Cell Fingerprinting

Cell Fingerprinting
Kenneth Ain is very well–known for his thyroid oncology program at UOK and has more than 70
publications towards his name.
He also has 18 immortal cell lines that were created by taking tissue from the tumors of his patients.
Thyroid Carcinoma affects 60,000 Americans every year.
Someone from the Colorado School of Medicine noticed that the cell lines made by Ain had been
contaminated or misinterpreted, some even changed by other cancer cells.
Ain discovered that 17/18 of the his KAT lines turned out to be imposters.
Many of the original lines were melanoma and colon cancer. These types grow fast and encompass
the thyroid malignancies.
During experiments there was human error in which a scientists used a pipette twice, causing
contamination. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cell cultures began use in 1907, they seemed almost like a phenomenon.
The HeLa line is very famous cell line created from the cervical cancer of women.
It allowed people to study diseases such as polio and HIV.
The unknown contamination of cell lines can lead to problematic issues such as patents and wrong
publications.
Roland Nardone had 45,000 scientists tested their lines for contamination.
If two lines have the same STR result when fingerprinted they are the same.
Today, there are 50 year old imposter cell lines that are still in use.
An issue with fingerprinting is that it does not tell you the origin of a cell, only if it is a copy of
another.
When creating drugs for a certain cancer using the wrong line could cause people to make a drug for
the wrong illness, making it useless.
After tediously cleaning the laboratories and developing new lines that were fingerprinted
immediately they got contaminated again in 2013 for an unknown reason.
Korch exposed 19 endometrial and ovarian cell lines that were false, some created from normal
tissue allowing to help prevent cancer from beginning.
When cell lines are told to be imposters journalists will still call it x–like whatever it was suppose to
be to write about it
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Cancer Of Cervix Essay
Gynaec Oncology
Cancer of Cervix
If your loved one or you is diagnosed with or may think that you have cervical cancer, the cancer of
cervix team at Radium Cancer Hospital is here to treat you. We hold internationally recognized
physicians who are dedicated to offer compassionate care, treatment, support and personalized
diagnosis for patients suffering with cervical cancer or any member in your family.
Radium Cancer Hospital offers exceptional care by
 Leading gynaec oncology specialists serve you in diagnosis and treatment.
 Through our world class Pap smear evaluation center, systematic Pap smear assessment and
management is carried out for all patients.
 Specialised care, radiation treatments, tissue biopsy, etc is.
Cancer of Ovary and Fallopian Tube
The advancement of medicines and technology is reflected in ovarian cancer, which it would be no
longer considered as a type of cancer. Ovarian Cancer has several types and identifying it exactly
requires the skill of experienced physicians. Radium Cancer Hospital holds highly skilled
pathologists, experienced in making correct diagnosis to treat the particular type of cancer. Here is
why, it is necessary to select a renowned cancer team dedicated to treat all types of ovarian cancer.
We are one of the leading women's cancer centers in India. Our researchers and pathologists are
capable in diagnosing ovarian cancers that includes epithelial, germ cell, primary peritoneal
carcinoma, and sex cord stromal.
Cancer of

Case Study Of Beta HCG Quant : Is : R / O Pregnancy
(1). Beta HCG Quant: is (–) r/o pregnancy; cost $21.03 (Epocrates, 2016). (2). CBC with platelet
count: to r/o anemia, infection, & thrombocytopenia is (–); cost $29.00 (Find lab test.com, 2017).
(3) TSH is (–) for both hypothyroidism & hyperthyroidism; cost $23.47 (Epocrates, 2016). (4). CMP
to obtain liver function test and baseline electrolytes; cost $14.77 (Epocrates, 2016). (5). Prolactin
level if the patient reported period of (>35–day cycles) oligomenorrhea or galactorrhea is (–) for
hyperprolactinemia; cost $27.08 (Epocrates, 2016). High prolactin levels have a higher association
with amenorrhea but without knowing the full history this is a possible lab to obtain. (6) NAAT
urine: Chlamydia/Gonorrhea is (–) to r/o infection if ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
High prolactin levels have a higher association with amenorrhea but without knowing the full
history this is a possible lab to obtain; cost $27.08 (Epocrates, 2016). (6) NAAT urine:
Chlamydia/Gonorrhea is (–) to r/o infection if she has + risk factor of having a new sexual partner or
multiple sexual partners in the recent 6 months; $27.37 & $16.76 (Epocrates, 2016). (7) Pap smear
with contesting for HPV (–) to rule out cervical cancer during exam at clinic if not up–to–date; cost
$80.00 + $49.04 (Epocrates, 2016). (8). Fecal occult blood test: depending on the history this would
be another possible test that I would order to rule out colon as the site of bleeding; cost 84.00 (Find
lab test online.com, 2017). (9). Transvaginal u/s is (–) for any structural abnormalities. Transvaginal
u/s is useful in measuring the endometrial thickness; preferably to be completed on day 6 of the
menstrual cycle; costs $575.00 (New Choice Health, 2017). (10). Endometrial biopsy is (–) to r/o a
premalignant lesion or endometrial cancer; cost $511.00 (MD Sav, n.d.). Reference: Juve,
Schadewald, Youngkin, & Davis, 2013
(1). Beta HCG Quant (–) r/o pregnancy; cost $21.03 (Epocrates, 2016). (2) Transvaginal ultrasound
is (+) endometrial is thicken but it may not provide adequate information because the patient's
hormones are fluctuating; the endometrial stripe < 5 mm; cost $575.00 (New Choice Health, 2017).
(3). Endometrial biopsy is (+)

Breast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer
One out of eight women around the world develops the most common disease called Breast Cancer.
In the United States, about 200,000 women suffer from this disease and it causes more than 40,000
death each year. Breast cancer is a cancer cell (malignant tumor) that forms in the breast. The
cancerous cells grow in the breast and then invade the healthy cells and the surrounding tissues of
the breast and it can also spread into other parts of the body. Breast cancer is more common in
women but men can also get it too. One of the reasons that males are less likely to develop breast
cancer because males have less estrogen and progesterone hormones which is a higher risk of breast
cancer cell to grow. There are many risks factors that can cause ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
According to Stephanie R. Land (2014), Cigarette smoking, physical activity, and alcohol
consumption have been implicated in previous studies as risk or protective factors for cancer at a
number of organ sites. Cigarette smoking, long known to increase the risk of lung cancer, is also
associated with increased risk of many other cancers, including those of the colon and breast (1–10).
There is an inverse effect of cigarette smoking for endometrial cancer, especially among
postmenopausal overweight or obese women (due possibly to an antiestrogenic effect of smoking;
refs. (11–16). Physical activity seems to be a protective factor for many cancers (17–21). Alcohol
consumption has been associated with increased risks of breast, lung, and colon cancer, among
others (22–24). The evidence is stronger for some of these associations than others, and the
generalizability across populations varies as well.
Every women is different so they develop different types of breast cancer. Breast cancer occurs
under two categories: invasive and noninvasive. Invasive breast cancer is cancerous cells that can
break through breast tissues and spread into different parts of the body through bloodstreams and
lymph nodes. Noninvasive breast cancer is cancerous cells that stay in only one area of the breast
and it cannot extend in other surrounding tissue. Other types of breast cancer are; Paget 's disease of
the nipple, phyllodes tumor, mucinous carcinoma, sarcoma of the

