This document is a 35 slide presentation on chapter 9 of a general chemistry textbook. It covers topics relating to the periodic table, including classifying elements based on the periodic law, atomic and ionic properties such as size and ionization energy, and periodic trends in properties like electronegativity and melting points. Many figures and diagrams are included to illustrate concepts like effective nuclear charge, atomic and ionic radii, and trends in first ionization energy down groups of the periodic table.
This document contains 54 slides from a chemistry textbook chapter on quantum mechanics and atomic structure. It discusses key topics like the photoelectric effect, wave-particle duality, quantum numbers, electron configurations, and how quantum theory led to new understandings of atomic structure and bonding. Figures and equations are provided to illustrate concepts like energy levels, orbitals, and the Bohr model of the atom.
This document provides an overview of chemical bonding concepts including:
- Lewis theory which describes how atoms bond via electron transfers or sharing to achieve stable octet configurations.
- Covalent bonds are formed by shared electron pairs between atoms. Polar covalent bonds form when bonding electrons are shared unequally.
- Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is used to predict molecular geometry based on electron pair arrangements.
- Exceptions to the octet rule exist for species with incomplete or expanded octets.
- Bond order corresponds to bond strength and length, with single, double and triple bonds represented by bond orders of 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
This document is a slide presentation on chapter 1 of a general chemistry textbook. It covers the following key topics:
1) The scientific method and its application to chemistry.
2) The basic properties of matter including composition, physical and chemical properties, and the classification of elements, compounds, and molecules.
3) The measurement of various chemical properties including mass, temperature, volume, and density. It also discusses units of measurement and uncertainties in scientific measurements.
4) Significant figures and how they impact calculations and measurements.
This document is a slide presentation on chapter 5 from a general chemistry textbook. It covers the following topics:
- The nature of aqueous solutions, including strong/weak electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
- Precipitation reactions that form insoluble compounds. Net ionic equations are introduced.
- Acid-base reactions defined by Brønsted-Lowry theory. Examples of acid-base reactions are given.
- Oxidation-reduction reactions are introduced through examples. Half-reactions and balancing redox equations using the half-reaction method are covered.
- Oxidizing and reducing agents are defined based on whether the element is gaining or losing electrons in a
This document discusses chemical reactions and stoichiometry. It introduces chemical equations and how to balance them. It explains how stoichiometry is used to quantify relationships in chemical formulas, chemical equations, mole ratios and reaction yields. Limiting reagents and theoretical, actual and percent yields of products are also covered. Finally, it discusses consecutive, simultaneous and overall reactions as well as reaction intermediates.
This document is a presentation on chemical compounds from a general chemistry textbook. It discusses different types of chemical compounds such as molecular and ionic compounds. It explains how to determine the formula of a compound from its composition percentages and introduces oxidation states as a tool for describing compounds. The presentation also covers naming conventions for inorganic and organic compounds, including binary compounds, acids, and functional groups. Visual examples are provided to illustrate key compounds and concepts.
This document contains 57 slides summarizing key concepts in thermochemistry from a general chemistry textbook. It introduces terminology like heat, work, kinetic energy, and potential energy. It discusses heat capacity, calorimetry, heats of reaction, and how the first law of thermodynamics relates energy changes to heat and work. Hess's law and standard enthalpies of formation are explained. Finally, it touches on fuels as energy sources and global warming related to carbon dioxide emissions.
Sunlight-driven water-splitting using two-dimensional carbon based semiconduc...Pawan Kumar
The overwhelming challenge of depleting fossil fuels and anthropogenic carbon emissions has driven research into alternative clean sources of energy. To achieve the goal of a carbon neutral economy, the harvesting of sunlight by using photocatalysts to split water into hydrogen and oxygen is an expedient approach to fulfill the energy demand in a sustainable way along with reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Even though the past few decades have witnessed intensive research into inorganic semiconductor photocatalysts, their quantum efficiencies for hydrogen production from visible photons remain too low for the large scale deployment of this technology. Visible light absorption and efficient charge separation are two key necessary conditions for achieving the scalable production of hydrogen from water. Two-dimensional carbon based nanoscale materials such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nitride, modified 2D carbon frameworks and their composites have emerged as potential photocatalysts due to their astonishing properties such as superior charge transport, tunable energy levels and bandgaps, visible light absorption, high surface area, easy processability, quantum confinement effects, and high photocatalytic quantum yields. The feasibility of structural and chemical modification to optimize visible light absorption and charge separation makes carbonaceous semiconductors promising candidates to convert solar energy into chemical energy. In the present review, we have summarized the recent advances in 2D carbonaceous photocatalysts with respect to physicochemical and photochemical tuning for solar light mediated hydrogen evolution.
This document contains 54 slides from a chemistry textbook chapter on quantum mechanics and atomic structure. It discusses key topics like the photoelectric effect, wave-particle duality, quantum numbers, electron configurations, and how quantum theory led to new understandings of atomic structure and bonding. Figures and equations are provided to illustrate concepts like energy levels, orbitals, and the Bohr model of the atom.
This document provides an overview of chemical bonding concepts including:
- Lewis theory which describes how atoms bond via electron transfers or sharing to achieve stable octet configurations.
- Covalent bonds are formed by shared electron pairs between atoms. Polar covalent bonds form when bonding electrons are shared unequally.
- Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is used to predict molecular geometry based on electron pair arrangements.
- Exceptions to the octet rule exist for species with incomplete or expanded octets.
