The document discusses the hallmarks of scientific research which include purposiveness, rigor, testability, replicability, precision and confidence, objectivity, generalizability, and parsimony. It provides examples to illustrate each of these concepts. The key stages of the hypothetico-deductive scientific research method are outlined, including observation, preliminary information gathering, theory formulation, hypothesizing, further specific data collection, data analysis, and deduction. Different types of research such as deduction and induction are also briefly explained.

1. Business ResearchBusiness Research
MethodsMethods
Adopted FromAdopted From
Fourth EditionFourth Edition
Uma SekaranUma Sekaran
Instructor: Ahmad Sohail LodhiInstructor: Ahmad Sohail Lodhi
MBE, LLBMBE, LLB

2. Chapter 2Chapter 2
SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATIONINVESTIGATION

3. After completing this chapter youAfter completing this chapter you
would be able to understand:would be able to understand:
 The Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchThe Hallmarks of Scientific Research
 Some obstacles to conducting scientificSome obstacles to conducting scientific
research in the management arearesearch in the management area
 The building blocks of science in researchThe building blocks of science in research
 The hypothetico deductive methodThe hypothetico deductive method
 Other types of researchOther types of research

4. Definition of ScientificDefinition of Scientific
ResearchResearch
Scientific Research focusing onScientific Research focusing on
solving problems and pursues asolving problems and pursues a
step by step logical, organizedstep by step logical, organized
and rigorous method to identifyand rigorous method to identify
the problems, gather data,the problems, gather data,
analyze them and draw validanalyze them and draw valid
conclusions there from.conclusions there from.

5. Why Scientific Research?Why Scientific Research?
 This research is not based on hunches,This research is not based on hunches,
experience and intuition.experience and intuition.
 It is purposive and rigorous.It is purposive and rigorous.
 Enables all those who are interested inEnables all those who are interested in
researching and knowing about the same orresearching and knowing about the same or
similar issues to come up with comparablesimilar issues to come up with comparable
findings when data are analyzed.findings when data are analyzed.
 Findings are accurate and confident.Findings are accurate and confident.
 Apply solutions to similar problems.Apply solutions to similar problems.
 It is more objective.It is more objective.

6. Cont.Cont.
 Highlights the most critical factors at the workHighlights the most critical factors at the work
place that need specific attention to solve orplace that need specific attention to solve or
minimize problems.minimize problems.
 Scientific Investigation and Managerial DecisionScientific Investigation and Managerial Decision
Making are integral part of effective problemMaking are integral part of effective problem
solving.solving.
 It can be applied to both basic and appliedIt can be applied to both basic and applied
research.research.

7. The Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchThe Hallmarks of Scientific Research
1.1. PurposivenessPurposiveness
2.2. RigorRigor
3.3. TestabilityTestability
4.4. ReplicabilityReplicability
5.5. Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence
6.6. ObjectivityObjectivity
7.7. GeneralizabilityGeneralizability
8.8. ParsimonyParsimony
The hallmarks or main distinguishingThe hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may becharacteristics of scientific research may be
listed as follows:listed as follows:

8. Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchHallmarks of Scientific Research
1.1. PurposivenessPurposiveness
 It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.
 The focus is on increasing employeeThe focus is on increasing employee
commitment.commitment.
 Increase employee commitment will translateIncrease employee commitment will translate
into less turnover, less absenteeism andinto less turnover, less absenteeism and
increased performance levels.increased performance levels.
 Thus it has a purposive focus.Thus it has a purposive focus.

9. 2.2. RigorRigor
 A good theoretical base and sound methodological designA good theoretical base and sound methodological design
would add rigor to the purposive study.would add rigor to the purposive study.
 Rigor adds carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree ofRigor adds carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of
exactitude in research.exactitude in research.
Example:Example:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the levelA manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level
of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses theof commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the
manager reaches several conclusions on how employeemanager reaches several conclusions on how employee
commitment can be increases, the whole approach to thecommitment can be increases, the whole approach to the
investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor forinvestigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for
the following reasons:the following reasons:

10. 1.1. Based on few employeesBased on few employees
2.2. Bias and incorrectnessBias and incorrectness
3.3. There might be other influences on commitmentThere might be other influences on commitment
which are ignored and are important for a researcherwhich are ignored and are important for a researcher
to knowto know
Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base andThus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and
thought out methodology.thought out methodology.
 These factors enable the researcher to collect the rightThese factors enable the researcher to collect the right
kind of information from an appropriate sample withkind of information from an appropriate sample with
the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitablethe minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable
analysis of the data gathered.analysis of the data gathered.
 This supports the other six too.This supports the other six too.

11. 3.3. TestabilityTestability
The researcher might hypothesizeThe researcher might hypothesize
that those employees who perceivethat those employees who perceive
greater opportunities forgreater opportunities for
participation in decision makingparticipation in decision making
would have a higher level ofwould have a higher level of
commitment.commitment.
After random selection manager and researcherAfter random selection manager and researcher
develops certain hypothesis on how managerdevelops certain hypothesis on how manager
employee commitment can be enhanced, thenemployee commitment can be enhanced, then
these can be tested by applying certain statisticalthese can be tested by applying certain statistical
tests to the data collected for the purposetests to the data collected for the purpose..

