The document details the adaptations of bryophytes as they evolved from algae to land plants, highlighting their key adaptations for water conservation, reproduction, and structural organization. It describes the various forms of gametophytes in bryophytes, including thalloid and leafy types, with examples such as Marchantia and Funaria, emphasizing their reproductive structures and mechanisms. Additionally, it provides an overview of the internal structure of the sporophyte in Funaria, including its development stages and reproductive processes.

31. Adaptations of Bryophytes to
Land Habit:
 First land plants.
 Evolved from Algae.
 During the process of origin
they developed certain
adaptations to land habit.

32. 1. Development of compact,
Multicellular plant body
covered with epidermis
for conservation of water.
2. Development of organs for
attachment and
absorption e.g., rhizoids.

33. 3. Development of
photosynthetic tissues into
special chambers for the
absorption of carbon dioxide
without losing much water
and exposure to light. e.g.,
airpores.

34. 4. Protection of reproductive
cells
i.e., jacketed sex organs.
5. Heterogamy: was evolved,
forming non-motile egg
containing stored food
and motile sperms.

35. 6. Retention of zygote
within the archegonium.
7. Multicellular embryo was
formed which was
retained inside the female
reproductive body
during its development

36. 8.Production of large
number of thick walled
spores.
9. Dissemination of spores
by wind.

37. 10. Alternation generation
Enabled the plant to produce
and test the best genetic
combinations for adapting to
the versatile terrestrial
conditions.

38. Range of thallus
organization In
Bryophytes

39. Gametophyte
(dominant generation)
In simplest form of bryophytes
gametophyte is green,
Independent, one to several layer
thick, without any internal
differentiation of tissue, e.g.
Sphaerocarpus, Pellia and other
Hepaticae
Two divergent line of descents

40. Range of gametophyte in
thalloid form e.g Marchantials
Range of gametophyte in leafy
form, e.g. Musci (Gametophyte
reaches to highest
development, the erect leafy
shoot with its radial symmetry,
showing differentiation in
form and structure

41. Range of gametophyte
in thalloid form
•Plant body simple thallus
•Flat, prostrate,
dorsiventral,
•Usually dichotomously
branched

42. Sphaerocarpos,
Anthoceros,
Pellia ,
Riccia,
Marchantia

43. Anthoceros

44. •Most simple thallus
•Thallus is prostrate,
dorsiventrally differentiated,
rarely dichotomously
branched and also has a dark-
green colour.

45. •Thallus variously lobed
without a sharply defined
midrib.
•Air-chambers and scales are
absent,
•Slit-like pores and smooth
rhizoids are present on the
under surface of the thallus.

48. Pellia

50. •Plant body is thin,
dorsiventral, prostrate,
dichotomously branched,
with somewhat wavy
margin.
•Apical portion is notched,
in which growing point
(Apical cell ) is located

51. •The dorsal surface is almost
smooth and a median
midrib is prominent.
•Numerous smooth,
unicellular rhizoids under
the midrib.
•Scales absent

53. Riccia

54. Plant body is thallose,
dorsiventrally prostate with
dichotomous branching. There is
a conspicuous longitudinal
furrow on the dorsal side.

55. •The ventral surface bears a
corresponding ridge and a
transverse row of scales,
•Scales one cell in thickness,
which are more crowded
near the apex and overlap
the growing point.

56. Lower down, the scales are
in two marginal rows, violet
in colour.
Two types of rhizoids –
smooth walled and
tuberculate, being on the
ventral ridge of the thallus.

58. Marchantia

59. •Dorsal surface of the
thallus shows regular
rhomboidal or polygonal
areas with elevated pores at
the centre of these areas

60. •Ventral surface bears 3-4
rows of scales on each side
of the ridge.
•There are two types of
rhizoids in between the
scales – smooth-walled and
tuberculate.

62. •Range of gametophyte in
leafy form
•Leafy Jungermanniales
(Porella) and in Bryopsida
( Sphagnum, Funaria,
Polytrichum, Pogonatum)

63. Porella

65. Plant body is flat,
dorsiventral with a bi- or
tripinnately branched leafy
axis with no rhizoids in
mature plants.

66. •There are 3 rows of leaves –
2 lateral and one smaller
row on the ventral side
termed amphigastria
•Leaves are thin without
midrib and one cell in
thickness.

67. •Lateral leaves are two-lobed
•Upper larger lobe is antical
lobe
•Lower smaller lobe is the
postical lobe or lobule.

69. Sphagnum

71. •Bog Moss or Peat Moss
•Plant body is erect, leafy,
and bears rhizoids at the
base (when young).
•The stem has whorls of
lateral branches at
intervals.

72. •Pendent and
Divergent
branches
•Leaves show
dimorphic leaf
cell:
(a) Hyaline cells
and
(b) Chlo­
rophyllose
cells.

73. •Leaves are small, thin
without midrib and spirally
arranged on the axis.
• The main stem has fewer
leaves. The leaves are sessile
ovate-elongate, with smooth
margin and acute apex.

74. Funaria

76. •The plant body is erect,
branched with spirally
arranged leaves.
•The leaves are more crowded
near the apex like a rosette
• Arranged in three rows.

78. •Leaves are sessile, attached
to the stem by a broad base,
ovate-elongate, pointed at
the apex and with a smooth
margin and midrib.
•The plant bears rhizoids at
the base.

