This document discusses the fig plant and its unique relationship with the fig wasp. It begins by providing context on the fig's botanical classification and native origins. It then describes the fig's dependence on the fig wasp for pollination and fruit ripening. The female fig wasp enters young figs and lays eggs that will later hatch and pollinate other figs as the wasps emerge. This intricate lifecycle ensures the continued existence of both the fig plant and wasp. The document examines this unique symbiotic relationship in detail over multiple generations of fruiting.
This document provides information on identifying and removing common invasive plant species in Berks County, Pennsylvania. It discusses 18 different invasive species that are prevalent on local trails, including Tree-of-Heaven, Garlic Mustard, Japanese Barberry, and Oriental Bittersweet. For each plant, the document provides details on origin, habitat, identifying features, reproduction methods, and best practices for removal. The overall goal is to preserve biodiversity and natural ecosystems by eliminating non-native invasive species.
Quince Culture; by Benjamin Gildersleeve Pratt (1915)FalXda
1) The document discusses quince culture, including its history, propagation methods, common varieties, planting plans, soil requirements, and care.
2) Quinces are propagated through seed, layering, and cuttings. The most common propagation method is through cuttings taken from one-year-old wood in the autumn.
3) Popular quince varieties include Apple/Orange, Johnson, Champion, Meech Prolific, and Rea Mammoth. Planting a variety of early and late varieties helps distribute labor and maintain prices.
This document discusses native bee species in North America and ways that gardeners can support their populations. It notes that native bee populations are declining due to factors like habitat loss and pesticide use. Gardeners can help by planting a variety of native plants that provide a continuous supply of pollen and nectar throughout the seasons. Specific plant genera that attract bees are recommended. The document also suggests providing nesting areas for ground-nesting and cavity-nesting bees to support native bee populations in home gardens.
The Yolo Gardener - Companion Planting: Good Buddies in the Garden - Yolo Cou...Fayina19z
Spotted wing drosophila (SWD) is a new cherry pest in Yolo County that damaged crops in 2009 and is expected to cause wider damage in 2010. SWD lays eggs in ripe and nearly ripe fruit, causing the fruit to rot before harvest. Last year cherries were most affected but other fruits may also be damaged. Immediate harvest and disposal of all fruit, including rotten fruit, may help reduce further infestation this year and pest population for next year. Limited research has been done on controlling SWD in home orchards.
- Albizia lebbeck is a deciduous tree native to northern Australia and southeast Asia that has been widely planted in tropical and subtropical regions.
- It grows well in a range of soil and climate conditions, including drought-prone areas, and produces large quantities of seeds annually.
- However, natural regeneration is limited due to factors such as insect predation of seeds and seedlings and lack of suitable conditions for germination and establishment. Artificial regeneration through nursery techniques like seed collection, pretreatment, and transplanting or stump planting is more successful.
This document provides an introduction to 30 common native plant species found in Essex County, Ontario. For each plant, it lists the bloom period, height, wildlife value, identification tips, and other helpful information. The purpose is to help identify native plants and understand their benefits to local ecosystems and pollinators. The intended audience is gardeners interested in incorporating more native species in their landscapes.
Plants for Every Reason - Nevada County, CaliforniaFinola87v
This document provides information on various plant species that can be planted to attract wildlife, resist deer browsing, be native to California, resist fire, and some that are poisonous. It discusses plants that can create habitat for butterflies, birds, quail, and other animals. Fire resistant plants and those deer typically avoid are listed. Native plant species for different conditions are outlined. Finally, some common poisonous plants are described. The document aims to educate homeowners on planting options that benefit the environment and local wildlife.
This document provides information on identifying and removing common invasive plant species in Berks County, Pennsylvania. It discusses 18 different invasive species that are prevalent on local trails, including Tree-of-Heaven, Garlic Mustard, Japanese Barberry, and Oriental Bittersweet. For each plant, the document provides details on origin, habitat, identifying features, reproduction methods, and best practices for removal. The overall goal is to preserve biodiversity and natural ecosystems by eliminating non-native invasive species.
Quince Culture; by Benjamin Gildersleeve Pratt (1915)FalXda
1) The document discusses quince culture, including its history, propagation methods, common varieties, planting plans, soil requirements, and care.
2) Quinces are propagated through seed, layering, and cuttings. The most common propagation method is through cuttings taken from one-year-old wood in the autumn.
3) Popular quince varieties include Apple/Orange, Johnson, Champion, Meech Prolific, and Rea Mammoth. Planting a variety of early and late varieties helps distribute labor and maintain prices.
This document discusses native bee species in North America and ways that gardeners can support their populations. It notes that native bee populations are declining due to factors like habitat loss and pesticide use. Gardeners can help by planting a variety of native plants that provide a continuous supply of pollen and nectar throughout the seasons. Specific plant genera that attract bees are recommended. The document also suggests providing nesting areas for ground-nesting and cavity-nesting bees to support native bee populations in home gardens.
The Yolo Gardener - Companion Planting: Good Buddies in the Garden - Yolo Cou...Fayina19z
Spotted wing drosophila (SWD) is a new cherry pest in Yolo County that damaged crops in 2009 and is expected to cause wider damage in 2010. SWD lays eggs in ripe and nearly ripe fruit, causing the fruit to rot before harvest. Last year cherries were most affected but other fruits may also be damaged. Immediate harvest and disposal of all fruit, including rotten fruit, may help reduce further infestation this year and pest population for next year. Limited research has been done on controlling SWD in home orchards.
- Albizia lebbeck is a deciduous tree native to northern Australia and southeast Asia that has been widely planted in tropical and subtropical regions.
- It grows well in a range of soil and climate conditions, including drought-prone areas, and produces large quantities of seeds annually.
- However, natural regeneration is limited due to factors such as insect predation of seeds and seedlings and lack of suitable conditions for germination and establishment. Artificial regeneration through nursery techniques like seed collection, pretreatment, and transplanting or stump planting is more successful.