12. It means that it can be used again ifIt means that it can be used again if
similar circumstances prevails.similar circumstances prevails.
Example:Example:
The study concludes that participation inThe study concludes that participation in
decision making is one of the mostdecision making is one of the most
important factors that influences theimportant factors that influences the
commitment, we will place more faith andcommitment, we will place more faith and
credence in these finding and apply incredence in these finding and apply in
similar situations. To the extent that thissimilar situations. To the extent that this
does happen, we will gain confidence indoes happen, we will gain confidence in
the scientific nature of our research.the scientific nature of our research.
4.4. ReplicabilityReplicability

13. PrecisionPrecision
– Precision refers to the closeness of the findingsPrecision refers to the closeness of the findings
to “reality” based on a sample.to “reality” based on a sample.
– It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitudeIt reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude
of the results of the sample.of the results of the sample.
Example: If a supervisor estimated theExample: If a supervisor estimated the
number of production days lost during thenumber of production days lost during the
year due to absenteeism at between 30 andyear due to absenteeism at between 30 and
40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of
my estimation more favorably than if he hasmy estimation more favorably than if he has
indicated that the loss of production days wasindicated that the loss of production days was
somewhere between 20 and 50.somewhere between 20 and 50.
5.5. Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence

14. ConfidenceConfidence
– Confidence refers to the probability that ourConfidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.estimations are correct.
– That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,
but it is also important that we canbut it is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time ourconfidently claim that 95% of the time our
results would be true and there is only a 5%results would be true and there is only a 5%
chance of our being wrong.chance of our being wrong.
– This is also known as confidence level.This is also known as confidence level.

15. 6. Objectivity6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation ofThe conclusions drawn through the interpretation of
the results of data analysis should be objective; thatthe results of data analysis should be objective; that
is, they should be based on the facts of the findingsis, they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our subjectivederived from actual data, and not on our subjective
or emotional values.or emotional values.
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greaterExample: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater
participation in decision making will increaseparticipation in decision making will increase
organizational commitment and this was not supportedorganizational commitment and this was not supported
by the results, it makes no sense if the researcherby the results, it makes no sense if the researcher
continues to argue that increased opportunities forcontinues to argue that increased opportunities for
employee participation would still help!employee participation would still help!

16. 7. Generalizability7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applicability of theIt refers to the scope of applicability of the
research findings in one organization setting toresearch findings in one organization setting to
other settings.other settings.
Example: If a researcher’s findings thatExample: If a researcher’s findings that
participation in decision making enhancesparticipation in decision making enhances
organizational commitment are found to be true inorganizational commitment are found to be true in
a variety of manufacturing, industrial and servicea variety of manufacturing, industrial and service
organizations, and not merely in the particularorganizations, and not merely in the particular
organization studied by the researcher, then theorganization studied by the researcher, then the
generalizability of the findings to othergeneralizability of the findings to other
organizational settings in enhanced. The moreorganizational settings in enhanced. The more
generalizable the research, the greater itsgeneralizable the research, the greater its
usefulness and value.usefulness and value.

17. 8. Parsimony8. Parsimony
Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems thatSimplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that
occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, isoccur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is
always preferred to complex research frameworks thatalways preferred to complex research frameworks that
consider an unmanageable number of factors.consider an unmanageable number of factors.
For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation areFor instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are
identified, which when changed would raise theidentified, which when changed would raise the
organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, thatorganizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that
would be more useful be more useful and valuable to thewould be more useful be more useful and valuable to the
manager than if it were recommended that he shouldmanager than if it were recommended that he should
change 10 different variables to increase organizationalchange 10 different variables to increase organizational
commitment by 48%.commitment by 48%.

18. The Building Blocks of Science inThe Building Blocks of Science in
ResearchResearch
Deduction and InductionsDeduction and Inductions
Answers to issues can be foundAnswers to issues can be found
either by the process ofeither by the process of
induction or the process ofinduction or the process of
induction, or by a combinationinduction, or by a combination
of the two.of the two.

19. DeductionDeduction
 Deduction is the process by which we arrive at aDeduction is the process by which we arrive at a
reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of areasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known fact.known fact.
Example: we know that all high performers are highlyExample: we know that all high performers are highly
proficient in their jobs.proficient in their jobs.
If John is a high performer, we then conclude that heIf John is a high performer, we then conclude that he
is highly proficient in his jobis highly proficient in his job

20. InductionInduction
 Induction is a process where we observe certainInduction is a process where we observe certain
phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.
In other words, in induction we logicallyIn other words, in induction we logically
establish a general proposition based onestablish a general proposition based on
observed facts.observed facts.

28. To define or describe theTo define or describe the
figure.figure.
Figure is a five-sided figureFigure is a five-sided figure
enclosing two dots.enclosing two dots.

