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Cfa corporate finance chapter2
1.
CHAPTER 2 CAPITAL BUDGETING Presenter’s
name Presenter’s title dd Month yyyy
2.
1. INTRODUCTION • Capital
budgeting is the allocation of funds to long-lived capital projects. • A capital project is a long-term investment in tangible assets. • The principles and tools of capital budgeting are applied in many different aspects of a business entity’s decision making and in security valuation and portfolio management. • A company’s capital budgeting process and prowess are important in valuing a company. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 2
3.
2. THE CAPITAL
BUDGETING PROCESS Generating IdeasStep 1 • Generate ideas from inside or outside of the company Analyzing Individual ProposalsStep 2 • Collect information and analyze the profitability of alternative projects Planning the Capital BudgetStep 3 • Analyze the fit of the proposed projects with the company’s strategy Monitoring and Post AuditingStep 4 • Compare expected and realized results and explain any deviations Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 3
4.
CLASSIFYING PROJECTS Replacement Projects Expansion Projects New Products and
Services Regulatory, Safety, and Environmental Projects Other Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 4
5.
3. BASIC PRINCIPLES
OF CAPITAL BUDGETING Decisions are based on cash flows. The timing of cash flows is crucial. Cash flows are incremental. Cash flows are on an after-tax basis. Financing costs are ignored. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 5
6.
COSTS: INCLUDE OR
EXCLUDE? • A sunk cost is a cost that has already occurred, so it cannot be part of the incremental cash flows of a capital budgeting analysis. • An opportunity cost is what would be earned on the next-best use of the assets. • An incremental cash flow is the difference in a company’s cash flows with and without the project. • An externality is an effect that the investment project has on something else, whether inside or outside of the company. - Cannibalization is an externality in which the investment reduces cash flows elsewhere in the company (e.g., takes sales from an existing company project). Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 6
7.
CONVENTIONAL AND NONCONVENTIONAL CASH
FLOWS Conventional Cash Flow (CF) Patterns Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 7 Today 1 2 3 4 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | –CF +CF +CF +CF +CF +CF –CF –CF +CF +CF +CF +CF –CF +CF +CF +CF +CF
8.
CONVENTIONAL AND NONCONVENTIONAL CASH
FLOWS Nonconventional Cash Flow Patterns Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 8 Today 1 2 3 4 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | –CF +CF +CF +CF +CF –CF –CF +CF –CF +CF +CF +CF –CF –CF +CF +CF +CF –CF
9.
INDEPENDENT VS. MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE
PROJECTS • When evaluating more than one project at a time, it is important to identify whether the projects are independent or mutually exclusive - This makes a difference when selecting the tools to evaluate the projects. • Independent projects are projects in which the acceptance of one project does not preclude the acceptance of the other(s). • Mutually exclusive projects are projects in which the acceptance of one project precludes the acceptance of another or others. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 9
10.
PROJECT SEQUENCING • Capital
projects may be sequenced, which means a project contains an option to invest in another project. - Projects often have real options associated with them; so the company can choose to expand or abandon the project, for example, after reviewing the performance of the initial capital project. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 10
11.
CAPITAL RATIONING • Capital
rationing is when the amount of expenditure for capital projects in a given period is limited. • If the company has so many profitable projects that the initial expenditures in total would exceed the budget for capital projects for the period, the company’s management must determine which of the projects to select. • The objective is to maximize owners’ wealth, subject to the constraint on the capital budget. - Capital rationing may result in the rejection of profitable projects. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 11
12.
4. INVESTMENT DECISION
CRITERIA Net Present Value (NPV) Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Payback Period Discounted Payback Period Average Accounting Rate of Return (AAR) Profitability Index (PI) Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 12
13.
NET PRESENT VALUE The
net present value is the present value of all incremental cash flows, discounted to the present, less the initial outlay: NPV = t=1 n CFt (1+r) t − Outlay (2-1) Or, reflecting the outlay as CF0, NPV = t=0 n CFt (1+r) t (2-2) where CFt = After-tax cash flow at time t r = Required rate of return for the investment Outlay = Investment cash flow at time zero If NPV > 0: • Invest: Capital project adds value If NPV < 0: • Do not invest: Capital project destroys value Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 13
14.