This document provides an introduction to 30 common native plant species found in Essex County, Ontario. For each plant, it lists the bloom period, height, wildlife value, identification tips, and other helpful information. The purpose is to help identify native plants and understand their benefits to local ecosystems and pollinators. The intended audience is gardeners interested in incorporating more native species in their landscapes.
Plants for Every Reason - Nevada County, CaliforniaFinola87v
This document provides information on various plant species that can be planted to attract wildlife, resist deer browsing, be native to California, resist fire, and some that are poisonous. It discusses plants that can create habitat for butterflies, birds, quail, and other animals. Fire resistant plants and those deer typically avoid are listed. Native plant species for different conditions are outlined. Finally, some common poisonous plants are described. The document aims to educate homeowners on planting options that benefit the environment and local wildlife.
Plants for Gardening in Wet and Wooded Areas - ConnecticutFinola87v
This document provides guidance for choosing native plant species suitable for wet and wooded areas around homes. It discusses how native plantings can enhance conservation while reducing maintenance costs. Several shrub and groundcover species are described that thrive in wet conditions and provide benefits like wildlife habitat and erosion control. Homeowners are encouraged to plant native species and maintain naturalized vegetation near wetlands and waterways to protect water quality and local ecosystems.
This document provides a detailed classification of weeds based on various characteristics. It discusses morphological classification based on structure, life cycle as annual, biennial or perennial, and monocot or dicot. Physiological classification is presented based on seed characteristics and vegetative reproduction methods like rhizomes, stolons, bulbs etc. Ecological classification divides weeds into wetland, irrigated land, and dry land types based on water requirements. Further distinctions are made based on soil type, place of occurrence, origin, cotyledon number, soil pH, stem structure, parasitic nature, and habitat as aquatic. Specific problem weeds like poisonous and parasitic types are also outlined.
This document defines weeds and compares their characteristics to cultivated plants. It discusses how weeds differ in seed dormancy, abundant seed production, seed survival, vegetative reproduction, lack of beauty/odor, and toxicity. The document then provides examples of common weed families and species, describing their identifying features. It focuses on the Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae, and Fabaceae families.
Strawberry Culture; by Frank Gerow Corregan (1918)FalXda
1. The strawberry is one of the most widely cultivated fruits due to its wide adaptability, delicious flavor, and small space requirements.
2. The document recommends 8 varieties of strawberry for New York growers including Senator Dunlap, Sample, Marshall, Glen Mary, William Belt, Warfield, Brandywine, and Rough Rider based on their characteristics of plant vigor, disease resistance, productivity, fruit size, color, firmness, flavor, and season.
3. The strawberry has been used mainly for fresh eating and desserts but is increasingly used for ice cream, canned products, and other preparations.
WV: Creating Butterfly and Bird GardensSotirakou964
This document provides information on attracting butterflies and birds to landscapes by meeting their basic needs of food, cover, and water. It lists plant species that provide food for different types of birds and butterflies throughout the year. Trees and shrubs are highlighted as important for providing cover from weather and predators. Maintaining sources of fresh water, such as birdbaths, is also discussed. The document concludes with tips for developing a landscape plan to attract wildlife, including evaluating existing plants, researching new species, and taking a gradual approach.
Decorah Envirothon - Shrubs for birds and wildlifeJohn Kraus
This document discusses many different shrub species that provide benefits for birds and wildlife. It describes the appearance, flowering times, fruit production, and value as a food source or shelter for various bird and animal species of each shrub. Some of the shrubs highlighted include gooseberry, black currant, coralberry, ninebark, elderberry, dogwood species, sumac, serviceberry, crabapple, hawthorn, wild plum, American hazel, redbud, wahoo, willows, and red cedar. The document emphasizes that planting native shrubs provides critical habitat and nutrition for birds and animals throughout the seasons.
Weeds can propagate and disperse through various means. They propagate sexually through seed production or asexually through vegetative structures like rhizomes, stolons, tubers, etc. Seeds and vegetative structures are then dispersed by different agents like wind, water, animals, man, and manure. This allows weeds to spread over long distances and colonize new habitats. Common dispersal mechanisms include seeds or fruits with feathers, pappus, wings, etc. that aid wind dispersal, barbs and hooks that catch on animal fur for transport, and mimicry of crop plants that results in accidental human dispersal during farming activities.
This document provides information on seed and plant types, including open pollinated seeds, heritage/heirloom seeds, and hybrid seeds. It then discusses how to save seeds, including details on annual, biennial, and perennial plant types. Specific instructions are given for easily saving seeds from self-pollinating annuals like lettuce, tomatoes, beans, and peppers. Tables also summarize information on saving seeds from other plant species. General tips on harvesting, drying, and storing seeds are also included.
Barleria and celosia are the traditional under utilized flower crop therefore their information not most available in the books and other sources so we makes some effort for preparing presentation
Insect pest of cole crops and their managementSushil Kumar
This document discusses major insect pests that affect cole crops like cabbage, cauliflower and knolkhol. It outlines the various insect pests that damage these crops at different growth stages. These include aphids, diamond back moth, cutworms, flea beetles etc. It then describes the symptoms caused by each pest and their life cycle. Finally, it provides some management strategies like intercropping, monitoring, hand picking, use of botanical extracts and recommended chemical insecticides for controlling different insect pests of cole crops. It also summarizes two research studies on management of Pieris brassicae and population dynamics of cabbage aphid in India.
Ron’s Veggie Garden Tips - University of Illinois ExtensionFayina19z
Ron provides several tips for the vegetable garden:
1) Use mesh bags and pantyhose to protect fruits and vegetables from birds and insects as they grow and dry herbs.
2) Place cans or fencing around newly planted vegetables to protect them from cutworms in the soil.
3) Be prepared for late frosts by covering tender plants with materials that insulate but don't conduct cold.
4) Install chicken wire fencing to keep rabbits from the garden.