29. The Hypothetico-Deductive MethodThe Hypothetico-Deductive Method

30. ObservationObservation
– Observation is the first stage, in whichObservation is the first stage, in which
one senses that certain changes areone senses that certain changes are
occurring or that some new behaviors,occurring or that some new behaviors,
attitudes and feelings are surfacing inattitudes and feelings are surfacing in
one’s environment (i.e., the workone’s environment (i.e., the work
place).place).
– How does one observe phenomena andHow does one observe phenomena and
changes in the environment?changes in the environment?

31. Preliminary Information Gathering:Preliminary Information Gathering:
– It involves the seeking of information in depth, ofIt involves the seeking of information in depth, of
what is observed.what is observed.
– This could be done by talking informally to severalThis could be done by talking informally to several
people in the work setting or to clients or to otherpeople in the work setting or to clients or to other
relevant sources, thereby gathering information onrelevant sources, thereby gathering information on
what is happening and why. (Unstructuredwhat is happening and why. (Unstructured
interviews)interviews)
– Then it is followed by structured interviews.Then it is followed by structured interviews.
– Additionally by doing library research or obtainingAdditionally by doing library research or obtaining
information through other sources, the investigatorinformation through other sources, the investigator
would identify how such issues have been tackledwould identify how such issues have been tackled
in other situations.in other situations.

32. Theory FormulationTheory Formulation
– It is an attempt to integrate all theIt is an attempt to integrate all the
information in a logical manners, so that theinformation in a logical manners, so that the
factors responsible for the problem can befactors responsible for the problem can be
on conceptualized and tested.on conceptualized and tested.
– The theoretical framework formulated isThe theoretical framework formulated is
often guided by experience and intuition.often guided by experience and intuition.
– In this step the critical variables areIn this step the critical variables are
identified and examined as to theiridentified and examined as to their
contribution or influence in explaining whycontribution or influence in explaining why
the problem occurs and how it can bethe problem occurs and how it can be
solved.solved.

33. HypothesizingHypothesizing
– It is the next logical step after theory formulation.It is the next logical step after theory formulation.
– From the theorized network of associations amongFrom the theorized network of associations among
the variables, certain testable hypotheses orthe variables, certain testable hypotheses or
educated conjectures can be generated.educated conjectures can be generated.
– Hypothesis testing is called deductive research.Hypothesis testing is called deductive research.
Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originallySometimes, hypotheses that were not originally
formulated do get generated through the process offormulated do get generated through the process of
induction.induction.

34. Further Specific Data CollectionFurther Specific Data Collection
–After the development of theAfter the development of the
hypotheses, data with respecthypotheses, data with respect
to each variable in theto each variable in the
hypotheses need to behypotheses need to be
obtained.obtained.
–Further data are collected toFurther data are collected to
test the hypotheses that aretest the hypotheses that are
generated in the study.generated in the study.

35. Data AnalysisData Analysis
– Data gathered are statistically analyzedData gathered are statistically analyzed
to see if the hypotheses that wereto see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.generated have been supported.
– Co relational method will be used toCo relational method will be used to
analyze and determine the relation shipanalyze and determine the relation ship
of two or more factors in theof two or more factors in the
hypotheses for example: stockhypotheses for example: stock
availability and customer satisfactionavailability and customer satisfaction..

36. DeductionDeduction
–Deduction is the process ofDeduction is the process of
arriving at conclusions byarriving at conclusions by
interpreting the meaning ofinterpreting the meaning of
results of the data analysis.results of the data analysis.

37. Other Types of ResearchOther Types of Research
 Case studies and action researchCase studies and action research
are sometimes used to studyare sometimes used to study
certain types of issues.certain types of issues.
1.1. Case StudiesCase Studies
2.2. Action ResearchAction Research

38. Case StudiesCase Studies
 Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses ofCase studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of
similar situations in the other organizations, wheresimilar situations in the other organizations, where
the nature and definition of the problem happen to bethe nature and definition of the problem happen to be
the same as experienced in the current situation.the same as experienced in the current situation.
 Case study, as a problem solving technique, is notCase study, as a problem solving technique, is not
often undertaken in organizations because suchoften undertaken in organizations because such
studies dealing with problems similar to the onestudies dealing with problems similar to the one
experienced by a particular organization of aexperienced by a particular organization of a
particular size and in a particular type of setting areparticular size and in a particular type of setting are
difficult to come by.difficult to come by.

39. Action ResearchAction Research
 The researcher begins with a problem that is alreadyThe researcher begins with a problem that is already
identified and gathers relevant data to provide aidentified and gathers relevant data to provide a
tentative problem solution.tentative problem solution.
 This solution is then implemented, with theThis solution is then implemented, with the
knowledge that there may be unintendedknowledge that there may be unintended
consequences following such implementation.consequences following such implementation.
 The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosedThe effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed
and the research continues on an ongoing basis untiland the research continues on an ongoing basis until
the problem is fully resolved.the problem is fully resolved.