Overexpression Case Study
p16INK4a overexpression in pre–malignant lesions
Several pieces of evidence suggested that the ability to bypass senescence is the main molecular
mechanism involved in the progression of pre–malignant to malignant cells (Braig 2005; Collado
2007). This hypothesis is based on the concept of oncogene–induced senescence, which was
established after demonstration of p53– and p16Ink4a – mediated senescent–like arrest in response
to expression of oncogenic Ras in normal primary cells (Collado 2007). This event (OIS) has been
considered as highly possible mechanism to prevent proliferation of incipient cancer cells (Sinha
2015). Consistent with this concept, senescent cells have been shown in a number of different
benign lesions, including ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
p16INK4a methylation could thus have a diagnostic application; it can be used in the differential
diagnosis from pre–malignant and malignant lesions (Feng 2015).
OIS is emerging as a potent cancer–protective response to oncogenic events, serving to eliminate
early neoplastic cells from the proliferative pool. Kuilman et al. (2008) reported a unique role of
interleukin–6 (IL–6) in OIS of cancer cells. Using combined genetic and bioinformatic analysis,
they found that OIS was linked specifically to the activation of an inflammatory transcriptome.
Induced genes included IL–6, which upon secretion by senescent cells acted mitogenically in a
paracrine fashion (Kuilman 2008). IL–6 was also required for the execution of OIS, but in a cell–
autonomous fashion. Its depletion caused the inflammatory network to collapse and abolished
senescence entry and maintenance. They also demonstrated that C/EBPβ cooperated with IL–6 to
amplify the activation of the inflammatory network, including IL–8. In human colon adenomas, IL–
8 specifically colocalized with arrested, p16INK4a–positive epithelium. They proposed a model in
which the context–dependent cytostatic and pro–mitogenic functions of interleukins contribute to
connect senescence with an inflammatory phenotype and cancer. The role of role of IL–6 in OIS has
been confirmed by later studies

The Problem And Its Background Of Cervical Cancer
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Introduction Throughout the world and through the years, it is always a traumatic experience being
faced by patients diagnosed with cancer, popularly identified as "The Big C". There are several
challenges one has to face. Among the hundred of cases conducted on patients with cancer ,
particularly on women , the extraordinary reality is that the cancer is not always the most difficult
part of their lives. Instead , it maybe directed at problems of living that are related only tangentially
to cancer. "The Big C" – otherwise known as cancer – is the third leading cause of death in the
Philippines. In recent years, between the years 1980 to 1995, cervical cancer or cancer of the cervix
has been ranked amongst the most prominent types of cancer in the country, third only to lung
(ranked first) and breast cancer (second). It is interesting to note that cervical cancer is the first
gyne–type cancer that appears on the "Leading Sites of Cancer" list. This simply means that we are
aware of the dangers posted by lung and breast cancer. So much so, that significant time and
attention has been given to it to promote early detection and prevention.
Although we cannot singularly undermine these types of cancer, it cannot be denied that cervical
cancer has indeed claimed so many lives of women. It is impossible not to find a family that has lost
a sister, a mother, a grandmother or a friend because of this disease. Cervical cancer is an

Endometrial Vs Ovarian Cancer
Endometrial and Ovarian Cancer are two of a fatal diseases that occur among woman. Infect
Ovarian cancer is more fatal than endometrial cancer and accounts for almost half of the
gynecologic cancer mortality in the world. Therefore there needs to be a careful analysis of the
contributing factors which increase the risk of these diseases.
Risk Factors:
Endometrial Cancer – Obesity and increased BMI are the most common risk factors for endometrial
cancer. There have been researches which reveal that body structure and size especially during
adolescence period have a profound effect on the probability of this disease. High dietary fat intake
and estrogen exposure are some of the other contributing factors towards endometrial cancer
(Schultz,

Skin Cancer Symptoms
Many people believe that the symptoms of cancer are not present until the malignant tumor has
spread beyond the stages at which it can be treated. This is not entirely true. Some types of cancer
tend to be particularly "elusive" and do not manifest themselves in any way. However, most forms
of the condition have noticeable symptoms. The problem is that they are usually similar to the ones
of common and much less serious illnesses.
For all this reason it is worth learning more about the most common cancer warning signs that can
be easily ignored. It is true that the symptoms may signal another medical condition, but this should
not stop you from seeing your doctor immediately. In this way, you will have the peace of mind that
you are fine. Even if you are diagnosed with a less serious medical condition, it will still need
treatment.
Pain is probably the most common ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If you notice that a lump or swelling of the lymph nodes and it is persistent, a medical check is
necessary. If these symptoms are not caused by an infection or another illness, you will most likely
be tested for cancer.
Skin changes the most notable skin cancer symptoms. An abnormal mole is relatively easy to notice.
It should be examined by a physician right away.
Difficulty swallowing is one of the symptoms of cancer that is extremely easy to notice. It is a signal
that you may have a type of gastrointestinal cancer and esophagus cancer, in particular. It might also
suggest the present of a tumor in the throat.
Changes in the breast of women, in their texture, skin or temperature may be warning signs of breast
cancer. This is true for changes in the nipples as well. Men should be equally worried, if they notice
these symptoms and mass building in their breast area, in particular.
In general, try not to deny the presence of these symptoms of cancer and take measures for
identifying the problem straight

Stage IIIA Endometrial Cancer Case Study
In the article given, a 53–year old gravida 2 para 1 patient with Stage IIIA endometrial cancer went
at Women and Infants ambulatory surgical unit for a lymph node dissection and a bilateral salpingo–
oophorectomy (Yee, 2017). Before the initial agreement for the operation, a medical staff reviewed
to the patient all of the necessary informed consent contract, including the reasons and benefits of
the procedure, as well as the risks of refusing it. The patient was noticeably anxious, but proceeded
to sign the consent form. After the anesthesia team evaluated the patient and determined that the
patient had type 2 diabetes, anxiety disorder, hypertension, a BMI of 58.2, and a Mallampati Class
IV airway difficult for intubation (Yee, 2017). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It would have been just for the medical team to assess the anxiety of the patient before preceding the
surgery. The right for consent and autonomy of the patient conflicted with the decision of the
medical team resulting to an ethical dilemma in this case. An informed consent can be accomplished
through communication, implicit or explicit, or a signed consent (Taylor, 2013). The individual must
be competent, which means capable of understanding, retaining, using and weighing information to
communicate decision with others, in order for the consent to be valid (Taylor, 2013). In addition,
the consent should be taken without any medical administration, or distress that can compromise the
patient's competency. The result of an individual or team that committed non–consensual act can be
charged with battery, or assault (Taylor, 2013). According to the code of ethics, the health care
teams have an obligation to honor the patient's decision to withdraw (Lachman, 2015). The medical
team ignored the withdrawal of the patient concerning the surgery and continues to proceed with the
operation, which is a breach from the patient's consent. If the patient's rejection is discarded, it also
violates the patient's autonomy, which is the capacity to act freely with decision and independently
(Purtilo, 2013). According to the code of ethics, "patients have the moral and legal right to
determine what will be done with and to their person,"

Endometrial Cancer Research Paper
Endometrial cancer is one of the most common forms of gynaecological cancer in the developed
countries, and is the sixth most common cancer in the women.12 Endometrial cancer appears most
frequently during perimenopause (between the ages of 50 and 65;13overall, 75% of endometrial
cancer occurs after menopause.14 Women younger than 40 make up 5% of endometrial cancer cases
and 10–15% of cases occur in women under 50 years of age. The prognosis is generally good, as the
cancer is often diagnosed while the tumour is confined to the uterine corpus. The five–year survival
rate for endometrial adenocarcinoma following appropriate treatment is 80%.15 Early diagnosis and
treatment are important because the 5–year survival of patients varies from 90% to 100% in patients
with little or no myometrial involvement, to 40% to 60% in patients with deep myometrial
invasion.6
Endometrial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The oldest and most commonly used is Endometrial curettage. Vacuum–suction curettage devices
like Vabra aspirator (Berkeley Medevices, Berkeley, California) allowed sampling without the need
of anesthesia . It was found to be 86% accurate in diagnosing cancer.21 Recently Pipelle device
(Unimar, Wilton, Connecticut), which is cheaper , smaller and less painful is popular and has similar
efficacy.