This document provides a guide to identifying noxious and troublesome weeds in North Dakota. It was created with collaboration between NDSU Extension Service, ND Department of Agriculture, and US Forest Service. The guide contains information on 31 different weed species, including descriptions, impacts, and control methods. Each species entry includes an image and brief details on identification, origin, habitat, and effects on agriculture or livestock. The purpose is to help land managers properly identify state-listed noxious weeds that must be controlled in North Dakota.
Weed identification and classification By Mr Allah Dad Khan Provincial Coordi...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
There are approximately 350,000 known plant species, but less than 1% (about 3,000 species) have economic value and only around 300 species are used for human food and feed. A weed can be defined as a plant that grows where it is not wanted. Weeds negatively impact crops through competition for resources and by harboring pests and diseases. Common agricultural weeds include annual grasses like goosegrass and foxtail, perennial grasses like quackgrass, and broadleaf weeds like chickweed, thistle, and purslane. Weeds cause major crop yield losses each year through competition.
Minnesota: Plants for Stormwater Design - Part 2Sotirakou964
This document provides plant species information for 131 species suited for stormwater management practices. For each species, it includes descriptions, habitat information, flooding tolerance charts, design considerations, and other details. The flooding tolerance charts indicate the number of days a species can tolerate being submerged at different water levels before experiencing stress. This information is intended to help designers select species well-adapted to site hydrologic conditions.
The author revisits sites where the rare Tumamoc globeberry plant was previously observed to check on the status of the populations. At Sabino Canyon, the population appeared to be recovering well after floods in 2006. However, at the type locality on Tumamoc Hill, plants were very difficult to find. The author also visited three additional sites protected by the Bureau of Reclamation, finding one population but not the other two. A new population was discovered in Saguaro National Park. The author notes the variability in available documentation from past surveys of this rare plant.
This document provides information on the classification, reproduction, and dissemination of weeds. It discusses various ways of classifying weeds based on morphology, life cycle, origin, and other factors. It also describes the sexual and asexual reproduction of weeds through seeds and vegetative structures. Finally, it mentions that weed seeds must disseminate to safe locations to germinate and establish as seedlings in order to pass on genetic material to future generations.
This is the pest of Brinjal, Leucinodes arbonalis which is commonly known as shoot or fruit borer. It cause severe damage to the brinjal and other solanaceous plants and decline the crop productivity.
This document provides information on identifying common turfgrasses in the Pacific Northwest through their vegetative characteristics. It discusses key identification structures such as vernation, leaf tips, leaf surface morphology, ligules, and auricles. Examples of common cool season turfgrasses that may be found in lawns in the region are then described in detail, including Kentucky bluegrass, roughstalk bluegrass, annual bluegrass, bentgrasses, and ryegrasses. Specific tips are provided on identifying these grasses based on their geographical location and the characteristics of the turf.
Signboard on the 'Rooted in Time' self-drive tour of the Knysna forests in the Garden Route National Park. https://www.sanparks.org/parks/garden_route/
Carnivorous plants have evolved specialized trapping mechanisms to obtain nutrients from the insects and small animals they capture. There are five main trapping types - pitfall traps like pitcher plants, flypaper traps with sticky secretions, snap traps that rapidly close like Venus flytraps, bladder traps that use suction, and lobster pot traps with inward-pointing hairs. Examples of carnivorous plants from around the world are described for each trap type, with details on their trapping mechanisms and habitats. Specific genera mentioned include Sarracenia, Nepenthes, Drosera, Utricularia, Dionaea, and Genlisea.
The soybean stem borer has a life cycle where the adult lays eggs on soybean plants in the summer. The eggs hatch into larvae that tunnel into the stems, causing leaves to wilt and fall off. Larvae continue tunneling down the stem until maturity, sometimes causing the entire plant to lodge. Larvae overwinter below ground and emerge as adults the next spring to begin the cycle again. Key signs of infestation are wilted leaves and lodged plants near harvest. Timely harvest and crop rotation can help manage stem borer populations.
Plants for Gardening in Wet and Wooded Areas - ConnecticutFinola87v
This document provides guidance for choosing native plant species suitable for wet and wooded areas around homes. It discusses how native plantings can enhance conservation while reducing maintenance costs. Several shrub and groundcover species are described that thrive in wet conditions and provide benefits like wildlife habitat and erosion control. Homeowners are encouraged to plant native species and maintain naturalized vegetation near wetlands and waterways to protect water quality and local ecosystems.
This document provides a detailed classification of weeds based on various characteristics. It discusses morphological classification based on structure, life cycle as annual, biennial or perennial, and monocot or dicot. Physiological classification is presented based on seed characteristics and vegetative reproduction methods like rhizomes, stolons, bulbs etc. Ecological classification divides weeds into wetland, irrigated land, and dry land types based on water requirements. Further distinctions are made based on soil type, place of occurrence, origin, cotyledon number, soil pH, stem structure, parasitic nature, and habitat as aquatic. Specific problem weeds like poisonous and parasitic types are also outlined.
This document defines weeds and compares their characteristics to cultivated plants. It discusses how weeds differ in seed dormancy, abundant seed production, seed survival, vegetative reproduction, lack of beauty/odor, and toxicity. The document then provides examples of common weed families and species, describing their identifying features. It focuses on the Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae, and Fabaceae families.
Strawberry Culture; by Frank Gerow Corregan (1918)FalXda
1. The strawberry is one of the most widely cultivated fruits due to its wide adaptability, delicious flavor, and small space requirements.
2. The document recommends 8 varieties of strawberry for New York growers including Senator Dunlap, Sample, Marshall, Glen Mary, William Belt, Warfield, Brandywine, and Rough Rider based on their characteristics of plant vigor, disease resistance, productivity, fruit size, color, firmness, flavor, and season.
3. The strawberry has been used mainly for fresh eating and desserts but is increasingly used for ice cream, canned products, and other preparations.
