Business Research Methods Chapter 2 Research Methods

Business Research
Business Research
Methods
Methods
Adopted From
Adopted From
Fourth Edition
Fourth Edition
Uma Sekaran
Uma Sekaran
Instructor: Ahmad Sohail Lodhi
Instructor: Ahmad Sohail Lodhi
MBE, LLB
MBE, LLB

Chapter 2
Chapter 2
SCIENTIFIC
SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION
INVESTIGATION

After completing this chapter you
After completing this chapter you
would be able to understand:
would be able to understand:
 The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
 Some obstacles to conducting scientific
Some obstacles to conducting scientific
research in the management area
research in the management area
 The building blocks of science in research
The building blocks of science in research
 The hypothetico deductive method
The hypothetico deductive method
 Other types of research
Other types of research

Definition of Scientific
Definition of Scientific
Research
Research
Scientific Research focusing on
Scientific Research focusing on
solving problems and pursues a
solving problems and pursues a
step by step logical, organized
step by step logical, organized
and rigorous method to identify
and rigorous method to identify
the problems, gather data,
the problems, gather data,
analyze them and draw valid
analyze them and draw valid
conclusions there from.
conclusions there from.

Why Scientific Research?
Why Scientific Research?
 This research is not based on hunches,
This research is not based on hunches,
experience and intuition.
experience and intuition.
 It is purposive and rigorous.
It is purposive and rigorous.
 Enables all those who are interested in
Enables all those who are interested in
researching and knowing about the same or
researching and knowing about the same or
similar issues to come up with comparable
similar issues to come up with comparable
findings when data are analyzed.
findings when data are analyzed.
 Findings are accurate and confident.
Findings are accurate and confident.
 Apply solutions to similar problems.
Apply solutions to similar problems.
 It is more objective.
It is more objective.

Cont.
Cont.
 Highlights the most critical factors at the work
Highlights the most critical factors at the work
place that need specific attention to solve or
place that need specific attention to solve or
minimize problems.
minimize problems.
 Scientific Investigation and Managerial Decision
Scientific Investigation and Managerial Decision
Making are integral part of effective problem
Making are integral part of effective problem
solving.
solving.
 It can be applied to both basic and applied
It can be applied to both basic and applied
research.
research.

1.
1. Purposiveness
Purposiveness
2.
2. Rigor
Rigor
3.
3. Testability
Testability
4.
4. Replicability
Replicability
5.
5. Precision and Confidence
Precision and Confidence
6.
6. Objectivity
Objectivity
7.
7. Generalizability
Generalizability
8.
8. Parsimony
Parsimony
The hallmarks or main distinguishing
The hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be
characteristics of scientific research may be
listed as follows:
listed as follows:

Hallmarks of Scientific Research
Hallmarks of Scientific Research
1.
1. Purposiveness
Purposiveness
 It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.
It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.
 The focus is on increasing employee
The focus is on increasing employee
commitment.
commitment.
 Increase employee commitment will translate
Increase employee commitment will translate
into less turnover, less absenteeism and
into less turnover, less absenteeism and
increased performance levels.
increased performance levels.
 Thus it has a purposive focus.
Thus it has a purposive focus.

2.
2. Rigor
Rigor
 A good theoretical base and sound methodological design
A good theoretical base and sound methodological design
would add rigor to the purposive study.
would add rigor to the purposive study.
 Rigor adds carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of
Rigor adds carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of
exactitude in research.
exactitude in research.
Example:
Example:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level
of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the
of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the
manager reaches several conclusions on how employee
manager reaches several conclusions on how employee
commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the
commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the
investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for
investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for
the following reasons:
the following reasons:

1.
1. Based on few employees
Based on few employees
2.
2. Bias and incorrectness
Bias and incorrectness
3.
3. There might be other influences on commitment
There might be other influences on commitment
which are ignored and are important for a researcher
which are ignored and are important for a researcher
to know
to know
Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and
Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and
thought out methodology.
thought out methodology.
 These factors enable the researcher to collect the right
These factors enable the researcher to collect the right
kind of information from an appropriate sample with
kind of information from an appropriate sample with
the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable
the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable
analysis of the data gathered.
analysis of the data gathered.
 This supports the other six too.
This supports the other six too.

3.
3. Testability
Testability
The researcher might hypothesize that
The researcher might hypothesize that
those employees who perceive greater
those employees who perceive greater
opportunities for participation in
opportunities for participation in
decision making would have a higher
decision making would have a higher
level of commitment.
level of commitment.
After random selection manager and researcher
After random selection manager and researcher
develops certain hypothesis on how manager
develops certain hypothesis on how manager
employee commitment can be enhanced, then
employee commitment can be enhanced, then
these can be tested by applying certain statistical
these can be tested by applying certain statistical
tests to the data collected for the purpose
tests to the data collected for the purpose.
.