Primary Care Providers ( Pcp )
Primary care providers (PCP) can play a key role in educating and encouraging high risk individuals
and in a patients understanding of risk perceptions and acceptance of genetic risk associated to LS
cancers, as PCP support is influential in an individual's ability to adjust to carrier status and
acceptance of surveillance regimens (Marquez et al., 2013; Marzuillo et al., 2013). PCP's knowledge
of LS screening of patients with cancers in a health care delivery organizations can be instrumental
in assessing of LS, implementation, and knowledge of collaborating with a genetic team in a
patients care, ensuring test completion and follow up to abnormal screening, which can result in
successful implementation of routine screening and assist patients in adhering to a colonoscopic
surveillance program (de jong et al., 2005; Marzuillo et al., 2013). The incidence of cancer in young
onset has raised steadily for the last three decades, due to different types of cancer, more
specifically, undetected genetic cancers seen in LS (Rosato et al., 2013; NIH, 2016).
The number of deaths in young onset genetic cancers has been increasing, indicating a lack of
progress in LS awareness (Tan et al., 2014). The increase in mortality may be linked to health care
barriers and lack of genetic risk education in high risk families, therefore emphasizing the
importance of a PCP's role in young adult care, such as recommending screening protocol for those
at risk for LS, beginning at age 20–25 years,

Colorectal Cancer : The Third Most Common Cancer Among Men...
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer among men and women in the United States, and
mutations in the MUTYH gene significantly increase the risk of developing polyps that may evolve
into cancer.1,2 Biallelic mutations in the MUTYH gene can lead to MYH–Associated Polyposis
(MAP), which causes the growth of dozens to hundreds of polyps, furthering increasing the risk for
colon cancer.2 Meanwhile, recent studies have shown that both biallelic and monoallelic mutations
can contribute to bladder, ovarian, gastric, hepatobiliary, endometrial, and breast cancer.3 The
MUTYH gene itself codes for the MYH glycosylase enzyme, which repairs mistakes in DNA
caused by reactive oxygen species.3,4 Also a sign of oxidative stress, the oxidation product, 8–oxo–
7,8–dihydro–2–deoxyguanosine (OG), mimics thymine, eventually matching with adenine and
resulting in a complete loss of the cytosine–guanine pair.4 MUTYH removes the undamaged A base
from the mismatched pair, aiding in the correction of such damage.4 However, when MUTYH is
mutated, there is an increase in G to T mutations, which can eventually affect the tumor suppressor
genes APC and K–ras and lead to tumor formation.4 The MUTYH variants Y165C and G382D are
the most common mutations seen in individuals with MAP, and for this reason are of great interest
in research working towards reducing the risk of colorectal cancer.2,4 In recent years, the
CRISPR/Cas system for gene editing has become the preferred method for

Ovarian Cancer : A Lethal Gynecological Malignancy
Ovarian cancer is a lethal gynecological malignancy; although median age of diagnosis is 56 and
older (post–menopausal) it can affect women of any child–birthing age. It is the 5th most common
cancer diagnosed in the UK with 7,284 new cases in 2013 (Ovarian Cancer Statistics, 2013)
Although the incidence is less than that of breast cancer, there is a greater number of deaths (4,271
deaths) associated with it. Almost three–quarters of the ovarian cancer are diagnosed at late stages
after tumors have metastasized within the peritoneal cavity.
Ovarian cancer can either affect the epithelial lining of the ovaries or arise from non–epithelial
origins. Approximately 90% of primary malignant tumors present as epithelial carcinomas (EC). ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Type II carcinomas (high grade serous, high grade endometrioid and undifferentiated carcinomas)
present at advanced stages, are genetically unstable and aggressive (Koshiyama, Matsumura and
Konishi, 2014).
One of the main reasons that ovarian cancer goes undetected for so long is because symptoms
presented are similar to other gastrointestinal disorders and is commonly misdiagnosed as Irritable
Bowel Syndrome. Symptoms include abdominal discomfort, abdominal fullness, bowel habit
changes, bloating and dyspepsia (Bankhead et al., 2014).
If symptoms persist and the GP suspects ovarian cancer, a blood test is commonly performed to
detect for protein CA125 in blood; a tumor marker used to assess ovarian cancer. However, this
method is not specific because elevated levels are common in other gynecological conditions such
as endometriosis, adenomyosis and fibroids (Chu and Rubin, 2006). The increased levels may be an
indicator since normal surface epithelium of the ovary does not express this protein and other tests
can be performed to confirm the diagnosis. Also a transvaginal ultrasound is done where a probe is
inserted into the vagina to examine the fallopian tubes, womb and ovaries to detect any
abnormalities. When a tumor is suspected, a gynecological laparoscopy is performed where the
fallopian tubes,

The Most Common Types Of Cancer
The unforgivable disease, cancer has plagued our society for years. Cancer has dated back to 3000
BC. From then to now, many people have been diagnosed and died due to this monstrosity of a
disease. Since 1990, approximately 11 million new cancer cases have been diagnosed and 5 million
lives have been taken. In 2016, 1,685,210 new cases of cancer will be diagnosed in the United
States and 595,690 people will die due to cancer. The most common types of cancer today are breast
cancer, lung and bronchus cancer, prostate cancer, colon and rectum cancer, bladder cancer,
melanoma of the skin, non–Hodgkin lymphoma, thyroid cancer, kidney and renal pelvis cancer,
leukemia, endometrial cancer, and pancreatic cancer.
Throughout our battle with solving the riddle we call cancer, we have learned important information
needed to help us in defeating it. We now know how certain types of cancers can be avoided, we
know what can help to push cancer into remission, we now know how to identify cancer in the early
stages, and etc. By studying this disease throughout the years we have reached some very important
milestones in the steps to finding a cure. The most important discovery would be the answer to this
question, who does cancer choose? As we all know there isn't a cancer gene, we aren't born with
cancer. It develops over the years. So scientists all over the globe asked themselves this question,
"what is it that everyone who has ever succumbed to this disease have in common?" They

