug you would
be to
kill him. But never mind, it's only for nine months. By then he
will
have recovered from his ailment, and can safely be unplugged
from
you." Is it morally incumbent on you to accede to this situation?
No
doubt it would be very nice of you if you did, a great kindness.
But
do you have to accede to it? What if it were not nine months,
but nine
years? Or longer still? What if the director of the hospital says,
"Tough luck, I agree, but you've now got to stay in bed, with the
vio-
linist plugged into you, for the rest of your life. Because
remember
this. All persons have a right to life, and violinists are persons.
Granted
you have a right to decide what happens in and to your body,

but a
person's right to life outweighs your right to decide what
happens in
and to your body. So you cannot ever be unplugged from him." I
imagine you would regard this as outrageous, which suggests
that
something really is wrong with that plausible-sounding
argument I
mentioned a moment ago.
In this case, of course, you were kidnapped; you didn't
volunteer
for the operation that plugged the violinist into your kidneys.
Can
those who oppose abortion on the ground I mentioned make an
excep-
tion for a pregnancy due to rape? Certainly. They can say that
per-
sons have a right to life only if they didn't come into existence
because
of rape; or they can say that all persons have a right to life, but
that
some have less of a right to life than others, in particular, that
those
who came into existence because of rape have less. But these
state-
ments have a rather unpleasant sound. Surely the question of
whether
you have a right to life at all, or how much of it you have,
shouldn't
turn on the question of whether or not you are the product of a
rape.
And in fact the people who oppose abortion on the ground I
men-
tioned do not make this distinction, and hence do not make an
excep-

tion in case of rape.
2014 13:20:33 PM
Nor do they make an exception for a case in which the mother
has
to spend the nine months of her pregnancy in bed. They would
agree
that would be a great pity, and hard on the mother; but all the
same,
all persons have a right to life, the fetus is a person, and so on.
I sus-
pect, in fact, that they would not make an exception for a case
in
which, miraculously enough, the pregnancy went on for nine
years,
or even the rest of the mother's life.
Some won't even make an exception for a case in which
continua-
tion of the pregnancy is likely to shorten the mother's life; they
regard
abortion as impermissible even to save the mother's life. Such
cases
are nowadays very rare, and many opponents of abortion do not
accept
this extreme view. All the same, it is a good place to begin: a
number
of points of interest come out in respect to it.

i. Let us call the view that abortion is impermissible even to
save
the mother's life "the extreme view." I want to suggest first that
it does
not issue from the argument I mentioned earlier without the
addition
of some fairly powerful premises. Suppose a woman has become
preg-
nant, and now learns that she has a cardiac condition such that
she
will die if she carries the baby to term. What may be done for
her?
The fetus, being a person, has a right to life, but as the mother
is a
person too, so has she a right to life. Presumably they have an
equal
right to life. How is it supposed to come out that an abortion
may
not be performed? If mother and child have an equal right to
life,
shouldn't we perhaps flip a coin? Or should we add to the
mother's
right to life her right to decide what happens in and to her body,
which everybody seems to be ready to grant-the sum of her
rights
now outweighing the fetus' right to life?
The most familiar argument here is the following. We are told
that
performing the abortion would be directly killing3 the child,
whereas
doing nothing would not be killing the mother, but only letting
her
die. Moreover, in killing the child, one would be killing an
innocent

person, for the child has committed no crime, and is not aiming
at
his mother's death. And then there are a variety of ways in
which this
3. The term "direct" in the arguments I refer to is a technical
one. Roughly,
what is meant by "direct killing" is either killing as an end in
itself, or killing
as a means to some end, for example, the end of saving someone
else's life. See
note 6, below, for an example of its use.
2014 13:20:33 PM
might be continued. (i) But as directly killing an innocent
person is
always and absolutely impermissible, an abortion may not be
per-
formed. Or, (2) as directly killing an innocent person is murder,
and
murder is always and absolutely impermissible, an abortion may
not
be performed.4 Or, (3) as one's duty to refrain from directly
killing an
innocent person is more stringent than one's duty to keep a
person
from dying, an abortion may not be performed. Or, (4) if one's
only