WV: Creating Butterfly and Bird GardensSotirakou964
This document provides information on attracting butterflies and birds to landscapes by meeting their basic needs of food, cover, and water. It lists plant species that provide food for different types of birds and butterflies throughout the year. Trees and shrubs are highlighted as important for providing cover from weather and predators. Maintaining sources of fresh water, such as birdbaths, is also discussed. The document concludes with tips for developing a landscape plan to attract wildlife, including evaluating existing plants, researching new species, and taking a gradual approach.
Decorah Envirothon - Shrubs for birds and wildlifeJohn Kraus
This document discusses many different shrub species that provide benefits for birds and wildlife. It describes the appearance, flowering times, fruit production, and value as a food source or shelter for various bird and animal species of each shrub. Some of the shrubs highlighted include gooseberry, black currant, coralberry, ninebark, elderberry, dogwood species, sumac, serviceberry, crabapple, hawthorn, wild plum, American hazel, redbud, wahoo, willows, and red cedar. The document emphasizes that planting native shrubs provides critical habitat and nutrition for birds and animals throughout the seasons.
Weeds can propagate and disperse through various means. They propagate sexually through seed production or asexually through vegetative structures like rhizomes, stolons, tubers, etc. Seeds and vegetative structures are then dispersed by different agents like wind, water, animals, man, and manure. This allows weeds to spread over long distances and colonize new habitats. Common dispersal mechanisms include seeds or fruits with feathers, pappus, wings, etc. that aid wind dispersal, barbs and hooks that catch on animal fur for transport, and mimicry of crop plants that results in accidental human dispersal during farming activities.
This document provides information on seed and plant types, including open pollinated seeds, heritage/heirloom seeds, and hybrid seeds. It then discusses how to save seeds, including details on annual, biennial, and perennial plant types. Specific instructions are given for easily saving seeds from self-pollinating annuals like lettuce, tomatoes, beans, and peppers. Tables also summarize information on saving seeds from other plant species. General tips on harvesting, drying, and storing seeds are also included.
Barleria and celosia are the traditional under utilized flower crop therefore their information not most available in the books and other sources so we makes some effort for preparing presentation
Insect pest of cole crops and their managementSushil Kumar
This document discusses major insect pests that affect cole crops like cabbage, cauliflower and knolkhol. It outlines the various insect pests that damage these crops at different growth stages. These include aphids, diamond back moth, cutworms, flea beetles etc. It then describes the symptoms caused by each pest and their life cycle. Finally, it provides some management strategies like intercropping, monitoring, hand picking, use of botanical extracts and recommended chemical insecticides for controlling different insect pests of cole crops. It also summarizes two research studies on management of Pieris brassicae and population dynamics of cabbage aphid in India.
Ron’s Veggie Garden Tips - University of Illinois ExtensionFayina19z
Ron provides several tips for the vegetable garden:
1) Use mesh bags and pantyhose to protect fruits and vegetables from birds and insects as they grow and dry herbs.
2) Place cans or fencing around newly planted vegetables to protect them from cutworms in the soil.
3) Be prepared for late frosts by covering tender plants with materials that insulate but don't conduct cold.
4) Install chicken wire fencing to keep rabbits from the garden.
This document provides a guide to identifying noxious and troublesome weeds in North Dakota. It was created with collaboration between NDSU Extension Service, ND Department of Agriculture, and US Forest Service. The guide contains information on 31 different weed species, including descriptions, impacts, and control methods. Each species entry includes an image and brief details on identification, origin, habitat, and effects on agriculture or livestock. The purpose is to help land managers properly identify state-listed noxious weeds that must be controlled in North Dakota.
Weed identification and classification By Mr Allah Dad Khan Provincial Coordi...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
There are approximately 350,000 known plant species, but less than 1% (about 3,000 species) have economic value and only around 300 species are used for human food and feed. A weed can be defined as a plant that grows where it is not wanted. Weeds negatively impact crops through competition for resources and by harboring pests and diseases. Common agricultural weeds include annual grasses like goosegrass and foxtail, perennial grasses like quackgrass, and broadleaf weeds like chickweed, thistle, and purslane. Weeds cause major crop yield losses each year through competition.
Minnesota: Plants for Stormwater Design - Part 2Sotirakou964
This document provides plant species information for 131 species suited for stormwater management practices. For each species, it includes descriptions, habitat information, flooding tolerance charts, design considerations, and other details. The flooding tolerance charts indicate the number of days a species can tolerate being submerged at different water levels before experiencing stress. This information is intended to help designers select species well-adapted to site hydrologic conditions.
The author revisits sites where the rare Tumamoc globeberry plant was previously observed to check on the status of the populations. At Sabino Canyon, the population appeared to be recovering well after floods in 2006. However, at the type locality on Tumamoc Hill, plants were very difficult to find. The author also visited three additional sites protected by the Bureau of Reclamation, finding one population but not the other two. A new population was discovered in Saguaro National Park. The author notes the variability in available documentation from past surveys of this rare plant.
This document provides information on the classification, reproduction, and dissemination of weeds. It discusses various ways of classifying weeds based on morphology, life cycle, origin, and other factors. It also describes the sexual and asexual reproduction of weeds through seeds and vegetative structures. Finally, it mentions that weed seeds must disseminate to safe locations to germinate and establish as seedlings in order to pass on genetic material to future generations.
This is the pest of Brinjal, Leucinodes arbonalis which is commonly known as shoot or fruit borer. It cause severe damage to the brinjal and other solanaceous plants and decline the crop productivity.
This document provides information on identifying common turfgrasses in the Pacific Northwest through their vegetative characteristics. It discusses key identification structures such as vernation, leaf tips, leaf surface morphology, ligules, and auricles. Examples of common cool season turfgrasses that may be found in lawns in the region are then described in detail, including Kentucky bluegrass, roughstalk bluegrass, annual bluegrass, bentgrasses, and ryegrasses. Specific tips are provided on identifying these grasses based on their geographical location and the characteristics of the turf.