Endometrial Cancer Papers
Endometrial Cancer and what all women should know
Leah Hanuska
Mohave Community College
Mea 205
Melody Redman
April 14, 2017
Authors Note
This paper was prepared for MEA 205, taught by Melody Redman Abstract
This paper will explain what every woman, teenager, and parent who has female daughter's needs to
know about endometrial cancer. It is important for women to educate themselves about this common
disease, but it is also important for parents. If you have abnormal vaginal bleeding that is not related
to menses, there is a clear vaginal discharge, you have long and / or heavy bleeding after the age of
40, difficult or painful urination, pain in the pelvic area, or if you feel any kind of pain after
intercourse, that it is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The endometrium is the lining of the uterus, a hollow, muscular organ in a woman's pelvis. The
uterus is where a fetus grows. In most non pregnant women, the uterus is about 3 inches long. The
lower, narrow end of the uterus is the cervix, which leads to the vagina". (www.cancer.gov 2017)
One of the risk factors for endometrial cancer is obesity. These women who are heavier they carry
more fat cells than someone who is not obese. Because there has been such a rise in obesity, this
now affects children and teens. There seem to be more cases in younger women today. Other risk
factors are the use of Tamoxifen. This is a drug that is used to treat breast cancer, and while
tamoxifen is for breast cancer it hinders the endometrium. It can cause cancer cells in the lining of
the wall to grow, therefore causing endometrium cancer.
Poly Cystic Ovarian Syndrome (pcos) is another risk factor. PCOS happens when little cysts
continue to grow on the ovaries and, filling with fluid and causing pain. PCOS is an imbalance in a
woman's hormones; it causes the excess of progesterone, estrogen, and can cause

Outline On Cancer Research Paper
Cancer
There are over 200 different types of cancer. The cell that is involved determines which cancer it is.
Cancer is characterized by rapid cell growth. It is considered the leading cause of death in the world,
but it's the second in the United States. In a year more than 1.5 million people are diagnosed with
cancer just in the United States. Of those diagnosed, over 500,000 will die from this disease. African
Americans are more likely to die of cancer than any other race.
Cancer harms the body when altered cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue
which is called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits normal blood function
by abnormal cell division in the blood stream). Tumors can grow and

Endometrial Cancer In Women
" Worldwide, cervical cancer is both the fourth–most common cause of cancer and deaths from
cancer in women. It is the second–most common cause of female–specific cancer after breast
cancer, accounting for around 8% of both total cancer cases and total cancer deaths in women and
About 80% of cervical cancers occur in developing countries." (www.uswow.com) Endometrial
disease is the most common gynecological malignancy for the most part influencing ladies in the
post–menopausal age bunch. Rates change overall and are most elevated in white ladies in Western
populaces. Some danger variables are identified with proliferation, for example, early age at
menarche, late age at menopause and null parity, while others are all the more specifically ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is regularly found in relationship with atypical endometrial hyperplasia, which is thought to be a
forerunner injury. Sort II endometrial diseases, are thought to be estrogen autonomous, happening in
more seasoned ladies, with high–review histologist, for example, uterine papillary serous or clear
cell. (http://emedicine.medscape.com) Endometrial tumor is as of now the commonest pelvic threat
influencing American ladies, a large portion of who offer the same pathophysiologic premise, that
is, unopposed estrogenic incitement. The introductory aftereffect of hyperestrogenism is the
improvement of endometrial hyperplasia, which is reversible by and large by fitting hormonal
treatment. Steady incitement in the end prompts atypical hyperplasia with atomic atypia and
obtrusive carcinoma. Since there is no practical screening strategy for the location of endometrial
hyperplasia and carcinoma, it is vital to study the high–chance populace with suitable indicative
strategies. After conclusion, treatment ought to be individualized in view of pathologic discoveries
(cell sort and histologic evaluation) and degree of sickness (International Federation of
Gynecologists and Obstetricians stage, profundity of myometrium attack, and pelvic and para–aortic
lymph hub status). Late studies propose that sex hormone receptors

The Hazardous Disease of Obesity
"Obesity is defined as having excess body fat (CDC)." Obesity quickly spreads and is a hazardous
disease. Obesity is very different from being overweight. Overweight is just another term for being
fat whereas, obesity means that one's body contains thirty percent or more body fat. (CDC) The term
"globesity (WHO)," was first used by World Health Organization, meaning obesity is affecting a
great proportion of Earth's population. W. H.O. Termed the word globesity because obesity has
turned into a global epidemic and is very popular. (WHO)The older humans get the harder it is to
lose weight! As one gets older it becomes more difficult to lose weight because ones metabolism
slows down.(Allman) When it comes to check someone's weight, a good way to find out if one is
overweight or even obese is to check ones BMI or body mass index. If ones BMI is between
twenty–five and twenty–nine, he/she are considered overweight. If ones BMI is, thirty plus then
he/she is considered obese. (Overweight) Many parents often claim that their child is not overweight
and just has a little baby fat. In fact, baby fat often turns into obesity by second–grade and is no
longer considered baby fat at the age of five. (Robbins) Twenty–seven percent of America is obese
and only thirty–five percent of America holds a normal weight. That leaves an additional thirty–five
percent of Americans that are overweight. Over forty million, or one out of three children and teens
are overweight or obese. Over

Types Of Cancer Of The Uterus, Uterine Sarcomas And...
There are two main types of cancer of the uterus, uterine sarcomas and endometrial carcinomas.
Endometrium cancer begins when the tissues of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium) begin
to grow out of control.1 There are many subtypes of endometrial cancer based on the histology of
the cells. Endometrial cancer is furthermore, graded based on how much the cancer forms and
glands that have the similar morphology of healthy and normal endometrium glands.2 Endometrial
Cancer primarily affects woman of postmenopausal age and some of the risk factors include, things
that affect hormone levels, like taking estrogen after menopause, birth control pills, or tamoxifen;
the number of menstrual cycles (over a lifetime), pregnancy, obesity, certain ovarian tumors, and
polycystic ovarian syndrome, use of an intrauterine device, age, diet and exercise, diabetes, family
history (having close relatives with endometrial or colorectal cancer, having been diagnosed with
breast or ovarian cancer in the past, having been diagnosed with endometrial hyperplasia in the past
and treatment with radiation therapy to the pelvis to treat another cancer. 3
The four basic treatments for endometrial cancer are surgery, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy
and chemotherapy.4 Expanding on treatment, there is a growing body of evidence that suggests the
anti–diabetic class, biguanides, may have effective anti–cancer properties against endometrial
cancer. 2 The three drugs included in this class are

Why Do Sugary Drinks Should Be Banned
The sugary drink ban ve an idea made by the people who are concern about the way that people are
treating them self healthwise. This ban is the main reaction to people becoming obese in the country
it was a way that people were going to fight back on obesity. The reason why Obesity is a major
problem in our society is that more than 30 percent of our population today is obese. This is a major
problem in our community alone in the United States of America with a population of 323.1 million
people about 96,930,000 of them are overweight or obese. Obesity is when you have become
overweight from food like,"High–calorie,good–tasting, and inexpensive foods have become widely
available and are heavily advertised. Portion sizes have increased, and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Rounding out the top three is bottled water at 28.3 gallons," (https://www.huffingtonpost.com ). As
people become to drink more soda the reason for this ban is increased and becomes more necessary
because obesity is such a big problem. It is one of the main reasons that people around the world are
going on diets, starting to exercise more and pay hundreds of dollars for a product he claims to help
you lose weight or thousands for a surgery that will take out some of the fat. People are willing to
do this because of the risks that it can cause ,"Obese adults are at increased risk for many serious
health conditions, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, type 2 diabetes and its
complications, coronary heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, and
respiratory problems, as well as endometrial, breast, prostate, and colon cancers."
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44656/ ) these life–threatening problems have put
thousands of people in the hospital and have killed hundreds of them each year. It affects many
people in just the U.S.A. alone,"The 2016 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) found
combined overweight and obesity rates for children and teens ages 10 to 17 ranged from a low of
19.2 percent in Utah to a high of 37.7 percent in Tennessee." ( https://stateofobesity.org/rates/ ) this
means that at least sixty–one million eight hundred eighty–three thousand are obese. The main
reason that people become this unhealthy is because companies have made it so easy to access them
through restaurants all over the world to the corner store you can get easy access to these wherever
you go," In the past, your