options are, directly killing an innocent person or letting a
person die,
one must prefer letting the person die, and thus an abortion may
not
be performed.5
Some people seem to have thought that these are not further
prem-
ises which must be added if the conclusion is to be reached, but
that
they follow from the very fact that an innocent person has a
right to
life.6 But this seems to me to be a mistake, and perhaps the
simplest
way to show this is to bring out that while we must certainly
grant
that innocent persons have a right to life, the theses in (i)
through
(4) are all false. Take (2), for example. If directly killing an
inno-
cent person is murder, and thus is impermissible, then the
mother's
directly killing the innocent person inside her is murder, and
thus is
4. Cf. Encyclical Letter of Pope Pius XI on Christian Marriage,
St. Paul Edi-
tions (Boston, n.d.), p. 32: "however much we may pity the
mother whose health
and even life is gravely imperiled in the performance of the
duty allotted to her
by nature, nevertheless what could ever be a sufficient reason
for excusing in any
way the direct murder of the innocent? This is precisely what
we are dealing
with here." Noonan (The Morality of Abortion, p. 43) reads this

as follows:
"What cause can ever avail to excuse in any way the direct
killing of the inno-
cent? For it is a question of that."
5. The thesis in (4) is in an interesting way weaker than those in
(i), (2),
and (3): they rule out abortion even in cases in which both
mother and child
will die if the abortion is not performed. By contrast, one who
held the view
expressed in (4) could consistently say that one needn't prefer
letting two per-
sons die to killing one.
6. Cf. the following passage from Pius XII, Address to the
Italian Catholic
Society of Midwives: "The baby in the maternal breast has the
right to life imme-
diately from God.-Hence there is no man, no human authority,
no science, no
medical, eugenic, social, economic or moral 'indication' which
can establish or
grant a valid juridical ground for a direct deliberate disposition
of an innocent
human life, that is a disposition which looks to its destruction
either as an end
or as a means to another end perhaps in itself not illicit.-The
baby, still not
born, is a man in the same degree and for the same reason as the
mother"
(quoted in Noonan, The Morality of Abortion, p. 45).
2014 13:20:33 PM

impermissible. But it cannot seriously be thought to be murder
if the
mother performs an abortion on herself to save her life. It
cannot
seriously be said that she must refrain, that she must sit
passively by
and wait for her death. Let us look again at the case of you and
the
violinist. There you are, in bed with the violinist, and the
director of
the hospital says to you, "It's all most distressing, and I deeply
sym-
pathize, but you see this is putting an additional strain on your
kid-
neys, and you'll be dead within the month. But you have to stay
where
you are all the same. Because unplugging you would be directly
kill-
ing an innocent violinist, and that's murder, and that's
impermissi-
ble." If anything in the world is true, it is that you do not
commit
murder, you do not do what is impermissible, if you reach
around to
your back and unplug yourself from that violinist to save your
life.
The main focus of attention in writings on abortion has been on
what a third party may or may not do in answer to a request
from a

woman for an abortion. This is in a way understandable. Things
being
as they are, there isn't much a woman can safely do to abort
herself.
So the question asked is what a third party may do, and what the
mother may do, if it is mentioned at all, is deduced, almost as
an after-
thought, from what it is concluded that third parties may do. But
it
seems to me that to treat the matter in this way is to refuse to
grant
to the mother that very status of person which is so firmly
insisted on
for the fetus. For we cannot simply read off what a person may
do
from what a third party may do. Suppose you find yourself
trapped
in a tiny house with a growing child. I mean a very tiny house,
and a
rapidly growing child-you are already up against the wall of the
house and in a few minutes you'll be crushed to death. The child
on
the other hand won't be crushed to death; if nothing is done to
stop
him from growing he'll be hurt, but in the end he'll simply burst
open
the house and walk out a free man. Now I could well understand
it
if a bystander were to say, "There's nothing we can do for you.
We
cannot choose between your life and his, we cannot be the ones
to
decide who is to live, we cannot intervene." But it cannot be
concluded
that you too can do nothing, that you cannot attack it to save
your

life. However innocent the child may be, you do not have to
wait pas-
sively while it crushes you to death. Perhaps a pregnant woman
is
vaguely felt to have the status of house, to which we don't allow
the
2014 13:20:33 PM
right of self-defense. But if the woman houses the child, it
should be
remembered that she is a person who houses it.
1 should perhaps stop to say explicitly that I am not claiming
that
people have a right to do anything whatever to save their lives. I
think,
rather, that there are drastic limits to the right of self-defense.
If
someone threatens you with death unless you torture someone
else
to death, I think you have not the right, even to save your life,
to do
so. But the case under consideration here is very different. In
our case
there are only two people involved, one whose life is
threatened, and
one who threatens it. Both are innocent: the one who is
threatened is