Signboard on the 'Rooted in Time' self-drive tour of the Knysna forests in the Garden Route National Park. https://www.sanparks.org/parks/garden_route/
Carnivorous plants have evolved specialized trapping mechanisms to obtain nutrients from the insects and small animals they capture. There are five main trapping types - pitfall traps like pitcher plants, flypaper traps with sticky secretions, snap traps that rapidly close like Venus flytraps, bladder traps that use suction, and lobster pot traps with inward-pointing hairs. Examples of carnivorous plants from around the world are described for each trap type, with details on their trapping mechanisms and habitats. Specific genera mentioned include Sarracenia, Nepenthes, Drosera, Utricularia, Dionaea, and Genlisea.
The soybean stem borer has a life cycle where the adult lays eggs on soybean plants in the summer. The eggs hatch into larvae that tunnel into the stems, causing leaves to wilt and fall off. Larvae continue tunneling down the stem until maturity, sometimes causing the entire plant to lodge. Larvae overwinter below ground and emerge as adults the next spring to begin the cycle again. Key signs of infestation are wilted leaves and lodged plants near harvest. Timely harvest and crop rotation can help manage stem borer populations.
This document provides classifications for various types of animals and plants. It divides animals into several phyla based on their characteristics, including chordates, molluscs, echinoderms, platyhelminths, nematodes, cnidarians, annelids, protozoa, arthropods, poriferans, and rotifers. It also describes key characteristics of classes within these phyla like reptiles, birds, mammals, fish, amphibians. Similarly, it categorizes plants into seedless vascular plants, non-vascular plants, and seeded vascular plants, outlining example types like ferns, horsetails, mosses, cycads, conifers, and flowering plants.
Nonvascular plants lack true roots, stems, and leaves due to the absence of vascular tissue. They are called thallophytes and include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They must live in moist environments because they lack internal structures for transporting water and nutrients and generally only grow 1-2 cm tall. Vascular plants have specialized tissues for transport and include both spore-bearing plants like ferns and seed-bearing plants like gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce naked seeds enclosed in cones while angiosperms produce seeds enclosed within flowers in an ovary.
Wanderer's eye: Long Point Chapter by Aniruddha H DAniruddha
The document provides an overview of the biodiversity found at Long Point, Ontario, which is an important stopover for migratory birds. It summarizes the author's observations and documentation of various insects, spiders, snakes, birds, and other wildlife seen at Long Point over two months. The diverse ecosystem supports a high number of resident and migratory species, from ants and bees to dragonflies and snakes. Long Point is an ecologically significant area that must be protected to preserve this biodiversity, including threatened species such as Eastern Hog-nosed snakes.
This document provides a summary of the flora and fauna found along the Dodder River. It lists 5 types of plants found along the river: Bryophytes, algae, Crocosmia, Japanese knotweed, and Impatiens glandulifera. It also lists 5 types of animals found near the river: mallard, grey heron, dipper, coot, and moorhen. The document then provides 1-2 paragraphs describing each of these types of flora and fauna.
Carnivorous plants obtain nutrients by trapping and digesting prey, mostly insects. They have evolved diverse trapping mechanisms and are found around the world, especially in nutrient-poor bog environments. Major types of carnivorous plants include pitcher plants, which use pitfall traps formed by modified leaf structures; sundews, which use sticky tentacles on leaves; and Venus flytraps, whose leaves can rapidly close to trap prey.
This booklet investigates the history and symbolism of orchids as connected to imperialism, sexuality, and the environment. The writing mixes history, theory, and memoir. In England during the 19th century emerged a mania for orchids called Orchidelirium linked to the need to possess the “other” taking from newly “discovered” countries. Drawing connections between the exoticism of the plant as related to colonialism, orientalism, the book addresses the current moment as related to yellow peril and climate change. This booklet is in connection to a solo live performance of the same title.
The glassy-winged sharpshooter is an insect pest that was introduced to southern California in the 1990s. It feeds on hundreds of plant species and excretes on leaves, causing whitewashing. More importantly, it spreads a bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa, between plants which causes devastating diseases in crops like grapes and ornamentals. Management focuses on controlling its spread through monitoring, biological and chemical controls, with the goal of containing it to already infested areas.
Wanderer's Eye - Manitoulin Island Chapter by Aniruddha H DAniruddha
A photo-documentary of flora and fauna of Manitoulin Island observed during the months of July and August, 2010, while working on a project on Sandhill Cranes.
This document discusses the history and uses of sunflowers. It details how sunflowers were domesticated by Native Americans over 1000 BC for food and oil. Today, sunflowers are an important food source for many birds and small mammals. Planting sunflowers is an easy way to attract wildlife to your property, as over 40 species of birds consume the seeds. The black oilseed variety is particularly nutritious and a favored food. Whether growing a few in your backyard or planting acreages, sunflowers provide benefits to wildlife.
The document discusses various birds and insects that are important pollinators in a backyard, including hummingbirds, sphinx moths, swallowtail butterflies, bumblebees, drone flies, and honey bees. It notes that hummingbirds arrive in March and leave in August, Anna's hummingbirds stay year-round. It provides details on the nesting and feeding behaviors of various species. The document also expresses concern about declining pollinator populations due to pesticides and calls out neonicotinoids and their effects on bees.
Wetlands are diverse habitats that are often defined by their plant life. They provide important ecosystem services like flood control and water purification. They support a wide variety of plant and animal life, including cattails, red-winged blackbirds, great blue herons, and muskrats. Wetlands are valuable for both wildlife and people.
This document discusses several species of leafroller moths that can damage ornamental and fruit trees in California. It provides information on identifying the different life stages of leafrollers through descriptions and photographs. Several species are mentioned, including the fruittree leafroller, omnivorous leafroller, and light brown apple moth. The document also covers the leafrollers' life cycles, damage symptoms, and integrated pest management techniques for control.