- Bond order corresponds to bond strength and length, with single, double and triple bonds represented by bond orders of 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
This document is a slide presentation on chapter 1 of a general chemistry textbook. It covers the following key topics:
1) The scientific method and its application to chemistry.
2) The basic properties of matter including composition, physical and chemical properties, and the classification of elements, compounds, and molecules.
3) The measurement of various chemical properties including mass, temperature, volume, and density. It also discusses units of measurement and uncertainties in scientific measurements.
4) Significant figures and how they impact calculations and measurements.
This document is a slide presentation on chapter 5 from a general chemistry textbook. It covers the following topics:
- The nature of aqueous solutions, including strong/weak electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
- Precipitation reactions that form insoluble compounds. Net ionic equations are introduced.
- Acid-base reactions defined by Brønsted-Lowry theory. Examples of acid-base reactions are given.
- Oxidation-reduction reactions are introduced through examples. Half-reactions and balancing redox equations using the half-reaction method are covered.
- Oxidizing and reducing agents are defined based on whether the element is gaining or losing electrons in a
This document discusses chemical reactions and stoichiometry. It introduces chemical equations and how to balance them. It explains how stoichiometry is used to quantify relationships in chemical formulas, chemical equations, mole ratios and reaction yields. Limiting reagents and theoretical, actual and percent yields of products are also covered. Finally, it discusses consecutive, simultaneous and overall reactions as well as reaction intermediates.
This document is a presentation on chemical compounds from a general chemistry textbook. It discusses different types of chemical compounds such as molecular and ionic compounds. It explains how to determine the formula of a compound from its composition percentages and introduces oxidation states as a tool for describing compounds. The presentation also covers naming conventions for inorganic and organic compounds, including binary compounds, acids, and functional groups. Visual examples are provided to illustrate key compounds and concepts.
This document contains 57 slides summarizing key concepts in thermochemistry from a general chemistry textbook. It introduces terminology like heat, work, kinetic energy, and potential energy. It discusses heat capacity, calorimetry, heats of reaction, and how the first law of thermodynamics relates energy changes to heat and work. Hess's law and standard enthalpies of formation are explained. Finally, it touches on fuels as energy sources and global warming related to carbon dioxide emissions.
Sunlight-driven water-splitting using two-dimensional carbon based semiconduc...Pawan Kumar
The overwhelming challenge of depleting fossil fuels and anthropogenic carbon emissions has driven research into alternative clean sources of energy. To achieve the goal of a carbon neutral economy, the harvesting of sunlight by using photocatalysts to split water into hydrogen and oxygen is an expedient approach to fulfill the energy demand in a sustainable way along with reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Even though the past few decades have witnessed intensive research into inorganic semiconductor photocatalysts, their quantum efficiencies for hydrogen production from visible photons remain too low for the large scale deployment of this technology. Visible light absorption and efficient charge separation are two key necessary conditions for achieving the scalable production of hydrogen from water. Two-dimensional carbon based nanoscale materials such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nitride, modified 2D carbon frameworks and their composites have emerged as potential photocatalysts due to their astonishing properties such as superior charge transport, tunable energy levels and bandgaps, visible light absorption, high surface area, easy processability, quantum confinement effects, and high photocatalytic quantum yields. The feasibility of structural and chemical modification to optimize visible light absorption and charge separation makes carbonaceous semiconductors promising candidates to convert solar energy into chemical energy. In the present review, we have summarized the recent advances in 2D carbonaceous photocatalysts with respect to physicochemical and photochemical tuning for solar light mediated hydrogen evolution.
On July 6, 1988, an explosion destroyed the Piper Alpha oil platform in the North Sea, killing 167 workers. Piper Alpha was a large fixed platform that produced oil and gas from 24 wells. A series of explosions were caused by failures in the condensate pumps and gas lines. As a result of the disaster, the Cullen Inquiry was established and new safety regulations were implemented for operating in the North Sea, focusing on equipment procedures, personnel training, platform design, and emergency response.
Naphtha Cracking Unit : Ethylene ProductionMayank Mehta
The document summarizes ethylene production via naphtha cracking. It provides an overview of the history and development of naphtha cracking and steam cracking processes. It also discusses global ethylene consumption trends, production processes like steam cracking, MTO, and green routes. The key drivers of increasing ethylene demand are highlighted as polyethylene production. Major existing naphtha crackers in India and their capacities are listed. Process design considerations for ethylene plants emphasize safety, energy efficiency, and reliability.
This document discusses various methods for hydrogen storage, including compression, liquefaction, physisorption, metallic hydrides, and complex hydrides. Physisorption through cryoadsorption of hydrogen onto activated carbon at 77K provides a gravimetric density of 10.8% and volumetric density of 41 kg/m3, making it economically competitive. Metallic hydrides like LaNi5H6 provide high volumetric densities but lower gravimetric densities of less than 3%. Complex hydrides show the highest densities but challenges with hydrogen release dynamics.
Nepal is currently reeling under acute fuel crisis due to undeclared economic blockade by India. Transportation and cooking are two main areas that have been severely affected due to the fuel shortages. Alternative sources of cooking fuels have become a crucial topic of research and investigation on an international scale and Nepal may require such unconventional solutions to cope with the crisis that does not seem to be winding down anytime soon. The utilization of Hydrogen as an energy carrier with regards to domestic cooking has been explored and studied by countless experts over the years and is still a relatively novel concept that requires further exploration.