not threatened because of any fault, the one who threatens does
not
threaten because of any fault. For this reason we may feel that
we
bystanders cannot intervene. But the person threatened can.
In sum, a woman surely can defend her life against the threat to
it posed by the unborn child, even if doing so involves its death.
And
this shows not merely that the theses in (i) through (4) are false;
it
shows also that the extreme view of abortion is false, and so we
need
not canvass any other possible ways of arriving at it from the
argu-
ment I mentioned at the outset.
2. The extreme view could of course be weakened to say that
while
abortion is permissible to save the mother's life, it may not be
per-
formed by a third party, but only by the mother herself. But this
can-
not be right either. For what we have to keep in mind is that the
mother and the unborn child are not like two tenants in a small
house
which has, by an unfortunate mistake, been rented to both: the
mother owns the house. The fact that she does adds to the
offensive-
ness of deducing that the mother can do nothing from the
supposition
that third parties can do nothing. But it does more than this: it
casts
a bright light on the supposition that third parties can do
nothing.
Certainly it lets us see that a third party who says "I cannot

choose
between you" is fooling himself if he thinks this is impartiality.
If
Jones has found and fastened on a certain coat, which he needs
to
keep him from freezing, but which Smith also needs to keep him
from
freezing, then it is not impartiality that says "I cannot choose
between
you" when Smith owns the coat. Women have said again and
again
"This body is my body!" and they have reason to feel angry,
reason to
feel that it has been like shouting into the wind. Smith, after all,
is
2014 13:20:33 PM
hardly likely to bless us if we say to him, "Of course it's your
coat,
anybody would grant that it is. But no one may choose between
you
and Jones who is to have it."
We should really ask what it is that says "no one may choose"
in
the face of the fact that the body that houses the child is the
mother's
body. It may be simply a failure to appreciate this fact. But it

may be
something more interesting, namely the sense that one has a
right to
refuse to lay hands on people, even where it would be just and
fair to
do so, even where justice seems to require that somebody do so.
Thus
justice might call for somebody to get Smith's coat back from
Jones,
and yet you have a right to refuse to be the one to lay hands on
Jones,
a right to refuse to do physical violence to him. This, I think,
must be
granted. But then what should be said is not "no one may
choose,"
but only "I cannot choose," and indeed not even this, but "I will
not
act," leaving it open that somebody else can or should, and in
particu-
lar that anyone in a position of authority, with the job of
securing
people's rights, both can and should. So this is no difficulty. I
have
not been arguing that any given third party must accede to the
moth-
er's request that he perform an abortion to save her life, but
only that
he may.
I suppose that in some views of human life the mother's body is
only
on loan to her, the loan not being one which gives her any prior
claim
to it. One who held this view might well think it impartiality to
say
"I cannot choose." But I shall simply ignore this possibility. My

own
view is that if a human being has any just, prior claim to
anything at
all, he has a just, prior claim to his own body. And perhaps this
needn't be argued for here anyway, since, as I mentioned, the
argu-
ments against abortion we are looking at do grant that the
woman
has a right to decide what happens in and to her body.
But although they do grant it, I have tried to show that they do
not
take seriously what is done in granting it. I suggest the same
thing
will reappear even more clearly when we turn away from cases
in
which the mother's life is at stake, and attend, as I propose we
now
do, to the vastly more common cases in which a woman wants
an
abortion for some less weighty reason than preserving her own
life.
3. Where the mother's life is not at stake, the argument I men-
tioned at the outset seems to have a much stronger pull.
"Everyone
2014 13:20:33 PM

has a right to life, so the unborn person has a right to life." And
isn't
the child's right to life weightier than anything other than the
moth-
er's own right to life, which she might put forward as ground for
an
abortion?
This argument treats the right to life as if it were
unproblematic.
It is not, and this seems to me to be precisely the source of the
mistake.
For we should now, at long last, ask what it comes to, to have a
right to life. In some views having a right to life includes
having a
right to be given at least the bare minimum one needs for
continued
life. But suppose that what in fact is the bare minimum a man
needs
for continued life is something he has no right at all to be
given? If
I am sick unto death, and the only thing that will save my life is
the
touch of Henry Fonda's cool hand on my fevered brow, then all
the
same, I have no right to be given the touch of Henry Fonda's
cool hand
on my fevered brow. It would be frightfully nice of him to fly in
from
the West Coast to provide it. It would be less nice, though no
doubt
well meant, if my friends flew out to the West Coast and carried
Henry Fonda back with them. But I have no right at all against
any-
body that he should do this for me. Or again, to return to the