SOME DEFINITION OF SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS THAT CAN HELP YOU TO UNDERSTAND MORE ABOUT SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS. IN THIS SLIDESHARE U CAN FIND WHAT IS SEEDLESS VASUCLAR PLANTS. I HOPE I CAN HELP YOU BY SHARING IT. READ AND UNDERSTANDING SO U CAN ABLE TO KNOW WHAT IT IS
Bromeliads are plants in the pineapple family that form bowls to catch rainwater, housing entire ecosystems. Venus fly traps and pitcher plants are carnivorous, trapping and digesting insects for nutrients. Lianas are vines that grow over 90% of the world's rainforests, allowing monkeys and animals to swing between trees. Orchids are diverse flowering plants, many growing as epiphytes on trees in warm, moist environments and having colorful purple and patterned petals. Strangler figs begin as epiphytes and eventually engulf and kill their host trees to avoid ground-level competition.
This document provides information about Charles Darwin's life and work, including:
1. It describes Darwin's home and garden at Down House where he conducted botanical experiments and investigations for over 40 years.
2. It discusses some of Darwin's key influences and correspondents including Joseph Hooker and how Darwin cared deeply about his research on plants like Drosera and orchids.
3. It examines Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and how he believed characteristics that helped plants attract beneficial insects to transport pollen would be favored over time, using the example of red clover.
The document discusses the evolution and morphology of conifer cones. It describes the key structures and characteristics of male and female cones across different conifer families, including the seed scale complex. The seed scale complex is proposed to be the primary form in coniferales by Florin, with ovuliferous scales evolving from compound megasporangiate strobili. Main trends in seed cone and scale evolution include reduction of sterile scales, recurving of ovules, and incorporation of ovules with ovuliferous scales.
Only a few wasp species in California are social. Yellowjackets are the primary pest among social wasps and build nests underground or in cavities. Yellowjackets become aggressive when their nest is disturbed and may sting humans, especially in late summer when scavenging for food. Trapping and avoiding areas near nests are recommended for managing yellowjacket problems.
Similar to Figs; by Bror Eric Dahlgren (1922) (20)
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A Practical Treatise on Plum Growing; by Eliphas Cope (1888)FalXda
This document provides a practical treatise on plum growing by Eliphas Cope. It discusses key considerations for plum cultivation including situation, soil, varieties, planting time, and care of plum trees. Specifically, it recommends planting plum trees in exposed areas with good air circulation. It also notes the importance of soil depth and composition for annual and sustained fruit production. Several plum varieties are described, including their characteristics, hardiness, and suitability for field culture. Proper care is emphasized for maximizing plum yields.
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Bridgeman's Fruit Cultivators Manual; by Thomas Bridgeman (1847) >>>>Containing Ample Directions for the Cultivation of the Most Important Fruits Including Cranberry, the Fig, and Grape, With Descriptive Lists of the Most Admired Varieties
British Pomology; by Robert Hogg (1851) >>>>The History, Description, Classification, and Synonymes, of the Fruits and Fruit Trees of Great Britain >>>>Contains excellent lists of heritage apple varieties
Chestnut Culture In The Northeastern United States; by Ernest Albert Sterling...FalXda
This document discusses the history and current state of chestnut cultivation in the United States and Europe. It notes that chestnut cultivation is more developed in Europe due to longer history and greater value placed on the crop. In the US, chestnuts were traditionally gathered from scattered native trees but are now beginning to be commercially cultivated as demand increases. The document provides background on the chestnut species and its uses as a food, wood, and cash crop to support the potential for expanded chestnut cultivation in the US.
Crops that pay: by Henry Arthur Dygert (1906)FalXda
This document summarizes the history and cultivation of pecans. It describes pecans as a native nut of the Mississippi River valley region that is now being commercially grown through cultivation. Pecans have many uses as a food, fuel, and material. While traditionally harvested from wild trees, cultivation is improving pecan sizes, shells, and flavors. The pecan industry is growing, though wild pecan forests continue to be threatened by harvesting and land clearing.
Cyclopedia of Hardy Fruits; by U. P. Hedrick (1922) FalXda
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Eat California Fruit; by Southern Pacific Company (1904)FalXda
This document provides an introduction and recipes for preparing California fruits, particularly prunes. It discusses why California fruits are best due to the ideal climate for fruit cultivation. It notes the long summers, abundance of sunshine, and lack of humidity in California creates perfect conditions for fruit ripening. It also describes prunes as a nutritious and delicious fruit that can be prepared in a variety of simple ways, such as soaking and simmering prunes with sugar or wine to enhance flavor. The document advocates eating California fruits, especially prunes, for improved health and as alternatives to expensive meats and medicines.
Fig Caprification Or the Setting of the Fruit: by Byron Martin Lelong (1891)FalXda
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- The author details their own experiments examining Smyrna figs, finding no openings for insects to enter even in small figs. They also observed seed formation without caprification.
- While not dismissing caprification, the author cites scientific studies concluding it is a delusion and unnecessary, instead relying on conclusions from modern authorities and their own recent discoveries.
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Fig Culture: Edible Figs: Their Culture and Curing; by Gustav Eisen (1897) FalXda
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Figs from California; by William Whittingham Lyman (1922) FalXda
The speaker runs swiftly through the misty dusk, feeling their feet are beautiful as they move. The mist is like velvet under their feet. Their eyes burn hotly through the mist like stars. They feel connected to the elemental forces of mist and fire within themselves.
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Fruit Culture; by B. M Leloso, California State Board of Horticulture (1890) FalXda
Fruit Culture; by B. M Leloso, California State Board of Horticulture (1890) >>>>Sour Orange Stock, Fertilizing and Methods of Compounding Fertilizers, Injurious Insect Pests, Parasites, and Obervatons.