Mechanics of metal hydrides for hydrogen storageJordan Suls
This document provides an introduction to a student's final project on metal hydride hydrogen storage systems for portable applications. It discusses the need for efficient hydrogen storage, and outlines three main existing storage methods - compressed gas, liquid hydrogen, and hydrogen storage materials. Metal hydrides are presented as the most promising for portable uses, as they allow high density storage at low pressure and temperature. The document gives an overview of metal hydrides, focusing on their thermodynamic and kinetic properties, and how these influence absorption and desorption rates.
The Materials Science of Lithium-Ion Batteries (Sept 2014)Andrew Gelston
The document discusses lithium-ion batteries and their materials. It provides an overview of lithium-ion battery components and chemistry, focusing on the commonly used 18650 battery cell format. Key points covered include the anode, cathode, and electrolyte materials used in lithium-ion batteries and how they enable the transfer of lithium ions and electrons. Degradation issues related to cycling and temperature are also summarized.
Fractional distillation is a method to separate mixtures with different boiling points. It has been used since ancient times by Greek alchemists and in China during the Han dynasty. The process works by heating a mixture so it forms vapors, which rise up a fractional distillation column and condense based on their boiling points. Common uses are separating crude oil into hydrocarbon products like gasoline and separating chemicals in a lab. Current research is improving efficiency and applications in areas like oil refining.
Photoelectrochemical splitting of water for hydrogen generation: Basics & Fut...RunjhunDutta
This document discusses photoelectrochemical (PEC) splitting of water for solar hydrogen generation. PEC is an environmentally safe process that uses solar energy and water to generate hydrogen fuel without undesirable byproducts. It has potential for both large and small-scale hydrogen production. The document outlines the basic principles and working of a PEC cell, which involves using a semiconductor photoelectrode to absorb light and drive water splitting reactions at the electrode surfaces to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases. It discusses factors that affect PEC cell performance and various strategies to modify materials and surfaces/interfaces to enhance efficiency. The document concludes that PEC is a promising but still developing technology that requires continued advances in materials science and engineering to optimize large-scale
The document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook about electrochemistry. It discusses several key topics in 21 numbered sections, including electrode potentials and their measurement, standard electrode potentials, the relationship between electromotive force (emf) and Gibbs free energy, how emf varies with concentration, batteries and how they produce electricity through chemical reactions, corrosion as unwanted electrochemical reactions, and electrolysis. It provides examples and explanations with diagrams. Key concepts are defined and relationships between thermodynamic quantities and electrochemistry are summarized.
This document summarizes Chapter 10 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications". The chapter discusses the periodic table and atomic properties. It covers the periodic law, classification of elements as metals and nonmetals, sizes of atoms and ions, ionization energy, electron affinity, and periodic trends in properties like melting points. The chapter also examines magnetic properties and how the periodic table can be used to predict trends in chemical behavior.
This chapter discusses the periodic table and periodic properties of the elements. It introduces the periodic law developed by Mendeleev which states that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, patterns emerge in their physical and chemical properties. This is demonstrated through properties such as ionization energy, atomic and ionic radii, electron affinity, and acid/base behavior which vary predictably across the periodic table. The chapter also examines how mercury is liquid at room temperature despite being predicted to be a solid based on periodic trends, due to relativistic effects.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 2 of a general chemistry textbook, including:
1. It discusses early atomic theories proposed by scientists like Lavoisier, Proust, and Dalton, including Dalton's Atomic Theory.
2. It then covers later discoveries in atomic physics such as cathode rays, electrons, radioactivity, and the nuclear model of the atom proposed by Rutherford.
3. The chapter also introduces topics like the periodic table, atomic mass and isotopes, and the mole concept including the Avogadro constant.
This document discusses chemical bonding theories including valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory. It provides examples of how these theories describe bonding in various molecules such as H2, CH4, C2H4 and benzene. Hybridization of atomic orbitals is introduced to explain molecular geometry. The document also discusses topics such as sigma and pi bonding, delocalized electrons, bonding in metals and semiconductors, and some unresolved issues regarding theoretical descriptions of chemical bonding.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook about atoms and the atomic theory. It discusses early discoveries in chemistry that led to modern atomic theory, including Dalton's atomic theory. It also describes experiments that showed atoms are made of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons, including discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron. The chapter concludes by explaining isotopes, atomic numbers, mass numbers, and how the mole is used to relate mass to number of particles.
This document discusses the periodic table and periodic trends among the elements. It begins by outlining the ground state electron configurations of elements. It then classifies the elements and discusses how atomic and ionic radii vary periodically. The document also examines how other properties like ionization energy and electron affinity change across the periodic table. Specific trends in reactivity are described for representative main group elements in Groups 1A through 8A. In summary, the key periodic trends and relationships among atomic and physical properties of the elements are outlined.
This document provides an overview of atomic theory and the development of the modern atomic model. It discusses early discoveries in chemistry that led to atomic theory, including the work of Lavoisier, Proust, and Dalton. Dalton's atomic theory postulated that elements are made of atoms and that atoms of a given element are identical. The document then covers the discovery of the electron and developments that showed atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus, including work on radioactivity, cathode rays, and Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment. It introduces key concepts like isotopes, atomic number, mass number, and the mole. In summary, the document traces the development of atomic theory and the modern understanding of atoms as tiny, dense nuclei surrounded by
The document provides information about chemical bonding and different types of bonds. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the forces that hold groups of atoms together, and explains that bonds form when the energy of bonded atoms is lower than separated atoms. It then describes the main types of bonds:
- Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.
- Covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons between atoms.
- Polar covalent bonds occur when electrons are unequally shared, resulting in partial charges.