EXAMPLE: NPV Consider the
Hoofdstad Project, which requires an investment of $1 billion initially, with subsequent cash flows of $200 million, $300 million, $400 million, and $500 million. We can characterize the project with the following end-of-year cash flows: What is the net present value of the Hoofdstad Project if the required rate of return of this project is 5%? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 14 Period Cash Flow (millions) 0 –$1,000 1 200 2 300 3 400 4 500
15.
EXAMPLE: NPV Time Line Solving
for the NPV: NPV = –$1,000 + $200 1 + 0.05 1 + $300 1 + 0.05 2 + $400 1 + 0.05 3 + $500 1 + 0.05 4 NPV = −$1,000 + $190.48 + $272.11 + $345.54 + $411.35 NPV = $219.47 million Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 15 0 1 2 3 4 | | | | | | | | | | –$1,000 $200 $300 $400 $500
16.
INTERNAL RATE OF
RETURN The internal rate of return is the rate of return on a project. - The internal rate of return is the rate of return that results in NPV = 0. t=1 n CFt (1 + IRR) t − Outlay = 0 (2-3) Or, reflecting the outlay as CF0, t=0 n CFt (1 + IRR) t = 0 (2-4) If IRR > r (required rate of return): • Invest: Capital project adds value If IRR < r: • Do not invest: Capital project destroys value Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 16
17.
EXAMPLE: IRR Consider the
Hoofdstad Project that we used to demonstrate the NPV calculation: The IRR is the rate that solves the following: Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 17 Period Cash Flow (millions) 0 –$1,000 1 200 2 300 3 400 4 500 $0 = −$1,000 + $200 1 + IRR 1 + $300 1 + IRR 2 + $400 1 + IRR 3 + $500 1 + IRR 4
18.
A NOTE ON
SOLVING FOR IRR • The IRR is the rate that causes the NPV to be equal to zero. • The problem is that we cannot solve directly for IRR, but rather must either iterate (trying different values of IRR until the NPV is zero) or use a financial calculator or spreadsheet program to solve for IRR. • In this example, IRR = 12.826%: Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 18 $0 = −$1,000 + $200 1 + 0.12826 1 + $300 1 + 0.12826 2 + $400 1 + 0.12826 3 + $500 1 + 0.12826 4
19.
PAYBACK PERIOD • The
payback period is the length of time it takes to recover the initial cash outlay of a project from future incremental cash flows. • In the Hoofdstad Project example, the payback occurs in the last year, Year 4: Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 19 Period Cash Flow (millions) Accumulated Cash flows 0 –$1,000 –$1,000 1 200 –$800 2 300 –$500 3 400 –$100 4 500 +400
20.
PAYBACK PERIOD: IGNORING
CASH FLOWS For example, the payback period for both Project X and Project Y is three years, even through Project X provides more value through its Year 4 cash flow: Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 20 Year Project X Cash Flows Project Y Cash Flows 0 –£100 –£100 1 £20 £20 2 £50 £50 3 £45 £45 4 £60 £0
21.
DISCOUNTED PAYBACK PERIOD •
The discounted payback period is the length of time it takes for the cumulative discounted cash flows to equal the initial outlay. - In other words, it is the length of time for the project to reach NPV = 0. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 21
22.
EXAMPLE: DISCOUNTED PAYBACK
PERIOD Consider the example of Projects X and Y. Both projects have a discounted payback period close to three years. Project X actually adds more value but is not distinguished from Project Y using this approach. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 22 Cash Flows Discounted Cash Flows Accumulated Discounted Cash Flows Year Project X Project Y Project X Project Y Project X Project Y 0 –£100.00 –£100.00 –£100.00 –£100.00 –£100.00 –£100.00 1 20.00 20.00 19.05 19.05 –80.95 –80.95 2 50.00 50.00 45.35 45.35 –35.60 –35.60 3 45.00 45.00 38.87 38.87 3.27 3.27 4 60.00 0.00 49.36 0.00 52.63 3.27
23.