Fruits and Fruit-Trees, Home and Foreign ; by Leo Hartley Grindon (1885)FalXda
Fruits and Fruit-Trees, Home and Foreign ; by Leo Hartley Grindon (1885) >>>>An index to the kinds valued in Britain, with descriptions, histories, and other particulars
Nuts and Their Uses as Food; by Myer Edward Jaffa (1907)FalXda
This document summarizes the composition and uses of various nuts as food. It describes the structure and flavors of common nuts like walnuts, almonds, and peanuts. Less common nuts from Asia and other regions are also outlined. The document notes that nuts are high in oils and contain unique flavors. They can be incorporated into many dishes from butters and pastes to baked goods and candies to provide nutrition and variety to the diet. Overall, the increasing consumption of nuts signals a better appreciation of their health and culinary benefits.
Origin and Meaning of Apple Cults; James Rendel Harris (1919)FalXda
This document discusses the existence and history of apple cults, or religious practices centered around apples, in various cultures. It begins by noting that surviving folk customs often relate to ancient cults and rituals whose meanings have been lost over time. The author suggests that investigating apple cults may help trace the origins of the Greek god Apollo, as some scholars believe Apollo originated as the personification of the healing properties of mistletoe growing on apple trees.
The document then examines evidence of ancient apple cults in Britain, noting a historical custom from Devonshire where orchards were blessed each year and apples were used in divination rituals. It also references ancient Roman practices of making offerings to apple tree spirits. Finally, it discusses
Paper Shell Pecans; by Keystone Pecan Company (1921)FalXda
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
9. 58-
noJ-IQ
Field Museum of Natural History
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
Chicago. 1922
Leaflet Number 1
Fig:
"The wild figs upon the fig trees contain a creature
called psen : worm, and afterwards
this is at first a little
having ruptured the case the psen flies out. and leaves it
behind. It then pierces the unripe figs, and causes them
not to fall off. wherefore gardeners place wild fruit near
rhe cultivated kinds, and plant the wild and cultivated
—
plants near each other." Arisrotle. History of Animals.
B. V.. Ch. XXVI 3.
Botanically the figs are a subdivision of the mul-
berry family. They are peculiar in not having their
flowers exposed, like most flowering plants, but con-
cealed within a hollow, urn-shaped receptacle which
has precisely the appearance of a young fruit. The
apparent absence of flowers is often a matter for com-
ment. An old Chinese writer on Materia Medica and
Natural History in discussing the fig calls it the "fruit
without flower." In reality the flowers are numerous
but insignificant in size and in appearance. All other
members of the family to which the figs belong have,
like the mulberry, the flowers and the individual fruits
on the outside.
Some 600 species of wild figs have been described
to date. A few of them are cultivated or well-known
plants, such as the rubber plant which in its normal
habitat is a rubber yielding tree, the Banyan tree which
with its numerous proproots may spread over an acre
or more of ground, and the sycamore fig that furnished
the everlasting wood for the coffins of the Pharaohs.
The vast majority of figs, however, grow in semi-tropi-
cal and tropical forests and jungles as shrubs, trees, or
10. 2 Field Museum of Natural History
even as vines. Two species grow native in the sub-
tropical, southern part of Florida. One of them is a
so-called "strangling fig." These begin their lives as
parasites on other trees, growing at first much like
the mistletoe, but eventually sending their own roots
to the ground.
The (Ficus carica) is a native of
cultivated fig
Semitic Asia, perhaps particularly of southern Arabia,
but occurs also in Syria and in Palestine. Smyrna
was as famous for its figs in ancient times as it is now.
From western Asia the Phoenicians and later the Arabs
carried the fig throughout the entire Mediterranean
region. The old Greeks scoffed at the barbarians who
did not have figs and wine. Romulus and Remus, ac-
cording to tradition, were suckled by a she-wolf under
a fig tree. In ancient lore the fig occupied a place such
as does our more familiar apple tree of the Garden of
Eden. Before the appearance of man, figs grew in
Europe and North America. Leaves and fruits like
in
those of the cultivated fig have been found fossil in
France. With the Glacial Period the fig of course dis-
appeared from the modern temperate zone those
which now grow in Europe were all introduced horti-
culturally. Figs have long been grown in China, hav-
ing been brought by way of Persia from Asia Minor.
In modern times the cultivated fig has been introduced
into many lands. It is grown in South and Southwest
Africa, in South America, and in Australia. It has
been grown in Sussex in England. It is successfully
cultivated in the United States, especially in California
and in the Gulf Region, particularly in Texas. In
African Sudan where the fig has failed to grow on its
<
iwn roots, it has been grown budded on the more trop-
ical sycamore fig.
The cultivated fig is ordinarily a rapidly growing
small tree with palmately lobed leaves and with a soft
[2]
11. Figs 3
wood. It lives sometimes to a great age and then
reaches large dimensions. It may be uncommonly pro-
ductive and is said to bear at times a fruit in every
leaf -axil, though part of such a huge crop is apt to drop
before maturity.
As in the case ofmost cultivated fruits there are
many varieties.Besides the common fig, called mis-
sion figs in California, and the well-known Smyrnas,
a California writer lists Adriatic, Eriocyne, Cordelia,
and San Pedro figs. The popular distinction into two
kinds is on the basis of color, purple or "black" figs and
yellow or "white" figs. The former are usually less
sweet and are consumed while fresh. The figs which
come dried and packed in boxes or "drums," such as
the imported Smyrna figs, are of the white variety.
They are preserved like raisins or dates by their own
high sugar content.
The fig fruit is a hollow, fleshy receptacle, with a
small opening or "eye" in the top furnishing the only
point of entry to the interior cavity. Ordinarily this
opening is almost entirely closed and barred on the
inside by a zone of small, interlocking scales. The
inner wall of the receptacle bears the very numerous,
small, simple flowers which in the edible fig are all of
the female or pistillate kind, more or less perfect. As
these grow old and elongate, they completely fill the
cavity. Each one of them normally matures a single
small dry seed which in some cultivated figs is always
sterile, in others fertile when the flowers have been
pollinated. The fruit of some varieties of the culti-
vated fig "ripens," i. e., the receptacle becomes soft,
fleshy and edible, without pollination. The fruit of
others will not ripen unless pollinated.