It means that it can be used again if similar
It means that it can be used again if similar
circumstances prevails.
circumstances prevails.
Example:
Example:
The study concludes that participation in
The study concludes that participation in
decision making is one of the most important
decision making is one of the most important
factors that influences the commitment, we will
factors that influences the commitment, we will
place more faith and credence in these finding
place more faith and credence in these finding
and apply in similar situations. To the extent
and apply in similar situations. To the extent
that this does happen, we will gain confidence
that this does happen, we will gain confidence
in the scientific nature of our research.
in the scientific nature of our research.
4.
4. Replicability
Replicability

Precision
Precision
– Precision refers to the closeness of the findings
Precision refers to the closeness of the findings
to “reality” based on a sample.
to “reality” based on a sample.
– It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude
It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude
of the results of the sample.
of the results of the sample.
Example: If a supervisor estimated the
Example: If a supervisor estimated the
number of production days lost during the
number of production days lost during the
year due to absenteeism at between 30 and
year due to absenteeism at between 30 and
40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of
40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of
my estimation more favorably than if he has
my estimation more favorably than if he has
indicated that the loss of production days was
indicated that the loss of production days was
somewhere between 20 and 50.
somewhere between 20 and 50.
5.
5. Precision and Confidence
Precision and Confidence

Confidence
Confidence
– Confidence refers to the probability that our
Confidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.
estimations are correct.
– That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,
That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,
but it is also important that we can
but it is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time our
confidently claim that 95% of the time our
results would be true and there is only a 5%
results would be true and there is only a 5%
chance of our being wrong.
chance of our being wrong.
– This is also known as confidence level.
This is also known as confidence level.

6. Objectivity
6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of
the results of data analysis should be objective; that
the results of data analysis should be objective; that
is, they should be based on the facts of the findings
is, they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our subjective
derived from actual data, and not on our subjective
or emotional values.
or emotional values.
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater
participation in decision making will increase
participation in decision making will increase
organizational commitment and this was not supported
organizational commitment and this was not supported
by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher
by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher
continues to argue that increased opportunities for
continues to argue that increased opportunities for
employee participation would still help!
employee participation would still help!

7. Generalizability
7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applicability of the research
It refers to the scope of applicability of the research
findings in one organization setting to other settings.
findings in one organization setting to other settings.
Example: If a researcher’s findings that participation in
Example: If a researcher’s findings that participation in
decision making enhances organizational commitment
decision making enhances organizational commitment
are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing,
are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing,
industrial and service organizations, and not merely
industrial and service organizations, and not merely
in the particular organization studied by the
in the particular organization studied by the
researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to
researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to
other organizational settings in enhanced. The more
other organizational settings in enhanced. The more
generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness
generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness
and value.
and value.

8. Parsimony
8. Parsimony
Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that
Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that
occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is
occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is
always preferred to complex research frameworks that
always preferred to complex research frameworks that
consider an unmanageable number of factors.
consider an unmanageable number of factors.
For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are
For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are
identified, which when changed would raise the
identified, which when changed would raise the
organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that
organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that
would be more useful be more useful and valuable to the
would be more useful be more useful and valuable to the
manager than if it were recommended that he should
manager than if it were recommended that he should
change 10 different variables to increase organizational
change 10 different variables to increase organizational
commitment by 48%.
commitment by 48%.

The Building Blocks of Science in
The Building Blocks of Science in
Research
Research
Deduction and Inductions
Deduction and Inductions
Answers to issues can be found
Answers to issues can be found
either by the process of
either by the process of
induction or the process of
induction or the process of
induction, or by a combination
induction, or by a combination
of the two.
of the two.

Deduction
Deduction
 Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a
Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a
reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known fact.
known fact.
Example: we know that all high performers are highly
Example: we know that all high performers are highly
proficient in their jobs.
proficient in their jobs.
If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he
If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he
is highly proficient in his job
is highly proficient in his job

Induction
Induction
 Induction is a process where we observe certain
Induction is a process where we observe certain
phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.
phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.
In other words, in induction we logically
In other words, in induction we logically
establish a general proposition based on
establish a general proposition based on
observed facts.
observed facts.

To define or describe the
To define or describe the
figure.
figure.
Figure is a five-sided figure
Figure is a five-sided figure
enclosing two dots.
enclosing two dots.