The document discusses electronegativity and how it relates to bond polarity. It also introduces dipole moments and how bond polarity affects molecular properties like solubility. Finally, it explains
This document provides an overview of advanced inorganic chemistry topics related to the components of matter. It begins with definitions of key terms like element, compound, mixture and discusses Dalton's atomic theory. It then covers historical experiments that helped develop models of the atom, including cathode ray experiments, Millikan's oil drop experiment, and Rutherford's gold foil experiment. The document introduces subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons and explains how they are arranged in atoms. It also discusses isotopes and how atomic mass is calculated. The last sections cover ionic and covalent bonding and how compounds are named.
This document contains a chapter summary for Chapter 12 from the 8th Edition of the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood and Herring. The chapter discusses intermolecular forces, properties of liquids and solids, phase diagrams, and crystal structures. It covers topics like vapor pressure, phase changes, van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, and energy changes during formation of ionic crystals. The document provides learning objectives, examples, and review questions for each section.
The document discusses periodic properties of elements including atomic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity, ionic radii, and electronegativity. It provides information on trends in these properties across the periodic table and examples demonstrating how to order elements based on each property. Atomic radii decrease and ionization energy increases moving from left to right within a period due to increased nuclear charge. Electron affinity and ionic radii values become more negative in the same trend.
F.sc.Part.2.Chemistry.(Chapter Wise Tests& Their Solution) - Malik XufyanMalik Xufyan
The document is a chemistry textbook solution manual providing answers to practice questions about periodic trends and properties of elements and compounds. It contains sample multiple choice and short answer questions, along with detailed explanations of periodic table concepts such as ionization energy, atomic and ionic radii, oxidation states, types of oxides, and conductivity. The summary is:
The document provides the solution manual for a chemistry textbook, with answers to practice questions about periodic trends, properties of elements and compounds, and explanations of key periodic table concepts.
F.sc.Part.2.Chemistry.(Chapter Wise Tests& Their Solution) - Malik XufyanMalik Xufyan
This document provides the solutions to a chemistry exam on the periodic table and properties of elements. It includes answers to multiple choice and short answer questions testing knowledge of trends in the periodic table, atomic structure, ionization energy, atomic and ionic radii, and classification of different types of compounds. The summary focuses on key concepts:
- The document provides solutions to chemistry exam questions testing knowledge of periodic trends, atomic structure, ionization energy, and classification of compounds. Key concepts covered include trends in atomic and ionic radii, ionization energy, metallic character, and types of oxides and halides.
- Questions assess understanding of periodic table organization, Newlands' law of octaves, position of hydrogen, properties
On July 6, 1988, an explosion destroyed the Piper Alpha oil platform in the North Sea, killing 167 workers. Piper Alpha was a large fixed platform that produced oil and gas from 24 wells. A series of explosions were caused by failures in the condensate pumps and gas lines. As a result of the disaster, the Cullen Inquiry was established and new safety regulations were implemented for operating in the North Sea, focusing on equipment procedures, personnel training, platform design, and emergency response.
Naphtha Cracking Unit : Ethylene ProductionMayank Mehta
The document summarizes ethylene production via naphtha cracking. It provides an overview of the history and development of naphtha cracking and steam cracking processes. It also discusses global ethylene consumption trends, production processes like steam cracking, MTO, and green routes. The key drivers of increasing ethylene demand are highlighted as polyethylene production. Major existing naphtha crackers in India and their capacities are listed. Process design considerations for ethylene plants emphasize safety, energy efficiency, and reliability.
This document discusses various methods for hydrogen storage, including compression, liquefaction, physisorption, metallic hydrides, and complex hydrides. Physisorption through cryoadsorption of hydrogen onto activated carbon at 77K provides a gravimetric density of 10.8% and volumetric density of 41 kg/m3, making it economically competitive. Metallic hydrides like LaNi5H6 provide high volumetric densities but lower gravimetric densities of less than 3%. Complex hydrides show the highest densities but challenges with hydrogen release dynamics.
Nepal is currently reeling under acute fuel crisis due to undeclared economic blockade by India. Transportation and cooking are two main areas that have been severely affected due to the fuel shortages. Alternative sources of cooking fuels have become a crucial topic of research and investigation on an international scale and Nepal may require such unconventional solutions to cope with the crisis that does not seem to be winding down anytime soon. The utilization of Hydrogen as an energy carrier with regards to domestic cooking has been explored and studied by countless experts over the years and is still a relatively novel concept that requires further exploration.
Mechanics of metal hydrides for hydrogen storageJordan Suls
This document provides an introduction to a student's final project on metal hydride hydrogen storage systems for portable applications. It discusses the need for efficient hydrogen storage, and outlines three main existing storage methods - compressed gas, liquid hydrogen, and hydrogen storage materials. Metal hydrides are presented as the most promising for portable uses, as they allow high density storage at low pressure and temperature. The document gives an overview of metal hydrides, focusing on their thermodynamic and kinetic properties, and how these influence absorption and desorption rates.
The Materials Science of Lithium-Ion Batteries (Sept 2014)Andrew Gelston
The document discusses lithium-ion batteries and their materials. It provides an overview of lithium-ion battery components and chemistry, focusing on the commonly used 18650 battery cell format. Key points covered include the anode, cathode, and electrolyte materials used in lithium-ion batteries and how they enable the transfer of lithium ions and electrons. Degradation issues related to cycling and temperature are also summarized.