story I
told earlier, the fact that for continued life that violinist needs
the
continued use of your kidneys does not establish that he has a
right
to be given the continued use of your kidneys. He certainly has
no
right against you that you should give him continued use of
your kid-
neys. For nobody has any right to use your kidneys unless you
give
him such a right; and nobody has the right against you that you
shall
give him this right-if you do allow him to go on using your
kidneys,
this is a kindness on your part, and not something he can claim
from
you as his due. Nor has he any right against anybody else that
they
should give him continued use of your kidneys. Certainly he had
no
right against the Society of Music Lovers that they should plug
him
into you in the first place. And if you now start to unplug
yourself,
having learned that you will otherwise have to spend nine years
in
bed with him, there is nobody in the world who must try to
prevent
you, in order to see to it that he is given something he has a
right to
be given.
Some people are rather stricter about the right to life. In their
view,
it does not include the right to be given anything, but amounts

to,
2014 13:20:33 PM
and only to, the right not to be killed by anybody. But here a
related
difficulty arises. If everybody is to refrain from killing that
violinist,
then everybody must refrain from doing a great many different
sorts
of things. Everybody must refrain from slitting his throat,
everybody
must refrain from shooting him-and everybody must refrain
from
unplugging you from him. But does he have a right against
everybody
that they shall refrain from unplugging you from him? To
refrain
from doing this is to allow him to continue to use your kidneys.
It
could be argued that he has a right against us that we should
allow
him to continue to use your kidneys. That is, while he had no
right
against us that we should give him the use of your kidneys, it
might
be argued that he anyway has a right against us that we shall not
now
intervene and deprive him of the use of your kidneys. I shall

come
back to third-party interventions later. But certainly the
violinist has
no right against you that you shall allow him to continue to use
your
kidneys. As I said, if you do allow him to use them, it is a
kindness
on your part, and not something you owe him.
The difficulty I point to here is not peculiar to the right to life.
It
reappears in connection with all the other natural rights; and it
is
something which an adequate account of rights must deal with.
For
present purposes it is enough just to draw attention to it. But I
would
stress that I am not arguing that people do not have a right to
life-
quite to the contrary, it seems to me that the primary control we
must
place on the acceptability of an account of rights is that it
should turn
out in that account to be a truth that all persons have a right to
life.
I am arguing only that having a right to life does not guarantee
hav-
ing either a right to be given the use of or a right to be allowed
con-
tinued use of another person's body-even if one needs it for life
itself.
So the right to life will not serve the opponents of abortion in
the very
simple and clear way in which they seem to have thought it
would.

4. There is another way to bring out the difficulty. In the most
ordi-
nary sort of case, to deprive someone of what he has a right to
is to
treat him unjustly. Suppose a boy and his small brother are
jointly
given a box of chocolates for Christmas. If the older boy takes
the
box and refuses to give his brother any of the chocolates, he is
unjust
to -him, for the brother has been given a right to half of them.
But
2014 13:20:33 PM
suppose that, having learned that otherwise it means nine years
in
bed with that violinist, you unplug yourself from him. You
surely are
not being unjust to him, for you gave him no right to use your
kid-
neys, and no one else can have given him any such right. But we
have
to notice that in unplugging yourself, you are killing him; and
violin-
ists, like everybody else, have a right to life, and thus in the
view we
were considering just now, the right not to be killed. So here
you do

what he supposedly has a right you shall not do, but you do not
act
unjustly to him in doing it.
The emendation which may be made at this point is this: the
right
to life consists …
Flexibility
..._
Flexibility allows the safe use of a
wide range of movements.
Flexibility is an essential part oftraining because it allows us to
use a wide
range ofmovements safely. In some sports such as gymnastics,
flexibility is
high on the list oftraining priorities. Coaches ofsuch sports have
their own
methods of assessing improvements in flexibility.
Comprehensive and
reproducible assessment is difficult to achieve, however,
because ofthe
complex nature ofmovement. Nevertheless, carefully controlled
measurements, albeit in limited ranges ofmovements, can be
used to assess
flexibility with a simple set ofgoniometers. It is particularly
important that
the measurements are standardised and that in longitudinal
studies the
same person performs all the measurements. The results can
contribute