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

Observation
Observation
– Observation is the first stage, in which
Observation is the first stage, in which
one senses that certain changes are
one senses that certain changes are
occurring or that some new behaviors,
occurring or that some new behaviors,
attitudes and feelings are surfacing in
attitudes and feelings are surfacing in
one’s environment (i.e., the work place).
one’s environment (i.e., the work place).
– How does one observe phenomena and
How does one observe phenomena and
changes in the environment?
changes in the environment?

Preliminary Information Gathering:
Preliminary Information Gathering:
– It involves the seeking of information in depth, of
It involves the seeking of information in depth, of
what is observed.
what is observed.
– This could be done by talking informally to several
This could be done by talking informally to several
people in the work setting or to clients or to other
people in the work setting or to clients or to other
relevant sources, thereby gathering information on
relevant sources, thereby gathering information on
what is happening and why. (Unstructured
what is happening and why. (Unstructured
interviews)
interviews)
– Then it is followed by structured interviews.
Then it is followed by structured interviews.
– Additionally by doing library research or obtaining
Additionally by doing library research or obtaining
information through other sources, the investigator
information through other sources, the investigator
would identify how such issues have been tackled
would identify how such issues have been tackled
in other situations.
in other situations.

Theory Formulation
Theory Formulation
– It is an attempt to integrate all the information
It is an attempt to integrate all the information
in a logical manners, so that the factors
in a logical manners, so that the factors
responsible for the problem can be on
responsible for the problem can be on
conceptualized and tested.
conceptualized and tested.
– The theoretical framework formulated is often
The theoretical framework formulated is often
guided by experience and intuition.
guided by experience and intuition.
– In this step the critical variables are identified
In this step the critical variables are identified
and examined as to their contribution or
and examined as to their contribution or
influence in explaining why the problem occurs
influence in explaining why the problem occurs
and how it can be solved.
and how it can be solved.

Hypothesizing
Hypothesizing
– It is the next logical step after theory formulation.
It is the next logical step after theory formulation.
– From the theorized network of associations among
From the theorized network of associations among
the variables, certain testable hypotheses or
the variables, certain testable hypotheses or
educated conjectures can be generated.
educated conjectures can be generated.
– Hypothesis testing is called deductive research.
Hypothesis testing is called deductive research.
Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally
Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally
formulated do get generated through the process of
formulated do get generated through the process of
induction.
induction.

Further Specific Data Collection
Further Specific Data Collection
–After the development of the
After the development of the
hypotheses, data with respect
hypotheses, data with respect
to each variable in the
to each variable in the
hypotheses need to be
hypotheses need to be
obtained.
obtained.
–Further data are collected to
Further data are collected to
test the hypotheses that are
test the hypotheses that are
generated in the study.
generated in the study.

Data Analysis
Data Analysis
– Data gathered are statistically analyzed
Data gathered are statistically analyzed
to see if the hypotheses that were
to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.
generated have been supported.
– Co relational method will be used to
Co relational method will be used to
analyze and determine the relation ship
analyze and determine the relation ship
of two or more factors in the
of two or more factors in the
hypotheses for example: stock
hypotheses for example: stock
availability and customer satisfaction
availability and customer satisfaction.
.

Deduction
Deduction
–Deduction is the process of
Deduction is the process of
arriving at conclusions by
arriving at conclusions by
interpreting the meaning of
interpreting the meaning of
results of the data analysis.
results of the data analysis.

Other Types of Research
Other Types of Research
 Case studies and action research
Case studies and action research
are sometimes used to study
are sometimes used to study
certain types of issues.
certain types of issues.
1.
1. Case Studies
Case Studies
2.
2. Action Research
Action Research

Case Studies
Case Studies
 Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of
Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of
similar situations in the other organizations, where
similar situations in the other organizations, where
the nature and definition of the problem happen to be
the nature and definition of the problem happen to be
the same as experienced in the current situation.
the same as experienced in the current situation.
 Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not
Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not
often undertaken in organizations because such
often undertaken in organizations because such
studies dealing with problems similar to the one
studies dealing with problems similar to the one
experienced by a particular organization of a
experienced by a particular organization of a
particular size and in a particular type of setting are
particular size and in a particular type of setting are
difficult to come by.
difficult to come by.

Action Research
Action Research
 The researcher begins with a problem that is already
The researcher begins with a problem that is already
identified and gathers relevant data to provide a
identified and gathers relevant data to provide a
tentative problem solution.
tentative problem solution.
 This solution is then implemented, with the
This solution is then implemented, with the
knowledge that there may be unintended
knowledge that there may be unintended
consequences following such implementation.
consequences following such implementation.
 The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed
The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed
and the research continues on an ongoing basis until
and the research continues on an ongoing basis until
the problem is fully resolved.
the problem is fully resolved.

Business Research Methods Chapter 2 Research Methods

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