AVERAGE ACCOUNTING RATE
OF RETURN • The average accounting rate of return (AAR) is the ratio of the average net income from the project to the average book value of assets in the project: AAR = Average net income Average book value Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 23
24.
PROFITABILITY INDEX The profitability
index (PI) is the ratio of the present value of future cash flows to the initial outlay: PI = Present value of future cash flows Initial investment = 1 + NPV Initial investment (2-5) If PI > 1.0: • Invest • Capital project adds value If PI < 0: • Do not invest • Capital project destroys value Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 24
25.
EXAMPLE: PI In the
Hoofdstad Project, with a required rate of return of 5%, the present value of the future cash flows is $1,219.47. Therefore, the PI is: PI = $1,219.47 $1,000.00 = 1.219 Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 25 Period Cash Flow (millions) 0 -$1,000 1 200 2 300 3 400 4 500
26.
NET PRESENT VALUE
PROFILE The net present value profile is the graphical illustration of the NPV of a project at different required rates of return. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 26 Net Present Value Required Rate of Return The NPV profile crosses the horizontal axis at the project’s internal rate of return. The NPV profile intersects the vertical axis at the sum of the cash flows (i.e., 0% required rate of return).
27.
NPV PROFILE: HOOFDSTAD
CAPITAL PROJECT Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 27 -$200 -$100 $0 $100 $200 $300 $400 $500 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20% NPV (millions) Required Rate of Return
28.
NPV PROFILE: HOOFDSTAD
CAPITAL PROJECT Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 28 $400 $361 $323 $287 $253 $219 $188 $157 $127 $99 $72 $46 $20 –$4 –$28 –$50 –$72 –$93 –$114 –$133 –$152 -$200 -$100 $0 $100 $200 $300 $400 $500 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20% NPV (millions) Required Rate of Return
29.
RANKING CONFLICTS: NPV
VS. IRR • The NPV and IRR methods may rank projects differently. - If projects are independent, accept if NPV > 0 produces the same result as when IRR > r. - If projects are mutually exclusive, accept if NPV > 0 may produce a different result than when IRR > r. • The source of the problem is different reinvestment rate assumptions - Net present value: Reinvest cash flows at the required rate of return - Internal rate of return: Reinvest cash flows at the internal rate of return • The problem is evident when there are different patterns of cash flows or different scales of cash flows. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 29
30.
EXAMPLE: RANKING CONFLICTS Consider
two mutually exclusive projects, Project P and Project Q: Which project is preferred and why? Hint: It depends on the projects’ required rates of return. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 30 End of Year Cash Flows Year Project P Project Q 0 –100 –100 1 0 33 2 0 33 3 0 33 4 142 33
31.
DECISION AT VARIOUS
REQUIRED RATES OF RETURN Project P Project Q Decision NPV @ 0% $42 $32 Accept P, Reject Q NPV @ 4% $21 $20 Accept P, Reject Q NPV @ 6% $12 $14 Reject P, Accept Q NPV @ 10% –$3 $5 Reject P, Accept Q NPV @ 14% –$16 –$4 Reject P, Reject Q IRR 9.16% 12.11% Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 31
32.
NPV PROFILES: PROJECT
P AND PROJECT Q Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 32 -$30 -$20 -$10 $0 $10 $20 $30 $40 $50 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% NPV Required Rate of Return NPV of Project P NPV of Project Q
33.
THE MULTIPLE IRR
PROBLEM • If cash flows change sign more than once during the life of the project, there may be more than one rate that can force the present value of the cash flows to be equal to zero. - This scenario is called the “multiple IRR problem.” - In other words, there is no unique IRR if the cash flows are nonconventional. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 33
34.
EXAMPLE: THE MULTIPLE
IRR PROBLEM Consider the fluctuating capital project with the following end of year cash flows, in millions: What is the IRR of this project? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 34 Year Cash Flow 0 –€550 1 €490 2 €490 3 €490 4 –€940
35.
EXAMPLE: THE MULTIPLE
IRR PROBLEM Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 35 -€120 -€100 -€80 -€60 -€40 -€20 €0 €20 €40 0% 8% 16% 24% 32% 40% 48% 56% 64% NPV (millions) Required Rate of Return IRR = 2.856% IRR = 34.249%
36.