Adequate Sleep Research Paper
. Adequate sleep Adequate sleep is important for sustain a good body shape. Sleep maintains a
balance between hormones like ghrelin, leptin that are responsible for hunger. Insufficient sleep
interrupts the balance and thereby increases appetite, as a result leading to excess fat18. Excessive
day sleepiness (EDS) and fatigue are common symptoms of obesity and are linked to an individual's
health issues.
4.7. Pathological
In addition to, mechanical effects on the body (i.e., exacerbating osteoarthritis and back pain due to
extra weight) because of the extra weight placed on the skeleton, obesity is associated with a higher
incidence of several pathologies.
5. Main Disorders of obesity:
Obesity is now becoming the most prevalent problem affecting ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In women, obesity is the third most effective indicator of CVD after age and blood pressure 20. The
risk of heart attack for an obese woman is more than that of a thin woman of the same age. Obese
individuals are more likely to have low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, decreased high
density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and elevated blood triglycerides. This metabolic delineation is
most often seen in obese people with a high accumulation of intra–abdominal fat and has regularly
been related to an increased risk of CHD21. It was found also that, blood pressure increases with
BMI; for every 10 kg increase in weight, blood pressure rises by 2–3mm Hg. On the other hand,
weight loss resulted in a fall in blood pressure and exactly, for each 1% reduction in body weight,
blood pressure falls by 1–2mm Hg. The occurrence of hypertension in overweight individuals is
almost three times higher than in non–overweight adults and the risk in overweight persons aged
20–44 years of hypertension is almost six times greater than in non–overweight adults. The
occurrence of hypertension in overweight individuals is almost higher than in non–overweight
adults and the risk in obese individuals aged 15–45 years of hypertension is greater than in non–
overweight

A Short Note On Beta Catenin And Molecular Biology
1.1. Name of target and key citation 0%
Beta Catenin (β–catenin) or Catenin Beta–1 (CTNNB1) protein.
Key citation: Ma, X.Y., Ma, C.X. and Wang, J.H. (2014) Endometrial Carcinogenesis and Molecular
Signaling Pathways. American Journal of Molecular Biology, 4, 134–149.
1.2. What is the normal function of the target? 10% β–catenin is a proto–oncogene and it is encoded
by CTNNB1 gene. It forms a component of the E–cadherin – catenin unit which plays essential
roles in the cell differentiation and maintenance of the normal tissue architecture. Also, it involves in
the signal transduction, the canonical WNT signalling pathways (β–catenin dependent WNT
signalling pathways). The activated canonical WNT signalling pathways increase the level of β–
catenin in the cytoplasm, causing translocation of β–catenin into the nucleus. This raises the level of
β–catenin in the nucleus, leading to the initiation of the transcriptional activation through the
LEF/Tcf pathway. The process involves in the canonical WNT signalling pathways is important in
cell proliferation. The deactivated canonical WNT signalling pathways will casue β–catenin to
undergo ubiquitination and proteosomal degradation through the β–TrCP/Skp pathway. These
processes happen under normal circumstances of functional β–catenin.
1.3. How has the target been implicated in cancer? 20%
Researchers discovered significance association of CTNNB1 gene mutation with molecular
carcinogenesis tumours such as

A Study On Breast Cancer
Breast Cancer Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer
death in women (Up to Date, 2014). The associated risk can be as high as 12% for every woman in
the United States, regardless of family history (American Cancer Society, 2013). For this reason,
care begins with patient education, risk stratification, and preventative medicine. The paper will
review preventative options, risk stratification based on genetics and age, and breast cancer
treatment.
Preventative Options Prevention of breast cancer begins with education of evidence–based
preventative strategies. Modifiable risk factors such as the maintenance of a healthy weight and a
diet rich in cruciferous vegetables, beta–carotene, fruits, fiber, whole grains, can lower the risk of
breast cancer by 13% (Marshall, 2013). Moreover, omega–3 fatty acids, soy products, and curcumin
have demonstrated some reductions in risk related to the protective pathophysiology. In addition,
avoidance of alcohol can lessen the risk (Zhang, Simondsen, & Kolesar, 2012). As a result, when
women practice these preventive lifestyle modifications, breast cancer can be "minimally reduced
by 38%" (American Institute of Cancer Research, 2014). Additionally, the integration of a detection
plan is essential to identify disease early. Beginning at age forty, a yearly mammogram can help to
recognize cancer in the early development (American Institute of Cancer Research, 2014).
According to the

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Being Fat
Downsides of being fat Many people are scared of stepping on to the weighing scale due to the huge
number that's going to get displayed on the screen. That's just the first disadvantage of being fat.
You really don't want people to know how much you weigh. It will give them a reason to point a
finger at you! Well, apart from the alarming number, there are many other downsides of being fat.
Most people are unaware about the consequences of carrying around the extra pounds. Many are not
even bothered by it. But, let's face it – There are many serious repercussions of being plump. Being
overweight or obese can shorten your life and lower the quality of your life considerably. Let's see
how? Carrying surplus fat around your figure can affect you in the following ways: 1. The risk of
heart disease increases – The extra fat in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fewer friends, inactive social life – Although a person's body has nothing to do with one's
personality, most people judge a person by his/her looks and figure. Most people who are
overweight have fewer friends since people do not want to be seen with a person who has an
unattractive figure. Obese people also have an inactive social life since they are not a part of any
group and end up being alone. 14. Obese people are more likely to be depressed – The social stigma
attached to being obese and the constant staring and nagging of people makes obese people
disheartened and depressed. They stop feeling good about themselves and about their lives and they
think that nobody wants to be with them and listen to them. Isolation and the feeling of being
inappropriate makes them stressed and they often suffer from depression. 15. Face difficulty
selecting clothes – Not all shops stock clothes of plus sizes and this makes it difficult for an obese
person to shop. Many clothes suit only thin people and so the options are much less for an obese
person. Many a times they are unable to fit in to their own clothes because their size keeps on

Scientific Literature Focused On Chromosomal Dna And Dna,...
Conglomeration of Scientific Literature Focused on Chromosomal Telomere Length (TL) In Blood
Leukocytes, Sputum, and Buccal Cells as It Relates to Cancer Occurrences by: Andy Barajas
Bio 490, Fall 2014
Department of Biological Sciences
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Abstract
This is a conglomeration of scientific literature as it relates telomere length in blood cells to the
occurrence of cancer. Telomeres are composed of repeating TTAGGG nucleotides and they are
found at the ends of chromosomes. These chromosomal caps are what protect the genetic material of
a cell. Every time a cell replicates its DNA, its telomeres become slightly shorter than the parent
cell. Upon excessive shortening of the telomere, the chromosomal genetic information begins to
degrade upon replication which leads to instability. This eventually can cause cancer as the studies
discussed in this paper have shown. Individuals who have an inherited bone marrow condition
known as Dyskeratosis congenita (DC) have short telomeres and an 11–fold increase chance of
getting cancer. Overall, cancer patients were found to have shorter telomeres than usual in their
leukocytes, sputum, or buccal cells. The cancers of interest in this review include: head and neck,
breast, gastric, lung, colorectal, ovarian, esophageal, prostate, skin bladder, renal, endometrial, non–
Hodgkin lymphoma, and liver cancer.
Introduction Chromosomes are usually capped by non–coding sequences known as telomeres. As