useful information in assessing overall fitness when this strict
code of
practice is followed.
Conclusion
Clyde Williams is professor of sports science at the
University ofLoughborough.
The ABC of Sports Medicine has been edited by Greg
McLatchie, visitingprofessor ofsports medicine and surgical
sciences at the University ofSunderland, consultant surgeon
at Hartlepool General Hospital, and director ofthe National
Sports Medicine Institute, London.
Fitness is a complex physiological characteristic that is difficult
to
describe comprehensively. Nevertheless, we can assess the
central elements
of fitness in reliable and reproducible ways. Through assessing
athletes
fitness we can extend health care by advising them on their
ability to cope
with the exercise demands of their chosen sport.
The photographs of the javelin thrower (Tessa Sanderson) and
of the woman gymnast-
(Jackie Brady) were taken by Supersport Photographs.
Imperial College of
Science, Technology and
Medicine,
London SW7 INA
Raanan Gillon, visiting
professor ofmedical ethics

BMY 1994;309:184-8
Medical ethics: four principles plus attention to scope
Raanan Gillon
The "four principles plus scope" approach provides
a simple, accessible, and culturally neutral approach
to thinking about ethical issues in health care. The
approach, developed in the United States, is based
on four common, basic prima facie moral commit-
ments-respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-
maleficence, and justice-plus concern for their
scope of application. It offers a common, basic
moral analytical framework and a common, basic
moral language. Although they do not provide
ordered rules, these principles can help doctors and
other health care workers to make decisions when
reflecting on moral issues that arise at work.
Nine years ago the BMJ allowed me to introduce to its
readers' an approach to medical ethics developed by
the Americans Beauchamp and Childress,' which is
based on four prima facie moral principles and attention
to these principles' scope of application. Since then I
have often been asked for a summary of this approach
by doctors and other health care workers who find it
helpful for organising their thoughts about medical
ethics. This paper, based on the preface of a large
multiauthor textbook on medical ethics,3 offers a brief
account of this "four principles plus scope" approach.
The four principles plus scope approach claims that
whatever our personal philosophy, politics, religion,
moral theory, or life stance, we will find no difficulty

in committing ourselves to four prima facie moral
principles plus a reflective concern about their scope of
application. Moreover, these four principles, plus
attention to their scope of application, encompass most
of the moral issues that arise in health care.
The four prima facie principles are respect for
autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice.
"Prima facie," a term introduced by the English
philosopher W D Ross, means that the principle is
binding unless it conflicts with another moral principle
-if it does we have to choose between them. The four
principles approach does not provide a method for
choosing, which is a source of dissatisfaction to people
who suppose that ethics merely comprises a set of
ordered rules and that once the relevant information is
fed into an algorithm or computer out will pop the
answer. What the principles plus scope approach
can provide, however, is a common set of moral
commitments, a common moral language, and a
common set of moral issues. We should consider these
in each case before coming to our own answer using our
preferred moral theory or other approach to choose
between these principles when they conflict.
Respect for autonomy
Autonomy-literally, self rule, but probably better
described as deliberated self rule-is a special attribute
184 BMJ VOLUME 309 16 JULY 1994
of all moral agents. If we have autonomy we can make
our own decisions on the basis of deliberation; some-

times we can intend to do things as a result of those
decisions; and sometimes we can do those things to
implement the decisions (what I previously described
as autonomy of thought, of will or intention, and of
action). Respect for autonomy is the moral obligation
to respect the autonomy of others in so far as such
respect is compatible with equal respect for the
autonomy of all potentially affected. Respect for
autonomy is also sometimes described, in Kantian
terms, as treating others as ends in themselves and
never merely as means-one of Kant's formulations of
his "categorical imperative."
In health care respecting people's autonomy has
many prima facie implications. It requires us to consult
people and obtain their agreement before we do things
to them-hence the obligation to obtain informed
consent from patients before we do things to try to help
them. Medical confidentiality is another implication of
respecting people's autonomy. We do not have any
general obligation to keep other people's secrets, but
health care workers explicitly or implicitly promise
their patients and clients that they will keep confidential
the information confided to them. Keeping promises is
a way of respecting people's autonomy; an aspect of
running our own life depends on being able to rely on
the promises made to us by others. Without such
promises of confidentiality patients are also far less
likely to divulge the often highly private and sensitive
information that is needed for their optimal care;
thus maintaining confidentiality not only respects
patients' autonomy but also increases the likelihood of
our being able to help them.
Respect for autonomy also requires us not to deceive
each other (except in circumstances in which deceit is