POPULARITY AND USAGE
OF CAPITAL BUDGETING METHODS • In terms of consistency with owners’ wealth maximization, NPV and IRR are preferred over other methods. • Larger companies tend to prefer NPV and IRR over the payback period method. • The payback period is still used, despite its failings. • The NPV is the estimated added value from investing in the project; therefore, this added value should be reflected in the company’s stock price. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 36
37.
5. CASH FLOW
PROJECTIONS The goal is to estimate the incremental cash flows of the firm for each year in the project’s useful life. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 37 0 1 2 3 4 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | Investment Outlay After-Tax Operating Cash Flow After-Tax Operating Cash Flow After-Tax Operating Cash Flow After-Tax Operating Cash Flow After-Tax Operating Cash Flow + Terminal Nonoperating Cash Flow = Total After- Tax Cash Flow = Total After- Tax Cash Flow = Total After- Tax Cash Flow = Total After- Tax Cash Flow = Total After- Tax Cash Flow = Total After- Tax Cash Flow
38.
INVESTMENT OUTLAY Start with
Capital expenditure Subtract Increase in working capital Equals Initial outlay Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 38
39.
AFTER-TAX OPERATING CASH
FLOW Start with Sales Subtract Cash operating expenses Subtract Depreciation Equals Operating income before taxes Subtract Taxes on operating income Equals Operating income after taxes Plus Depreciation Equals After-tax operating cash flow Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 39
40.
TERMINAL YEAR AFTER-TAX NONOPERATING
CASH FLOW Start with After-tax salvage value Add Return of net working capital Equals Nonoperating cash flow Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 40
41.
FORMULA APPROACH Initial outlay
Outlay = FCInv + NWCInv – Sal0 + T(Sal0 – B0) (6) After-tax operating cash flow CF = (S – C – D)(1 – T) + D CF = (S – C)(1 – T) + TD (7) (8) Terminal year after-tax nonoperating cash flow (TNOCF) TNOCF = SalT + NWCInv – T(SalT – BT) (9) Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 41 FCINV = Investment in new fixed capital S = Sales NWCInv = Investment in working capital C = Cash operating expenses Sal0 = Cash proceeds D = Depreciation B0 = Book value of capital T = Tax rate
42.
EXAMPLE: CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS Suppose a company has the opportunity to bring out a new product, the Vitamin- Burger. The initial cost of the assets is $100 million, and the company’s working capital would increase by $10 million during the life of the new product. The new product is estimated to have a useful life of four years, at which time the assets would be sold for $5 million. Management expects company sales to increase by $120 million the first year, $160 million the second year, $140 million the third year, and then trailing to $50 million by the fourth year because competitors have fully launched competitive products. Operating expenses are expected to be 70% of sales, and depreciation is based on an asset life of three years under MACRS (modified accelerated cost recovery system). If the required rate of return on the Vitamin-Burger project is 8% and the company’s tax rate is 35%, should the company invest in this new product? Why or why not? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 42
43.
EXAMPLE: CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS Pieces: • Investment outlay = –$100 – $10 = –$110 million. • Book value of assets at end of four years = $0. - Therefore, the $5 salvage represents a taxable gain of $5 million. - Cash flow upon salvage = $5 – ($5 × 0.35) = $5 – 1.75 = $3.25 million. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 43
44.
EXAMPLE: CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 44 Year 0 Investment outlays Fixed capital –$100.00 Net working capital –10.00 Total –$110.00
45.
EXAMPLE: CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 45 Year 1 2 3 4 Annual after-tax operating cash flows Sales $120.00 $160.00 $140.00 $50.00 Cash operating expenses 84.00 112.00 98.00 35.00 Depreciation 33.33 44.45 14.81 7.41 Operating income before taxes $2.67 $3.55 $27.19 $7.59 Taxes on operating income 0.93 1.24 9.52 2.66 Operating income after taxes $1.74 $2.31 $17.67 $4.93 Add back depreciation 33.33 44.45 14.81 7.41 After-tax operating cash flow $35.07 $46.76 $32.48 $12.34
46.