The Consumption Of Red Wine
"The health benefits of red wine have come to light in recent years...Hope is on the horizon, and it
may be in your glass!" (Ryan Fujiu, 2007)
Wine has been an alcoholic drink that has been consumed for centuries by the upper class and now
is one of the most popular alcoholic drinks in the modern century. However, it is red wine that has
been identified as having healthy properties not white wine. This is largely due to a phenomenon
known as the French paradox. The consumption of red wine has been used to explain why the
French have the second lowest rate of heart disease in the world although they have a diet rich in
fatty foods (Inserm, 2016).
Red wine is better than white wine due to the high content of the many substances responsible ...
Resveratrol is produced by grape vines in order to resist parasites and fungal infections. As seen in
graph 1 pinot noir has the highest amounts of resveratrol. Pinot noir grapes are grown in cooler,
damp regions where fungi are more likely to attack grape vines. Due to this grape develop a defence
mechanism called resveratrol which fights the fungi to stop the grape from being infected. Which
leads to grapes grown in these climates having higher amounts of resveratrol.
Studies have shown that resveratrol has many healing and prevention properties such as reducing
symptoms associated with reducing heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer's, diabetes, damage to blood
vessels and it prevents blood clots forming (WebMD). Study done on rodents was conducted with
the oral administration which decreased tumour growth and had effects of numerous cancerous cells
(PMC,2013). Resveratrol can be found in 3 different forms while in your blood stream these are
glucuronide, sulphate or free. While resveratrol is in free form it can bind with lipoproteins and
albumin which dissociates at cellular membranes allowing the resveratrol to enter the cells.
Resveratrol's structure allows it to interact with fatty acids dissolving them which creates lower
amounts of cholesterol in blood. Lowering the amount of cholesterol in blood leads to reducing risk
of heart disease.
Resveratrol is an important antioxidant which can help with diabetes, cardiovascular diseases,

Effects Of Obesity On The Health
There are many women's health topics that can affect all generations of female patients. As future
providers, it will be important to identify important women health issues that can possibly be
prevented, or the risk of developing the condition reduced with education, health promotion, and
wellness for the patient. The patient may need encouragement, a listening ear, or time spent with
them to develop a goals and a plan for health promotion. A women's health topic that is well known
is the negative effect of obesity and endometrial cancer.
Topic of Interest
Obesity negatively impacts the health of women in many ways and is a condition that can be
avoided if proper lifestyle changes are made and put into place. Obesity increases the risk of
multiple diseases, such as diabetes, coronary artery disease, low back pain, knee osteoarthritis, and
multiple cancers (Kulie et al., 2011). Since the prevalence of obesity is on the rise, it is vital that all
providers and patients understand the negative impact that obesity has on one's health. Evidence is
overwhelming that obesity is a risk factor for developing gynecologic and breast cancers, and a
higher body mass index (BMI) can also adversely impact one's survival from cancer. Endometrial
carcinoma is powerfully related to obesity due to multiple pathways, such as the effects of
anovulation that is associated with poly cystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and the endometrium
being chronically exposed to unopposed estradiol (Kulie et

Ethical Dilemmas Hcs 478
Ethical Dilemmas
Debra Lohmeyer
HCS/478
February 11, 2013
Barbara Scheibe
Ethical Dilemmas
The Allen family presented in the simulation has several health issues they deal with individually
that contribute to the family unit. Clifford struggles with depression that he does not want to have
documented or take medications for out of fear. Pam is the glue of the family; she keeps the home
functioning and has not worked outside the family because their son was born with Down's
syndrome. Her time is spent caring for him and the home. She has a history of endometrial cancer
and has gone 14 months without a check–up. Gary is an active special needs young man, he holds a
job, participates in Special Olympics and Scouting. The family ... Show more content on
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The medical record did raise some questions about the nursing documentation because it falls under
the ethical principle of veracity, truth telling (Guido, 2010, p. 8). The 1945 entry does not include
the amount of morphine given. The 0030 entry does not give a description of the CBI color when
this has been assessed and documented on previous shifts, how would a change be reflected. The
0500 entry indicates pain was assessed, does not indicate a pain score and also states the patient was
asleep and this is contradictory. The documentation for Wednesday does not indicate a pain score
but pain medication documentation indicates it was given. The documentation of CBI does not
appear and no mention of the CBI as discontinued status was indicated. The lack of documentation
indicates a violation of fidelity, duty to keep promises or commitments because correct
documentation is a duty of nursing when providing accurate care (Guido, 2010, p. 5, 8–9).
The family experiences more dilemmas when Pam is diagnosed with colon cancer. She does not
want to worry Clifford, so she does not elaborate when she does not feel well. The necessity of
surgery and the resultant colostomy are difficult for both Pam and Clifford to deal with. They also
must decide to accept treatment with Chemotherapy and Radiation Therapy. In this situation using
an ethical decision making model would assist them in arriving at a decision. During the Be
Attentive phase all the priorities

Personal Statement : My First Pregnancy
Personal Statement It 's 2:30 in the morning, and the only thing that surrounds me are the
continuous sounds of dry heaves and vomit, spewing into the toilet in front of me. This is my third
pregnancy. Hyperemesis Gravidarum – the diagnosis I have now heard three times. But this time,
the circumstances were a bit different. Just a few short months ago, my husband and I made the
decision to have my tubal ligation reversed. We had previously talked about the possibility of
having more children and knew the challenges we were likely to face. But it wasn 't until my
diagnosis that it became a reality that it was no longer on my time. You see, there has been a history
of various cancers that have rampaged my fathers side of the family like the Black Plague. Several
aunts and uncles as well as cousins and grandparents have suffered from cancers linked to Lynch
Syndrome. After my fathers death, something changed inside of me. My way of thinking had been
altered. I knew that I wanted to spend my life making a positive and profound difference in the lives
of others, but I had yet to figure out how I would do so. I attended many colleges and worked
towards degrees of many different professions. Ultimately obtaining a bachelor 's degree in business
and a masters degree in education. While attending school, I held a multitude of jobs from waiting
tables and working in a family practice setting, to working in education with special needs children
as well as the regular classroom.