Fractional distillation is a method to separate mixtures with different boiling points. It has been used since ancient times by Greek alchemists and in China during the Han dynasty. The process works by heating a mixture so it forms vapors, which rise up a fractional distillation column and condense based on their boiling points. Common uses are separating crude oil into hydrocarbon products like gasoline and separating chemicals in a lab. Current research is improving efficiency and applications in areas like oil refining.
Photoelectrochemical splitting of water for hydrogen generation: Basics & Fut...RunjhunDutta
This document discusses photoelectrochemical (PEC) splitting of water for solar hydrogen generation. PEC is an environmentally safe process that uses solar energy and water to generate hydrogen fuel without undesirable byproducts. It has potential for both large and small-scale hydrogen production. The document outlines the basic principles and working of a PEC cell, which involves using a semiconductor photoelectrode to absorb light and drive water splitting reactions at the electrode surfaces to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases. It discusses factors that affect PEC cell performance and various strategies to modify materials and surfaces/interfaces to enhance efficiency. The document concludes that PEC is a promising but still developing technology that requires continued advances in materials science and engineering to optimize large-scale
The document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook about electrochemistry. It discusses several key topics in 21 numbered sections, including electrode potentials and their measurement, standard electrode potentials, the relationship between electromotive force (emf) and Gibbs free energy, how emf varies with concentration, batteries and how they produce electricity through chemical reactions, corrosion as unwanted electrochemical reactions, and electrolysis. It provides examples and explanations with diagrams. Key concepts are defined and relationships between thermodynamic quantities and electrochemistry are summarized.
This document summarizes Chapter 10 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications". The chapter discusses the periodic table and atomic properties. It covers the periodic law, classification of elements as metals and nonmetals, sizes of atoms and ions, ionization energy, electron affinity, and periodic trends in properties like melting points. The chapter also examines magnetic properties and how the periodic table can be used to predict trends in chemical behavior.
This chapter discusses the periodic table and periodic properties of the elements. It introduces the periodic law developed by Mendeleev which states that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, patterns emerge in their physical and chemical properties. This is demonstrated through properties such as ionization energy, atomic and ionic radii, electron affinity, and acid/base behavior which vary predictably across the periodic table. The chapter also examines how mercury is liquid at room temperature despite being predicted to be a solid based on periodic trends, due to relativistic effects.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 2 of a general chemistry textbook, including:
1. It discusses early atomic theories proposed by scientists like Lavoisier, Proust, and Dalton, including Dalton's Atomic Theory.
2. It then covers later discoveries in atomic physics such as cathode rays, electrons, radioactivity, and the nuclear model of the atom proposed by Rutherford.
3. The chapter also introduces topics like the periodic table, atomic mass and isotopes, and the mole concept including the Avogadro constant.
This document discusses chemical bonding theories including valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory. It provides examples of how these theories describe bonding in various molecules such as H2, CH4, C2H4 and benzene. Hybridization of atomic orbitals is introduced to explain molecular geometry. The document also discusses topics such as sigma and pi bonding, delocalized electrons, bonding in metals and semiconductors, and some unresolved issues regarding theoretical descriptions of chemical bonding.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook about atoms and the atomic theory. It discusses early discoveries in chemistry that led to modern atomic theory, including Dalton's atomic theory. It also describes experiments that showed atoms are made of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons, including discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron. The chapter concludes by explaining isotopes, atomic numbers, mass numbers, and how the mole is used to relate mass to number of particles.
This document discusses the periodic table and periodic trends among the elements. It begins by outlining the ground state electron configurations of elements. It then classifies the elements and discusses how atomic and ionic radii vary periodically. The document also examines how other properties like ionization energy and electron affinity change across the periodic table. Specific trends in reactivity are described for representative main group elements in Groups 1A through 8A. In summary, the key periodic trends and relationships among atomic and physical properties of the elements are outlined.
This document provides an overview of atomic theory and the development of the modern atomic model. It discusses early discoveries in chemistry that led to atomic theory, including the work of Lavoisier, Proust, and Dalton. Dalton's atomic theory postulated that elements are made of atoms and that atoms of a given element are identical. The document then covers the discovery of the electron and developments that showed atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus, including work on radioactivity, cathode rays, and Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment. It introduces key concepts like isotopes, atomic number, mass number, and the mole. In summary, the document traces the development of atomic theory and the modern understanding of atoms as tiny, dense nuclei surrounded by
The document provides information about chemical bonding and different types of bonds. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the forces that hold groups of atoms together, and explains that bonds form when the energy of bonded atoms is lower than separated atoms. It then describes the main types of bonds:
- Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.
- Covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons between atoms.
- Polar covalent bonds occur when electrons are unequally shared, resulting in partial charges.
The document discusses electronegativity and how it relates to bond polarity. It also introduces dipole moments and how bond polarity affects molecular properties like solubility. Finally, it explains
This document provides an overview of advanced inorganic chemistry topics related to the components of matter. It begins with definitions of key terms like element, compound, mixture and discusses Dalton's atomic theory. It then covers historical experiments that helped develop models of the atom, including cathode ray experiments, Millikan's oil drop experiment, and Rutherford's gold foil experiment. The document introduces subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons and explains how they are arranged in atoms. It also discusses isotopes and how atomic mass is calculated. The last sections cover ionic and covalent bonding and how compounds are named.
This document contains a chapter summary for Chapter 12 from the 8th Edition of the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood and Herring. The chapter discusses intermolecular forces, properties of liquids and solids, phase diagrams, and crystal structures. It covers topics like vapor pressure, phase changes, van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, and energy changes during formation of ionic crystals. The document provides learning objectives, examples, and review questions for each section.