Pollination is a normal occurrence in the wild fig
only. This, in contrast to the edible fig {Ficus) bears
partly inedible fruit and is known as the goats-fig-tree,
[3]
12. 4 Field Museum of Natural History
"
Caprificus" or Caprifig. It is also known as the
"male fig" because its figs or flower receptacles con-
tain male flowers in addition to the others. Female
trees of the wild fig also exist but are very scarce.
The edible fig is undoubtedly derived from such. The
male flowers of the Caprifig are situated in the upper
part of the fig cavity, immediately below the scales,
which here as in the edible fig, bar the opening to
intruders.
The insect which ordinarily inhabits the interior
of the fig cavity is the minute Fig Wasp (Blastophaga
grossorum, family Chalcidae). Through the course
of ages of association (fossil figs have been found in
remains of the Cretaceous period) the life history of
the fig and of the minute wasp have become inextric-
ably entangled. Complete interdependence has been es-
tablished between them, so that each is necessary for
the existence of the other. Without the wasp the wild
fig would soon become extinct, for there would be no
maturing of seed, and, vice versa, in the absence of
the wild figs there would be no fig wasps hatching.
The female fig wasp enters the young caprifig in which
at a certain period the orifice is relaxed, lays its eggs
in the short-styled flowers near the base of the cavity
and dies within the fig. These flowers are known as
gall flowers. The habit of response to the visitations
of the fig wasp has proceeded to the stage of anticipa-
tion, for gall flowers are not normal flowers that be-
come gall flowers through the egg-laying of the insect,
but are already present as such, though barren and
useless till the puncture of the wasp supplies them an
inhabitant in the shape of a wasp grub.
The eggs hatch into male and female wasps. The
small, yellow, wingless males mature first, bite holes
in their galls and crawl out into the cavity of the fig.
They soon cut holes in the gall flowers containing the
[4]
13. Figs 5
still immature females, impregnate them and shortly
die within the fig, as did the mother wasp.
Their female wasps, are darker, of a
sisters, the
brown color and winged.In due course they hatch
and immediately set about leaving the cavity of the
fig within which there is no room for them to spread
their wings. To reach the orifice of the fig they must
pass the male flowers and become dusted with the
pollen that matures at the very time of their hatching
and departure.
Once in the open air their wings soon dry and each
young female wasp is off in search of an immature
fig in which to deposit eggs. A suitable one found, the
wasp proceeds to cut a notch in one of the outer scales
for better access, then makes its way inside. In the
process the wasp generally loses its wings. These are
apt to stick in the opening, so that an inhabitated fig
may be recognized by their presence. The pollen car-
ried by the insect is brushed off on the stigmas of the
long-styled flowers within. Eggs can be properly
placed only in figs of the Caprificus kind, where gall
flowers are present.
Both the wild and the cultivated fig usually bear
three crops a year. As insects emerge from one crop
of maturing Caprifigs they ordinarily find green fruit
of the next crop ready to receive them. Each crop is
thus pollinated with pollen of the preceding crop. An
interval of about two months elapses between the en-
trance of the egg-laying fig wasp into the young fig
and the emergence of her progeny from the ripe one.
The same interval of time separates the receptive stage
of the female fig flowers and the ripening of the pollen
in the male flowers, completely excluding the possibility
of self-pollination. The last of the fig wasps of the
year deposit their eggs in young fruit which stays on
the trees until spring.
[5]
14. 6 Field Museum of Natural History
To prevent the dropping of fruit of the edible fig
before maturity, it is an ancient practice among fig
growers to hang branches of the wild fig tree, or
strings of ripe Caprifigs, in the trees of the fig orchard.
The fig wasps will then enter the young edible figs and
bring about pollination with the Caprifig pollen. The
true Smyrna fig absolutely requires pollination to ripen
its fruit. Fig trees of this variety grown in Califor-
nia continued to drop their immature fruit for over
twenty years till the wild fig with its fig wasp was
introduced and the so-called "caprification" was made
possible. In Mediterranean countries Caprifigs for the
purpose of caprification are an article of commerce
at times bringing a higher price than edible figs. It has
often been stated on apparently good botanical author-
ity that the practice is of doubtful utility. According
to the California zoologist, Eisen, who has done much
to clear up this question, the confusion is due to a fail-
ure to discriminate between the varieties which require
and those which do not require pollination in order to
mature their fruit. The latter kind are grown alto-
gether in some localities, as in southern France.
The ancients who observed the fig wasp and well
knew that it had something to do with the ripening of
the fruit, sought to account for it in accordance with
the ideas of their time., e. g., "the wasps suck up the
superfluous humors," "they enlarge the eye and per-
mit the fertilizing air to enter."
The German botanist, Solms-Laubach was the first
to investigate thoroughly the flowers of the fig and
extended his inquiries to some of the numerous species
of wild Ficus. Many of these have been studied since
and relations have been found to exist between plant
host and insect tenant similar to those observed in the
cultivated fig. The insects associated with the wild
figs are all closely related to the fig wasp of the Capri-
[«]
15. Figs 7
fig but distinct and different in the various species of
the genus Ficus. It would seem probable that most, if
not all, of the six hundred or more species of wild figs
throughout the world are as dependent for their con-
tinued existence on their respective fig wasp guests as
is the Caprifig.
B. E. Dahlgren.
Exhibits in the Field Museum pertaining to the Mulberry
Family and the Fig are to be found in the Department of Botany,
Halls 28 and 29, particularly, a reproduction of a fruiting branch
of the Cultivated Fig, an enlarged section of a young flower
receptacle, an enlarged section of a Caprifig with the male and
female Fig Wasps, wood and rubber of Ficus, etc.
In the Department of Geology, Hall 18, are to be seen fossil
Figs, of the Cretaceous period, from Wyoming and Kansas.
[7]