Cancer Physical Activity
Physical activity and cancer has been the center of countless research studies. Multiple scientific
studies have proven that physical activity reduces risk factors by of 24% in colon cancer, 12% in
breast cancer, and 20% in endometrial cancer (Cancer.Gov) Physical activity is imperative for
individuals to maintain a balance between the amount of calories consumed and the amount of
calories used. Consistently expending fewer calories than are consumed leads to obesity, which
scientists have convincingly linked to increased risk of 13 different cancers. Additionally, evidence
indicates that physical activity may reduce the risks of several cancers through other mechanisms;
independent of its effects on obesity (Cancer.gov). Studies have shown that exercise can lower the
damaging effects of age on immune function, therefore increasing anti–cancer immunity. Physical
activity has a number of biological effects on our bodies, some of which have been proposed to
explain associations with specific cancers, including: Lowering levels of hormones, such as insulin
and estrogen, and of certain growth factors that have ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are many studies examining the relation to exercise and colon cancer. Researchers have found
that individuals who exercise and increase FITT principles can reduce the chance of developing
colon cancer up to 40 percent (NIH, 2016) The American College of Sports Medicine recommends
that adult do aerobic exercises 7 days a week for about 30–60 minutes a day. Resistance exercises
should be done 2–3 days a week 6080% of 1 repetition max (RM) (Thompson, W.,

What´s Endometrial Cancer?
Endometrial cancer, sometimes called uterine cancer, is cancer of the lining of the uterus. Other
types of cancer can form in the uterus, but they are less common. Endometrial cancer is the most
common malignancy of the female genital tract, and the most common type of uterine cancer.
Endometrial cancer usually affects postmenopausal women, but cases may occur at any age.
Endometrial cancers are usually adenocarcinomas (tumors that begin in cells that make mucus and
other fluids). The carcinoma is slow growing, but it can metastasize to the cervix, myometrium,
vagina, pelvis and lungs. Although the exact cause of endometrial cancer is unknown, some risk
factors have been identified. Obesity is a risk factor, because adipose cells store ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Vaginal bleeding usually occurs early enough to allow for cure of the disease. Also, the lower the
stage or cancer, the better the outlook. For the first year after diagnosis and treatment, the survival
rate is 92%. If the disease is detected and treated before it spreads, the survival rate at 5 years is
95%. The survival rate is only 23% at 5 years if the cancer has

Common Risk Factors For Cancer Essay
Bone Cancer Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrollable division of abnormal cells in a part of the
body. Cancer cells are normal cells mutated. Like a normal cell, about to go into the cell division
cycle they grow very large. It becomes different when it divides into two but both of them stay
alive. According to World Health Organization (WHO), common risk factors for cancer include:
tobacco use, Alcohol use, overweight and obesity, dietary factors, including insufficient fruit and
vegetable intake, physical inactivity, chronic infections from helicobacter pylori, hepatitis B virus
(HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), some types of human papillomavirus (HPV), environmental and
occupational risks including ionizing and non–ionizing radiation. In the world the most common
cancer are lung, breast, colorectum, stomach and liver. In 2012 1.59 million people from lung
cancer, 521,000 people from breast cancer, 694,000 people from colorectal cancer, 723,000 people
from stomach cancer and 745,000 people from liver cancer. In the United States the most common
cancers are bladder, breast, colon and rectal (combined), endometrial and kidney. In 2016 about
16,390 people died from bladder cancer, 40,450– 440 for breast, 49,190 for colon and rectal, 10,470
for endometrial and 14,240 for kidney. The cancer I'm researching is bone cancer. Bone cancer is a
mass of unusual cell growth in the bone. Most bone tumors aren't cancers though. Bone cancer is a
malignant (cancerous) tumor of the bone

Cervical Cancer: A Case Study
1.0 Introduction
This paper will analyse the condition of cervical cancer and the incidence of cervical cancer in
Australia and Africa. This paper will later find out about the prevention of cervical cancer.
2.0 Definition of cervical cancer
Cervical cancer is a chronic neoplasm growing in the lining of the cervix (Shepherd, 2012). Each
year, over half a million of women are diagnosed with cervical cancer (Shepherd, 2012). Dunleavey
(2008) stated that there are two main types of cervical cancer: the first type is squamous cell
carcinoma which begins in thin, flat cells that line the lower part of the cervix; the second type is
adenocarcinomas which develop in the glandular cells that line the upper portion of the cervix.
Jordon & Tewari (2015) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
4.0 Prevention of cervical cancer
Cervical cancer is curable and preventable if it is detected early (Parker, 2010). No symptoms are
shown in early stage (Jin, 2014). Currently, there are two approaches for the prevention of cervical
cancer: the primary prevention is by HPV vaccination and secondary prevention is by cervical
cancer screening, which is widely known as Pap test or Pap smear and human papillomavirus (HPV)
test (Lertkhachonsuk et al., 2013).
There are two types of vaccines against HPV, which are the bivalent and quadrivalent vaccines
(Denny, 2008). Both vaccines are introduced to defend the two high–risk HPV types: type 16 and
type 18, which contribute to 70% of cervical cancers in women (Lertkhachonsuk et al., 2013).
Crowe, Pandeya, Brotherton, Dobson, Kisely, Lambert & Whiteman (2014) stated that women who
completed the vaccination series at the ages of 11–27 have a lower risk to be diagnosed with
cervical

Essay On P16ink4a Overexpression
p16INK4a overexpression in HPV–infected human cancers and their prognostic values
The RB protein is inactivated by interaction with the high–risk HPV oncoprotein E7 (Refs. 131,
132), and oncoprotein E6 induces degradation of the tumor suppressor p53. RB inactivation releases
p16INK4a from its negative feedback control, causing a paradoxical increase in the levels of this
protein, which attempts to inhibit uncontrolled cellular replication. As a consequence, p16INK4a is
overexpressed in HPV–expressing tumors such as cervical cancer and head and neck tumors (Refs.
133–135; Table 1).
Previous reports suggested that p16INK4a immunostaining allows precise identification of even
small cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or cervical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
It is generally accepted that p16INK4a expression is frequently associated with HPV infection and
better prognostic factor in HNSCC (Refs. 136, 137) since they respond to chemo/radiotherapy.
p16INK4a overexpression in malignant tumors without HPV infection
Aberrant expression of p16INK4a, either high or low, is found frequently in human cancers (Table
1). In colon cancer, two different patterns of p16INK4a overexpression have been reported. The ﬁrst
pattern is related to senescence in serrated adenomas, which have malignant transformation
associated with p16INK4a downregulation (Refs. 138, 139). The second pattern is characterized by
a very low p16INK4a immunostaining in normal mucosa, with a progressively higher expression in
aberrant crypt foci, non–serrated adenomas, primary carcinomas and metastatic tumors (Ref. 87). A
similar pattern was observed in skin cancer where p16INK4a expression increases from relatively
low levels in pre–malignant lesions to high levels in in situ and inﬁltrating carcinomas (Ref. 140). In
breast cancer, p16INK4a was negative or low in normal ductal epithelium, but a progressive
increase was found in benign lesions and carcinoma (Refs. 88, 89). Increased nuclear p16INK4a
protein expression compared with normal epithelium has been reported in pre–neoplastic and tumor
tissues of the gallbladder (Ref. 141). Therefore, inactivation of

The Cause of Endometrial Cancer Essay
Uterine cancer, sometimes referred to as endometrial cancer, is the most commonly diagnosed
gynecologic cancer in the United States (ACS, 2013; CDC, 2012). Each year about 45,000 women
get uterine cancer and about 8,400 women die from it (CDC, 2012). It is a cancer caused by
abnormal cells growing in the lining of the uterus, or endometrium (ACS, 2013; CDC, 2012). The
two major types of uterine cancer are adenocarcinoma and sarcoma. Adenocarcinoma develops from
the endometrium, which make up more than 95% of uterine cancers (Amant et al., 2005). The
endometrium plays a major role each month by swelling in preparation for pregnancy in women of
reproductive age; and if pregnancy does not occur, then the lining sheds and flows out of the ...
Endometrial cancer is rare in women under the age of 45 and slightly more common in white
women; however, black women are more likely to die from it. Other risk factors associated with
endometrial cancer include age, where women over 50 years are at greater risk; ethnicity; and
having other cancers such as breast and ovarian cancer (ACS, 2013; CDC, 2012; NCI, 2010).
Classification
Nearly all uterine cancers start in the endometrium and are referred to as endometrial carcinomas or
adenocarcinomas, meaning that they originate from a single layer of epithelial cells lining the
endometrium (Creasman et al., 2003). The most common type of endometrial carcinoma is
endometriod adenocarcinoma, which makes up about 80% of all endometrial carcinomas (Amant et
al, 2005). Endometrioid cancer is composed of cells in the gland that resembles normal
endometrium. The grade of endometrioid cancer is dependent on glands that form and look similar
to the glands found in normal, healthy endometrium. The lower the grade, the more cancerous tissue
forms glands (ACS, 2013; Amant et al., 2005).
Grade 1: tumors have 95% or more of the