The document discusses periodic properties of elements including atomic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity, ionic radii, and electronegativity. It provides information on trends in these properties across the periodic table and examples demonstrating how to order elements based on each property. Atomic radii decrease and ionization energy increases moving from left to right within a period due to increased nuclear charge. Electron affinity and ionic radii values become more negative in the same trend.
F.sc.Part.2.Chemistry.(Chapter Wise Tests& Their Solution) - Malik XufyanMalik Xufyan
The document is a chemistry textbook solution manual providing answers to practice questions about periodic trends and properties of elements and compounds. It contains sample multiple choice and short answer questions, along with detailed explanations of periodic table concepts such as ionization energy, atomic and ionic radii, oxidation states, types of oxides, and conductivity. The summary is:
The document provides the solution manual for a chemistry textbook, with answers to practice questions about periodic trends, properties of elements and compounds, and explanations of key periodic table concepts.
F.sc.Part.2.Chemistry.(Chapter Wise Tests& Their Solution) - Malik XufyanMalik Xufyan
This document provides the solutions to a chemistry exam on the periodic table and properties of elements. It includes answers to multiple choice and short answer questions testing knowledge of trends in the periodic table, atomic structure, ionization energy, atomic and ionic radii, and classification of different types of compounds. The summary focuses on key concepts:
- The document provides solutions to chemistry exam questions testing knowledge of periodic trends, atomic structure, ionization energy, and classification of compounds. Key concepts covered include trends in atomic and ionic radii, ionization energy, metallic character, and types of oxides and halides.
- Questions assess understanding of periodic table organization, Newlands' law of octaves, position of hydrogen, properties
This document discusses different types of chemical bonds including ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and polar covalent bonds. It explains how ionic bonds form between a metal and nonmetal when electrons are transferred, covalent bonds form through shared electron pairs, and polar covalent bonds result from unequal electron sharing. The document also covers bond energies, dipole moments, electronegativity, and Lewis structures.
This document provides information on the classification of elements and various periodic properties like atomic size, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity. It discusses the trends in these properties across periods and groups and exceptions to trends. It also explains concepts like ionic size, isoelectronic species, ionization energies, electron affinities, Pauling and Mulliken scales of electronegativity and valency. Sample problems are provided at the end to test the understanding of these concepts.
This chapter discusses complex ions and coordination compounds. It begins with an overview of Werner's theory, which proposed that metal atoms can bind ligands in the form of coordination compounds. The chapter then covers topics such as common ligands, nomenclature of complexes, isomerism, and bonding models like crystal field theory. It concludes with sections on color, acid-base properties, kinetics, and applications of coordination chemistry.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 3 of a general chemistry textbook, including:
- Molecular and ionic compounds are composed of molecules and ions respectively. Ionic compounds form when atoms gain or lose electrons to become ions.
- The molecular mass and empirical formula of compounds can be determined from the relative abundances of elements in the compound.
- Common polyatomic ions and functional groups are important for naming organic and inorganic compounds systematically. Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements.
The document discusses different types of chemical bonds including ionic bonds and covalent bonds. Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between metals and non-metals, resulting in ionic compounds with high melting and boiling points that conduct electricity when melted or in solution. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between non-metal atoms, resulting in molecules with low melting and boiling points that do not conduct electricity. The document also discusses metallic bonding and how metal atoms are held together by valence electrons that are delocalized throughout the structure.
This document discusses various topics related to main group organometallic chemistry and metal-free catalysis for CO2 reduction, including:
1) Recent publications on ethylene activation, borylene compounds, and metal-free nitrogen activation.
2) The potential for metal-free catalysts to catalytically convert CO2 into useful fuels and chemicals under mild conditions as an alternative to energy-intensive metal-based processes.
3) The design of metal-free catalysts that mimic the nucleophilicity, redox activity, and Lewis acidity of transition metals to activate small molecules like CO2 without metals.
This document discusses several key atomic and molecular properties including electron configurations, ionization energies, atomic and ionic radii, and electron affinity. It explains how atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions that have noble gas configurations. Cations are typically smaller than the parent atom, while anions are larger. Trends in various properties across the periodic table are also examined, such as how ionization energy generally increases moving left to right and up a group, and how atomic radius decreases with increasing nuclear charge. Diagonal relationships between elements are explained in terms of similar cation charge densities.
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This document discusses suffixes and terminology used in medicine. It begins by listing common combining forms used to build medical terms and their meanings. It then defines several noun, adjective, and shorter suffixes and provides their meanings. Examples are given of medical terms built using combining forms and suffixes. The document also examines specific medical concepts in more depth, such as hernias, blood cells, acromegaly, splenomegaly, and laparoscopy.
The document is a chapter from a medical textbook that discusses anatomical terminology pertaining to the body as a whole. It defines the structural organization of the body from cells to tissues to organs to systems. It also describes the body cavities and identifies the major organs contained within each cavity, as well as anatomical divisions of the abdomen and back.
This document is from a textbook on medical terminology. It discusses the basic structure of medical words and how they are built from prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms. Some key points:
- Medical terms are made up of elements including roots, suffixes, prefixes, and combining vowels. Understanding these elements is important for analyzing terms.
- Common prefixes include hypo-, epi-, and cis-. Common suffixes include -itis, -algia, and -ectomy.
- Dozens of combining forms are provided, such as gastro- meaning stomach, cardi- meaning heart, and aden- meaning gland.