EXAMPLE: CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 46 Year 4 Terminal year after-tax nonoperating cash flows After-tax salvage value $3.25 Return of net working capital 10.00 Total terminal after-tax non-operating cash flows $13.25
47.
EXAMPLE: CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 47 Year 0 1 2 3 4 Total after-tax cash flow –$110.00 $35.07 $46.76 $32.48 $25.59 Discounted value, at 8% –$110.00 $32.47 $40.09 $25.79 $18.81 Net present value $7.15 Internal rate of return 11.068%
48.
6. MORE ON
CASH FLOW PROJECTIONS Depreciation Issues Replacement Decisions Inflation Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 48
49.
RELEVANT DEPRECIATION • The
relevant depreciation expense to use is the expense allowed for tax purposes. - In the United States, the relevant depreciation is MACRS, which is a set of prescribed rates for prescribed classes (e.g., 3-year, 5-year, 7-year, and 10- year). - MACRS is based on the declining balance method, with an optimal switch to straight-line and half of a year of depreciation in the first year. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 49
50.
EXAMPLE: MACRS Suppose a
U.S. company is investing in an asset that costs $200 million and is depreciated for tax purposes as a five-year asset. The depreciation for tax purposes is (in millions): Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 50 Year MACRS Rate Depreciation 1 20.00% $40.00 2 32.00% 64.00 3 19.20% 38.40 4 11.52% 23.04 5 11.52% 23.04 6 5.76% 11.52 Total 100.00% $200.00
51.
PRESENT VALUE OF
DEPRECIATION TAX SAVINGS • The cash flow generated from the deductibility of depreciation (which itself is a noncash expense) is the product of the tax rate and the depreciation expense. - If the depreciation expense is $40 million, the cash flow from this expense is $40 million × Tax rate. - The present value of these cash flows over the life of the project is the present value of tax savings from depreciation. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 51
52.
PRESENT VALUE OF
DEPRECIATION TAX SAVINGS Continuing the example with the five-year asset, the company’s tax rate is 35% and the appropriate required rate of return is 10%.Therefore, the present value of the tax savings is $55.89 million. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 52 (in millions) Year MACRS Rate Depreciation Tax Savings Present Value of Depreciation Tax Savings 1 20.00% $40.00 $14.00 $12.73 2 32.00% 64.00 22.40 18.51 3 19.20% 38.40 13.44 10.10 4 11.52% 23.04 8.06 5.51 5 11.52% 23.04 8.06 5.01 6 5.76% 11.52 4.03 4.03 $200.00 $69.99 $55.89
53.
CASH FLOWS FOR
A REPLACEMENT PROJECT • When there is a replacement decision, the relevant cash flows expand to consider the disposition of the replaced assets: - Incremental depreciation expense (old versus new depreciation) - Other incremental operating expenses - Nonoperating expenses • Key: The relevant cash flows are those that change with the replacement. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 53
54.
SPREADSHEET MODELING • We
can use spreadsheets (e.g., Microsoft Excel) to model the capital budgeting problem. • Useful Excel functions: - Data tables - NPV - IRR • A spreadsheet makes it easier for the user to perform sensitivity and simulation analyses. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 54
55.
EFFECTS OF INFLATION
ON CAPITAL BUDGETING ANALYSIS • Issue: Although the nominal required rate of return reflects inflation expectations and sales and operating expenses are affected by inflation, - The effect of inflation may not be the same for sales as operating expenses. - Depreciation is not affected by inflation. - The fixed cost nature of payments to bondholders may result in a benefit or a cost to the company, depending on inflation relative to expected inflation. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 55
56.
7. PROJECT ANALYSIS
AND EVALUATION What if we are choosing among mutually exclusive projects that have different useful lives? What happens under capital rationing? How do we deal with risk? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 56
57.