Ethical Dilemma Paper
"Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer syndrome (HBOC) is an inherited tendency to develop
breast, ovarian and other cancers. Inherited conditions are passed to an individual through their
blood relatives. Although most cancers are not inherited, about 5% of people who have breast
cancer and about 10% of women who have ovarian cancer have HBOC" (Patient Education Online,
2013). "HBOC is caused by an inherited change in a gene, called a mutation. The majority of HBOC
is due to a mutation in either the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes" (Patient Education Online, 2013). There
are many risks for people with HBOC. These risks include having a higher risk of getting breast
cancer (40% to 87% lifetime risk), a higher than usual risk of breast cancer before age ... Show more
The first ethical dilemma was understanding that when the patient gets genetic testing it can put the
patient through a lot of stress and anxiety, even when the testing is not certain about certain cancer
mutations, it is only a probability. Therefore, after getting results the patient may not be sure if the
results are accurate, which could cause more stress and anxiety to the body and the mind. Along
with this dilemma, the health care providers should think about would be making sure the patient
knows what to do about notifying family members once they know their results from the testing.
Notifying family members can be difficult. It can be difficult for the patient and the family
members. Make sure the patient has a support system and someone to go to if they need help
notifying their family members about their results. The second ethical dilemma that was recognized
is after the patient did the genetic testing she now knows that she has the Y130X (BRCA1)
deleterious mutation, so now she will have to cope with the increase risk of psychological distress,
discrimination by insurers, false sense of security for individuals who test negative for a mutation,
and loss of privacy (any of these risks can happen with positive or negative results). Ms. Crandall is
in her reproductive years, this could cause a problem because women are more likely to develop
breast cancer during these years. Dr. Litton says that surgery can

Tumor Suppression Genes Research Paper
Tumor Suppression Genes
Introduction
Cell replication and division is vital for growth and development. The mechanisms associated with
replication of DNA are very precise. However, there can be errors at times and when these errors
occur there could be problems in reproduction process. Some of these errors can cause uncontrolled
cell growth causing tumor formation. There are genes within the human genome that prevent this
uncontrolled growth from occurring. These genes are known as tumor suppression genes. They
work in a very specific way and are vital for proper growth. Though they fix errors, the tumor
suppression genes can malfunction or be malformed at times as well. When these errors occur, there
can be serious consequences.
What ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Oncogenes are genes that work in the opposite way of tumor suppression genes. They cause
uncontrolled growth of cells and are activated when tumor suppression genes become inactive. An
example of this can be found in the mutation that causes Retinoblastoma. This is a condition that is
found within the eye which is caused by a malfunctioning tumor suppression gene. The tumor
suppression gene that malfunctions in retinoblastoma is the RB1 gene. This malfunction causes the
activation of oncogenes. This ultimately leads to cells in the retina growing uncontrollably and
causing tumors and cancer to develop in the eye.
Tumor Suppression Genes and Caner Recently, a lot of research is being done involving tumor
suppression genes and cancer. Scientists have been testing tumor suppression genes in gene therapy
experiments. In these experiments the tumor suppression genes are injected into cancer cells and
tumors. These genes are able to causes the cancer cell to die via apoptosis. Though it has yet to
become a treatment for cancer, the future looks promising using this method.

Merrill Syndrome : Lynch Syndrome
Lynch Syndrome
Lynch Syndrome In 2015, 132,700 people will be diagnosed with colorectal cancer (CRC) and
49,700 people will die from the disease (ACS, 2015). According to the CDC, 1 in 30 cases of
colorectal cancer can be attributed to Lynch syndrome (CDC, 2015). Using figures from 2015, that
would be 3,981 new colorectal diagnoses related to Lynch syndrome. Livstone (2014) states,
"Patients with one of several known mutations have a 70 to 80% lifetime risk of developing CRC".
Lynch syndrome, also known as Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Carcinoma (HNPCC), was
characterized in 1966 by Henry T. Lynch. His research in the 1960's was prompted by a single
patient's response. According to (Lynch & Lynch, 2004, p. 182), "...the patient's response was that
he knew that he, like "everyone" in his family, was going to die of cancer, and that it would likely be
cancer of the colon, although he realized that many other cancers had also affected the family" (p.
182). Years of research involving this patient's family led to a common connection. Family N
showed a well–defined autosomal dominant mode of genetic transmission of carcinoma of the colon
with early age of cancer onset, multiple primaries, and with the integral association of carcinoma of
the endometrium and ovary (Lynch & Lynch, 2004, p. 182–183). Therefore, it was found that gene
mutations put a person at high risk for CRC and endometrial cancer at a much younger age. Since
then, Lynch

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome
Polycystic ovarian syndrome is among the long list of chronic diseases one could suffer from. "A
chronic disease is a disease that persists for a long time, lasting longer than 3 months and generally
cannot be prevented by vaccines or cured by medication, nor do they disappear" (MedicineNet,
2017) Per the National Center for Health Statistics, "88% of Americans over 65 years of age have at
least one chronic health condition". (MedicineNet, 2017) There are numerous contributors to
chronic diseases including tobacco use, lack of physical activity, heredity and poor eating habits.
Background This paper will discuss a chronic endocrine disorder known as polycystic ovarian
syndrome also known as PCOS. "This syndrome is common among women who are ... Show more
(Scott, 2017) Hyperandrogenism is usually the major assessment finding and "clinically manifests
as acne, excessive hair loss on the scalp, excess terminal body hair in a male distribution pattern
such as the upper lip, the chin, around the nipples, and along the linea alba of the lower abdomen".
(Scott, 2017) During the diagnosis phase of this disease, there is no specific test confirming the
diagnosis. A series of exams such as pelvic, uterine, ultrasound and physicals are performed as well
as lab work is completed, including a look at symptoms, periods, and recent weight gain. The
physician then considers all things discussed and rules either way. A client suffering from PCOS.
Upon diagnosis of PCOS the patient is "At risk for disturbed body image r/t presence of acne &
growth of female facial hair a.e.b signs of withdrawal from social interaction". (Garoutte, 1970) To
properly manage this disease, interventions could be implemented to help the patient properly cope
with and treat this condition. "Interventions include implementation of the right treatment regimen
such as surgery to remove the cyst, frequent diagnostic testing for example ultrasounds, starting the
patient on oral medications such as oral contraceptives and a strong referral to support groups to
help the patient adjust to their disease and its physical changes". (Garoutte, 1970) The goals in mind
for PCOS would be to have the patient adhere to a drug regimen daily, have regular bi–monthly
follow up appointments, and attend a support group for coping perhaps once a

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