- Rules are provided for analyzing terms, such as reading from the suffix backward and dropping combining vowels before suffixes starting with vowels
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 25 on Cancer from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by a team that includes Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 24 on Immunology from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
Nerve cells, also known as neurons, are highly specialized cells that process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. This chapter discusses the structure and function of neurons, how they communicate with each other via synapses, and how signals are propagated along neurons through changes in their membrane potentials. Neurons play a vital role in the nervous system by allowing organisms to process information and coordinate their responses.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 22 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "The Molecular Cell Biology of Development" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 21 from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Cell Birth, Lineage, and Death" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 20 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Regulating the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 19 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Integrating Cells into Tissues" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses microtubules and intermediate filaments, which are types of cytoskeletal filaments that help organize and move cellular components. Microtubules are involved in processes like cell division and intracellular transport, while intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and help integrate the nucleus with the cytoplasm. Together, these filaments play important structural and functional roles in eukaryotic cells.
This chapter discusses microfilaments, which are one of the three main types of cytoskeletal filaments found in eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments are composed of actin filaments and play important roles in cell motility, structure, and intracellular transport. They allow cells to change shape and to move by contracting or extending parts of the cell surface.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 16 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Signaling Pathways that Control Gene Activity" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 15 of the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira. It provides the chapter title "Cell Signaling I: Signal Transduction and Short-Term Cellular Responses" and notes the copyright is held by W. H. Freeman and Company in 2008.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 14 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Vesicular Traffic, Secretion, and Endocytosis" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses how proteins are transported into membranes and organelles within cells. Proteins destined for membranes or organelles have targeting signals that are recognized by transport systems. The transport systems then direct the proteins to their proper destinations, such as inserting membrane proteins into membranes or delivering soluble proteins into organelles.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 12 from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Cellular Energetics" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses the transmembrane transport of ions and small molecules across cell membranes. It covers topics such as passive transport through membrane channels and pumps, as well as active transport using ATP. The chapter is from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology and is copyrighted by W. H. Freeman and Company in 2008.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 10, titled "Biomembrane Structure", from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was written by a team of authors including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 9 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Visualizing, Fractionating, and Culturing Cells" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
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This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
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In this chapter, you will learn how to deduce and write chemical formulas and how to use the information incorporated into chemical formulas. The chapter ends with an overview of the relationship between names and formulas—chemical nomenclature.
A scanning tunneling microscope image of 48 iron atoms adsorbed onto a surface of copper atoms. The iron atoms were moved into position with the tip of the scanning tunneling microscope in order to create a barrier that forced some electrons of the copper atoms into a quantum state seen here as circular rings of electron density. The colors are from the computer rendering of the image. In this chapter we discuss the periodic table and the properties of atoms and ions.
In this chapter, we will use the table as a backdrop for a discussion of some properties of elements, including atomic radii, ionization energies, and electron affinities. These atomic properties also arise in the discussion of chemical bonding in the following two chapters, and the periodic table itself will be our indispensable guide throughout much of the remainder of the text.
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer independently proposed the periodic law: When the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of properties recur periodically. Meyer based his periodic law on the property called atomic volume—the atomic mass of an element divided by the density of its solid form. We now just call this property molar volume.
This adaptation of Meyer’s 1870 graph plots atomic volumes against atomic numbers. Of course, a number of elements, such as the noble gases, were undiscovered in Meyer’s time. The graph shows peaks at the alkali metals (Li, Na, K, and so on). Nonmetals fall on the ascending portions of the curve and metals at the peaks, on the descending portions, and in the valleys.
Meyer presented his results as a graph of atomic volume against atomic mass. Now it is customary to plot his results as molar volume against atomic number, as shown. Notice how high atomic volumes recur periodically for the alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs. Later, Meyer examined other physical properties of the elements and their compounds, such as hardness, compressibility, and boiling points, and found that these also vary periodically.
Mendeleev’s work attracted more attention than Meyer’s for two reasons:
He left blank spaces in his table for undiscovered elements, and he corrected some atomic mass values. The blanks in his table came at atomic masses 44, 68, 72, and 100 for the elements we now know as scandium, gallium, germanium, and technetium.
Two of the atomic mass values he corrected were those of indium and uranium.
Meyer’s work was seen to support Mendeleev’s and convinced the scientific community to accept this approach.
Other additions to the table included the Noble gases discoved by William Ramsey.
Mendeleev placed certain elements out of order-he assumed that errors had been made in the atomic masses, but it is clear that some elements remain out of order. Moseley changed that with x-ray spectra.
43, 61 and 75 were discovered in 1937, 1945 and 1925 respectively.
Also proved the periodic law in the region from Z = 13 to 79, and that there could be NO other elements in this region.
(a) A heated filament emits electrons by a process called thermionic emission. The electrons are accelerated by a high voltage, and collide with the metal target. The highly energetic electrons ionize electrons from the inner shells of the metal atoms of the target. Subsequently, electrons from higher orbitals drop down to occupy the vacancies and in doing so, emit X-ray photons that correspond to the energy difference between the two orbitals. (b) In this photograph from Moseley’s 1913 paper, you can see two lines for each element, beginning with Ca at the top. With each successive element, the lines are displaced to the left, the direction of increasing X-ray frequency in these experiments. Where more than two lines appear, the sample contained one or more other elements, or impurities. Notice, for example, that one line in the Co spectrum matches a line in the Fe spectrum, and another matches a line in the Ni spectrum. Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, shows two lines for Cu and two for Zn.