agreed to be permissible, such as when playing poker)
as the absence of deceit is part of the implicit agreement
among moral agents when they communicate with each
other. They organise their lives on the assumption that
people will not deceive them; their autonomy is
infringed if they are deceived. Respect for patients'
autonomy prima facie requires us, therefore, not to
deceive patients, for example, about their diagnosed
illness unless they clearly wish to be deceived. Respect
for autonomy even requires us to be on time for
appointments as an agreed appointment is a kind of
mutual promise and if we do not keep an appointment
we break the promise.
To exercise respect for autonomy health care workers
must be able to communicate well with their patients
and clients. Good communication requires, most
importantly, listening (and not just with the ears) as
well as telling (and not just with the lips or a
wordprocessor) and is usually necessary for giving
patients adequate information about any proposed
intervention and for finding out whether patients want
that intervention. Good communication is also usually
necessary for finding out when patients do not want a
lot of information; some patients do not want to be told
about a bad prognosis or to participate in deciding
which of several treatments to have, preferring to leave
this decision to their doctors. Respecting such attitudes
shows just as much respect for a patient's autonomy as
does giving patients information that they do want. In
my experience, however, most patients want more not
less information and want to participate in deciding
their medical care.
Beneficence and non-maleficence
Whenever we try to help others we inevitably risk

harming them; health care workers, who are committed
to helping others, must therefore consider the prin-
ciples of beneficence and non-maleficence together and
aim at producing net benefit over harm. None the less,
we must keep the two principles separate for those
circumstances in which we have or recognise no
obligation of beneficence to others (as we still have an
obligation not to harm them). Thus the traditional
Hippocratic moral obligation of medicine is to provide
net medical benefit to patients with minimal harm-
that is, beneficence with non-maleficence. To achieve
these moral objectives health care workers are com-
mitted to a wide range ofprima facie obligations.
We need to ensure that we can provide the benefits
we profess (thus "professional") to be able to provide.
Hence we need rigorous and effective education and
training both before and during our professional lives.
We also need to make sure that we are offering each
patient net benefit. Interestingly, to do this we must
respect the patient's autonomy for what constitutes
benefit for one patient may be harm for another. For
example, a mastectomy may constitute a prospective
net benefit for one woman with breast cancer, while for
another the destruction of an aspect of her feminine
identity may be so harmful that it cannot be outweighed
even by the prospect of an extended life expectancy.
The obligation to provide net benefit to patients also
requires us to be clear about risk and probability when
we make our assessments of harm and benefit. Clearly,
a low probability of great harm such as death or severe
disability is of less moral importance in the context of
non-maleficence than is a high probability of such

harm, and a high probability of great benefit such as
cure of a life threatening disease is of more moral
importance in the context of beneficence than is a
low probability of such benefit. We therefore need
empirical information about the probabilities of the
various harms and benefits that may result from
proposed health care interventions. This information
has to come from effective medical research, which is
also therefore a prima facie moral obligation. The
obligation to produce net benefit, however, also
requires us to define whose benefit and whose harms
are likely to result from a proposed intervention. This
problem of moral scope is particularly important in
medical research and population medicine.
One moral concept that in recent years has become
popular in health care is that of empowerment-that is,
doing things to help patients and clients to be more in
control of their health and health care. Sometimes
empowerment is even proposed as a new moral
obligation. On reflection I think that empowerment is,
however, essentially an action that combines the two
moral obligations of beneficence and respect for
autonomy to help patients in ways that not only respect
but also enhance their autonomy.
Justice
The fourth prima facie moral principle is justice.
Justice is often regarded as being synonymous with
fairness and can be summarised as the moral obligation
to act on the basis of fair adjudication between
competing claims. In health care ethics I have found it
useful to subdivide obligations of justice into three
categories: fair distribution of scarce resources
(distributive justice), respect for people's rights (rights

Challenges to human equality author(s) jeff mcmahansour

Challenges to human equality author(s) jeff mcmahansour

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Challenges to human equality author(s) jeff mcmahansour