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE PROJECTS WITH
UNEQUAL LIVES • When comparing projects that have different useful lives, we cannot simply compare NPVs because the timing of replacing the projects would be different, and hence, the number of replacements between the projects would be different in order to accomplish the same function. • Approaches 1. Determine the least common life for a finite number of replacements and calculate NPV for each project. 2. Determine the annual annuity that is equivalent to investing in each project ad infinitum (that is, calculate the equivalent annual annuity, or EAA). Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 57
58.
EXAMPLE: UNEQUAL LIVES Consider
two projects, Project G and Project H, both with a required rate of return of 5%: Which project should be selected, and why? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 58 End-of-Year Cash Flows Year Project G Project H 0 –$100 –$100 1 30 38 2 30 39 3 30 40 4 30 NPV $6.38 $6.12
59.
EXAMPLE: UNEQUAL LIVES NPV
WITH A FINITE NUMBER OF REPLACEMENTS Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Project G $6.38 $6.38 $6.38 Project H $6.12 $6.12 $6.12 $6.12 Project G: Two replacements Project H: Three replacements NPV of Project G: original, plus two replacements = $17.37 NPV of Project H: original, plus three replacements = $21.69
60.
EXAMPLE: UNEQUAL LIVES EQUIVALENT
ANNUAL ANNUITY Project G PV = $6.38 N = 4 I = 5% Solve for PMT PMT = $1.80 Project H PV = $6.12 N = 3 I = 5% Solve for PMT PMT = $2.25 Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 60 Therefore, Project H is preferred (higher equivalent annual annuity).
61.
DECISION MAKING UNDER CAPITAL
RATIONING • When there is capital rationing, the company may not be able to invest in all profitable projects. • The key to decision making under capital rationing is to select those projects that maximize the total net present value given the limit on the capital budget. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 61
62.
EXAMPLE: CAPITAL RATIONING •
Consider the following projects, all with a required rate of return of 4%: Which projects, if any, should be selected if the capital budget is: 1. $100? 2. $200? 3. $300? 4. $400? 5. $500? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 62 Project Initial Outlay NPV PI IRR One –$100 $20 1.20 15% Two –$300 $30 1.10 10% Three –$400 $40 1.10 8% Four –$500 $45 1.09 5% Five –$200 $15 1.08 5%
63.
EXAMPLE: CAPITAL RATIONING Possible
decisions: Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 63 Budget Choices NPV Choices NPV Choices NPV $100 One $20 $200 One $20 Two $15 $300 One + Five $35 Two $15 $400 One + Two $50 Three $40 $500 One + Three $60 Four $45 Two + Five $45 Key: Maximize the total net present value for any given budget. Optimal choices
64.
RISK ANALYSIS: STAND-ALONE
METHODS • Sensitivity analysis involves examining the effect on NPV of changes in one input variable at a time. • Scenario analysis involves examining the effect on NPV of a set of changes that reflect a scenario (e.g., recession, normal, or boom economic environments). • Simulation analysis (Monte Carlo analysis) involves examining the effect on NPV when all uncertain inputs follow their respective probability distributions. - With a large number of simulations, we can determine the distribution of NPVs. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 64
65.
RISK ANALYSIS: MARKET
RISK METHODS The required rate of return, when using a market risk method, is the return that a diversified investor would require for the project’s risk. - Therefore, the required rate of return is a risk-adjusted rate. - We can use models, such as the CAPM or the arbitrage pricing theory, to estimate the required return. Using CAPM, ri = RF + βi [E(RM) – RF] (10) where ri = required return for project or asset i RF = risk-free rate of return βi = beta of project or asset i [E(RM) – RF] = market risk premium, the difference between the expected market return and the risk-free rate of return Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 65
66.
REAL OPTIONS • A
real option is an option associated with a real asset that allows the company to enhance or alter the project’s value with decisions some time in the future. • Real option examples: - Timing option: Allow the company to delay the investment - Sizing option: Allow the company to expand, grow, or abandon a project - Flexibility option: Allow the company to alter operations, such as changing prices or substituting inputs - Fundamental option: Allow the company to alter its decisions based on future events (e.g., drill based on price of oil, continued R&D depending on initial results) Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 66
67.
ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS FOR
ANALYZING PROJECTS WITH REAL OPTIONS Use NPV without considering real options; if positive, the real options would not change the decision. Estimate NPV = NPV – Cost of real options + Value of real options. Use decision trees to value the options at different decision junctures. Use option-pricing models, although the valuation of real options becomes complex quite easily. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 67
68.
COMMON CAPITAL BUDGETING
PITFALLS • Not incorporating economic responses into the investment analysis • Misusing capital budgeting templates • Pet projects • Basing investment decisions on EPS, net income, or return on equity • Using IRR to make investment decisions • Bad accounting for cash flows • Overhead costs • Not using the appropriate risk-adjusted discount rate • Spending all of the investment budget just because it is available • Failure to consider investment alternatives • Handling sunk costs and opportunity costs incorrectly Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 68
69.
8. OTHER INCOME
MEASURES AND VALUATION MODELS • In the basic capital budgeting model, we estimate the incremental cash flows associated with acquiring the assets, operating the project, and terminating the project. • Once we have the incremental cash flows for each period of the capital project’s useful life, including the initial outlay, we apply the net present value or internal rate of return methods to evaluate the project. • Other income measures are variations on the basic capital budgeting model. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 69
70.
ECONOMIC AND ACCOUNTING
INCOME Accounting Income • Focus on income • Depreciation based on original cost Economic Income • Focus on cash flow and change in market value • Depreciation based on loss of market value Cash Flows for Capital Budgeting • Focus on cash flow • Depreciation based on tax basis Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 70
71.
ECONOMIC PROFIT, RESIDUAL
INCOME, AND CLAIMS VALUATION • Economic profit (EP) is the difference between net operating profit after tax (NOPAT) and the cost of capital (in monetary terms). EP = NOPAT – $WACC (12) • Residual income (RI) is the difference between accounting net income and an equity charge. - The equity charge reflects the required rate of return on equity (re) multiplied by the book value of equity (Bt-1). RIt = NIt – reBt–1 (15) • Claims valuation is the division of the value of assets among security holders based on claims (e.g., interest and principal payments to bondholders). Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 71
72.
EXAMPLE: ECONOMIC VS. ACCOUNTING
INCOME Consider the Hoofdstad Project again, with the after-tax cash flows as before, plus additional information: What is this project’s economic and accounting income? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 72 Year 1 2 3 4 After-tax operating cash flow $35.07 $46.76 $32.48 $12.34 Beginning market value (project) $10.00 $15.00 $17.00 $19.00 Ending market value (project) $15.00 $17.00 $19.00 $20.00 Debt $50.00 $50.00 $50.00 $50.00 Book equity $47.74 $46.04 $59.72 $60.65 Market value of equity $55.00 $49.74 $48.04 $60.72
73.
EXAMPLE: ECONOMIC VS. ACCOUNTING
INCOME Solution: Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 73 Year 1 2 3 4 Economic income $40.07 $48.76 $34.48 $13.34 Accounting income –$2.26 –$1.69 $13.67 $0.93
74.
RESIDUAL INCOME METHOD •
The residual income method requires: - Estimating the return on equity; - Estimating the equity charge, which is the product of the return on equity and the book value of equity; and - Subtracting the equity charge from the net income. RIt = NIt – reBt–1 (15) where RIt = Residual income during period t NIt = Net income during period t reBt–1 = Equity charge for period t, which is the required rate of return on equity, re, times the beginning-of-period book value of equity, Bt–1 Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 74
75.
EXAMPLE: RESIDUAL INCOME
METHOD Suppose the Boat Company has the following estimates, in millions: The residual income for each year, in millions: Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 75 Year 1 2 3 4 Net income $46 $49 $56 $56 Book value of equity $78 $81 $84 $85 Required rate of return on equity 12% 12% 12% 12% Year 1 2 3 4 Step 1 Start with Book value of equity $78 $81 $84 $85 Multiply by Required rate of return on equity 12% 12% 12% 12% Equals Required earnings on equity $9 $10 $10 $10 Step 2 Start with Net income $46 $49 $56 $56 Subtract Required earnings on equity 9 10 10 10 Equals Residual income $37 $39 $46 $46
76.