In the periodic table the vertical groups bring together elements with similar properties. The horizontal periods of the table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number from left to right. The groups are numbered at the top, and the periods at the extreme left. The first two groups—the s block—and the last six groups—the p block—together constitute the main-group elements. Because they come between the s block and the p block, the d block elements are known as the transition elements. The f block elements, sometimes called the inner transition elements, would extend the table to a width of 32 members if incorporated in the main body of the table. The table would generally be too wide to fit on a printed page, and so the f block elements are extracted from the table and placed at the bottom. The 15 elements following barium Z=56 are called the lanthanides, and the 15 following radon Z=88 are called the actinides.
Discuss Transition Metals on This slide
when transition metal atoms ionize, the ns subshell is emptied. Ti is [Ar]3d24s2,but Ti2+ is [Ar]3d2 and Ti4+ is [Ar].
The 3d subshell in Fe3+ is half-filled, a fact that helps to account for the observed ease of oxidation of iron(II) to iron(III) compounds. Electron configurations with half-filled or filled d or f subshells have a special stability, and a number of transition metal ions have such configurations.
Two valence electrons (blue) are attracted to the nucleus of a Mg atom. The atom’s nuclear charge is screened by the 10 core electrons (gray), but not perfectly. The valence electrons also screen each other somewhat. The result is an effective nuclear charge, Zeff, closer to 3+ than to 2+.
Radii increase down a group.
Radii decrease across a period in the main group (Zeff increases across main group elements).
Radii in Transition metals remain fairly constant except for a few spikes. Electrons go into an inner shell, thus participate in shielding the outer shell electrons from the increasing Zeff.
metallic and ionic radii are shown
Knowdledge of atomic and ionic radii can be used to varycertain physical porperties.
Ex Na+ and Ca2+ ions. Glass is brittle and breaks easily. Replace surface Na+ by K+ and glass becomes shatter resistant.
Cr3+ in Al2O3 (about 1%) gives beautiful red colour (Ruby).
In the case of magnesium, for example, in the second ionization, the electron, once freed, has to move away from an ion with a charge of 2+ (Mg2+). More energy must be invested than for a freed electron to move away from an ion with a charge of 1+ (Mg+) . This is a direct consequence of Coulomb’s law, which states, in part, that the force of attraction between oppositely charged particles is directly proportional to the magnitudes of the charges.
Across a period, as Zeff increases and the valence-shell principal quantum number n remains constant, the ionization energy should increase. And down a group, as n increases and Zeff increases only slightly, the ionization energy should decrease. Thus, atoms lose electrons more easily (become more metallic) as we move from top to bottom in a group of the periodic
Because their electron configurations are so stable, more energy is required to ionize noble gas atoms than to ionize atoms of the elements immediately preceding or following them. The maxima on the graph come at the atomic numbers of the noble gases. The alkali metals are the most easily ionized of all groups. The minima in the graph come at their atomic numbers.
Removing the third electon from Mg causes a large jump in I.
I1 of Al less than Mg because s- electron is removed from Mg and p-electron is removed from Al.
I1 of S is less than that of P. This is due to e--e- repulsion of the fourth electron.
Notice that the process above is exothermic, meaning that energy is given off when an F atom gains an electron. Electron affinity, EA, can be defined as the enthalpy change ΔHea , that occurs when an atom in the gas phase gains an electron. According to this definition, the electron affinity of fluorine is a negative quantity.
It is more difficult to make generalizations about electron affinities than about ionization energies. The smaller atoms to the right of the periodic table (for example, group 17) tend to have large, negative electron affinities.* Electron affinities tend to become less negative in progressing toward the bottom of a group, with the notable exception of the second-period members of groups 15, 16, and 17 (namely, N, O, and F). It is likely that for these small atoms, an incoming electron encounters strong repulsive forces from other electrons in the atom and is thereby not as tightly bound as we might otherwise expect.
In considering the gain of a second electron by a nonmetal atom, we encounter positive electron affinities. Here the electron to be added is approaching not a neutral atom, but a negative ion. There is a strong repulsive force between the electron and the ion, and the energy of the system increases. Thus, for an element like oxygen, the first electron affinity is negative and the second is positive.
The high positive value of EA2 makes the formation of gaseous O2- seem very unlikely. The O2- ion can exist, however, in ionic compounds, such as
MgO(s), where formation of the ion is accompanied by other energetically favorable processes.
Manganese has a paramagnetism corresponding to five unpaired electrons, which is consistent with the electron configuration.
When a manganese atom loses two electrons, it becomes the Mn2+ ion which is paramagnetic, and the strength of its paramagnetism corresponds to five unpaired electrons.
When a third electron is lost to produce Mn3+, the ion has a paramagnetism corresponding to four unpaired electrons. The third electron lost is one of the unpaired 3d electrons.
Metallic character corresponds to conductance of heat and electricity.
Average is 349 for mp
Average is
Melting involves destruction of the orderly arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline solid.
Melting point temperature depends on the strength of the attractive forces between atoms of molecules in the solid.
Na, Mg, Al Metallic bonds,
Si Covalent bonds, strong interatomic forces.
P4, S8, Cl2 Discrete molecules, forces become weaker as you go across.
K is representative of reactivity of Group 1, expect that a lower ionization energy should react more vigerously.
Ca is representative of reactivity of Group 2, expect that a higher ionization energy should react more slowly.
Ionization energy alone is an oversimlification. If differences in I are small then other factors must be taken into account.
Expect compounds with high electron affinity to be good oxidizing agents. So halogens should react vigorously with Na.
Cl has higher electron affinity than I, therefore the reaction should lie to the right.