EXAMPLE: RESIDUAL METHOD •
The present value of the residual income, discounted using the 12% required rate of return, is $126 million. • This is an estimate of how much value a project will add (or subtract, if negative). Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 76
77.
CLAIMS VALUATION • The
claims valuation method simply divides the “claims” of the suppliers of capital (creditors and owners) and then values the equity distributions. - The claims of creditors are the interest and principal payments on the debt. - The claims of the owners are the anticipated dividends. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 77
78.
EXAMPLE: CLAIMS VALUATION Suppose
the Portfolio Company has the following estimates, in millions: 1. What are the distributions to owners if dividends are 50% of earnings after principal payments? 2. What is the value of the distributions to owners if the required rate of return is 12% and the before-tax cost of debt is 8%? Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 78 Year 1 2 3 4 Cash flow before interest and taxes $80 $85 $95 $95 Interest expense 4 3 2 1 Cash flow before taxes $76 $82 $93 $94 Taxes 30 33 37 38 Operating cash flow $46 $49 $56 $56 Principal payments $11 $12 $13 $14
79.
EXAMPLE: CLAIMS VALUATION Year
1 2 3 4 Start with Interest expense $4 $3 $2 $1 Add Principal payments 11 12 13 14 Equals Total payments to bondholders $15 $15 $15 $15 Start with Operating cash flow $46 $49 $56 $56 Subtract Principal payments to bondholders 11 12 13 14 Equals Cash flow after principal payments $35 $37 $43 $42 Multiply by Portion of cash flow distributed 50% 50% 50% 50% Equals Equity distribution $17 $19 $21 $21 Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 79 1. Distributions to Owners:
80.
EXAMPLE: CLAIMS VALUATION 2.
Value of Claims Present value of debt claims = $50 Present value of equity claims = $59 Therefore, the value of the firm = $109 Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 80
81.
COMPARISON OF METHODS Issue Traditional Capital Budgeting Economic Profit Residual Income Claims Valuation Uses
net income or cash flow? Cash flow Cash flow Net income Cash flow Is there an equity charge? In the cost of capital In the cost of capital in dollar terms Using the required rate of return No Based on actual distributions to debtholders and owners? No No No Yes Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 81
82.
9. SUMMARY • Capital
budgeting is used by most large companies to select among available long-term investments. • The process involves generating ideas, analyzing proposed projects, planning the budget, and monitoring and evaluating the results. • Projects may be of many different types (e.g., replacement, new product), but the principles of analysis are the same: Identify incremental cash flows for each relevant period. • Incremental cash flows do not explicitly include financing costs, but are discounted at a risk-adjusted rate that reflects what owners require. • Methods of evaluating a project’s cash flows include the net present value, the internal rate of return, the payback period, the discounted payback period, the accounting rate of return, and the profitability index. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 82
83.
SUMMARY (CONTINUED) • The
preferred capital budgeting methods are the net present value, internal rate of return, and the profitability index. - In the case of selecting among mutually exclusive projects, analysts should use the NPV method. - The IRR method may be problematic when a project has a nonconventional cash flow pattern. - The NPV is the expected added value from a project. • We can look at the sensitivity of the NPV of a project using the NPV profile, which illustrates the NPV for different required rates of return. • We can identify cash flows relating to the initial outlay, operating cash flows, and terminal, nonoperating cash flows. - Inflation may affect the various cash flows differently, so this should be explicitly included in the analysis. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 83
84.
SUMMARY (CONTINUED) • When
comparing projects that have different useful lives, we can either assume a finite number of replacements of each so that the projects have a common life or we can use the equivalent annual annuity approach. • We can use sensitivity analysis, scenario analysis, or simulation to examine a project’s attractiveness under different conditions. • The discount rate applied to cash flows or used as a hurdle in the internal rate of return method should reflect the project’s risk. - We can use different methods, such as the capital asset pricing model, to estimate a project’s required rate of return. • Most projects have some form of real options built in, and the value of a real option may affect the project’s attractiveness. • There are valuation alternatives to traditional capital budgeting methods, including economic profit, residual income, and claims valuation. Copyright © 2013 CFA Institute 84
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