79. •Rhizoids are multicellular
with oblique cross walls.
•Brown and form tangled
mass

80. Polytrichum

82. •Underground rhizome and
erect leafy shoot
•Rhizome bear numerous
multicellular rhizoid

83. •Plants body is erect, leafy
and dioecious.
•Presence of specialized stem
core tissue – leptoids and
hydroids,

84. •Peristome teeth 32 in
number and arranged in a
ring
•Capsule round

86. Pogonatum

88. •Plant body is erect,
somewhat rhizomatous
and stem is covered by
spirally arranged leaves.
•Numerous rhizoids develop
from the base of the stem.

89. •The rhizoids are
multicellular with
oblique cross walls.

90. •Leaves are spirally arranged,
more crowded and larger
near the apex.
•The base of the leaf is broad,
partly sheathing and pale.

91. •Leaves are gradually
tapering, with serrate
margin, acute apex and a
midrib.

92. Marchantia

100. Internal structure

126. Funaria

127. Funaria hygrometrica
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Bryophyta
Class: Bryopsida
Subclass: Funariidae
Order: Funariales
Family: Funariaceae
Genus: Funaria

130. Gametophytic Phase of
Funaria:
(i) Juvenile stage
represented by primary
protonema and
(ii) The leafy gametophore
which represents the adult
form

139. Apospory:
Development of gametophyte from
sporophyte without the formation
of spores
Any vegetative cell of the
sporophyte may form green
protonemal filaments which bear
lateral buds. These buds later
develop into leafy gametophores.

140. •The gametophores thus formed
are diploid.
•Sexual reproduction in such
gametophores results in the
formation of tetraploid (4n)
zygote.
•The sporophytes from tetraploid
are sterile because they are not
capable of bearing spores.

141. Sexual Reproduction in Funaria:
Sexual reproduction is oogamous.
Male reproductive structure is
known as antheridium and female
as archegonium.

142. •Monoecious (having male and
female sex organs on the same
thallus)
• Autoicous (antheridia and
archegonia develop on separate
branches of the same thallus).
•Sex organs are borne on leafy
gametophores in terminal
clusters.

143. •The main shoot of the leafy
gametophore bears antheridia
and act as male branch.
• Female branch develops as a
lateral outgrowth from the base
of the male branch and bears
archegonia. It grows higher than
the male branch..

145. •Funaria is protandrous
(antheridia mature before the
archegonia).
•It ensures the cross fertilization

146. Male Branch or Antheridiophore:
Apex expanded and convex shaped.
It bears large number of reddish
brown or orange antheridia in
different stages of development.
Antheridia are surrounded by a
rosette of spreading leaves called
perigonial leaves.

148. •The antheridial cluster with
surrounding perigonial leaves is
called perigonium.
•The antheridia are intermingled
with large number of sterile hair
like club shaped structures called
paraphyses .

149. Paraphyses
•Store water,
•Protect developing antheridia,
•Help in photosynthesis
•Dehiscence of antheridia.

151. At maturity the distal end of
the antheridium bears one or
two thick walled, colourless
cells called operculum.

152. •These cells become mucilaginous,
absorb water and swell, break
connections with the
neighbouring cells and form a
narrow pore.
•Androcytes ooze out in the form
of a viscous fluid through this
pore.

159. (i) Foot
• It is the basal portion of the
sporogonium.
• It is small dagger like conical
structure embedded in the
apex of female branch
• anchoring and absorbing
organ.

160. (ii) Seta
•It is long, slender, stalk like
hygroscopic structure.
•It bears the capsule at its tip.
•It raises the capsule above the
apex of leafy gametophore.

161. •The epidermis is followed by
thick walled cortex which
surrounds the central
cylinder.
•Central cylinder is mechanical
in function and also conducts
the water and nutrients to the
developing capsule

163. (iii) Capsule
•Terminal part of the
sporophyte and developed at
the apex of the seta
•Green in colour when young
but on maturity it becomes
bright orange coloured.

166. Apophysis
• Basal sterile part
• Bounded by the single
layered epidermis
interrupted by stomata

167. •Below the epidermis is
spongy parenchyma
(photosynthetic region and
connects seta with capsule).
•The central part of the
apophysis is made up of
elongated thin walled cells
forming a conducting strand.

168. (b) Theca:
•It is the middle, slightly bent
spore bearing region of the
capsule.
•It lies between the apophysis
and operculum.

171. (i) Epidermis
It is the outer most layer.
It is single layered with or
without stomata.

172. (ii) Hypodermis
It is present below the
epidermis.
It consists two to three layers
of compactly arranged
colourless cells.

173. (iii) Spongy parenchyma
•It consists two to three layers
of loosely arranged
chlorophyllous cells.
•It is present inner to
hypodermis.

174. (iv) Air spaces
•Present just below the spongy
parenchyma and outside the
spore sacs.
•Air spaces are traversed by
chlorenchymatous cells called
trabeculae

175. •These cells are capable to
manufacture their own food
but dependent on
gametophyte for water and
mineral nutrients.
• Therefore, the sporophyte of
Funaria is partially dependent
on gametophyte.

176. (v) Spore sac
•These are present below the
air spaces on either side of the
columella.
•It has an outer wall (3-4 cells
thick) and an inner wall
(single cell in thickness).

177. •Between the outer wall and
inner wall is spore sac cavity
•When young, the cavity of the
spore sac is filled with many
spore mother cells (SMC)
•At maturity the SMC divide by
meiotic divisions and form
many haploid spores

178. (vi) Columella
•Central part of the theca
•Made up of compactly
arranged colourless
parenchymatous cells.

179. •It is wide above and narrow
below, connecting the central
strand of apophysis
• It helps in conduction of
water and mineral nutrients

180. (c) Operculum:
•It is the upper region of the
capsule.
•It is dome shaped and consists
four to five layers of cells.
•The outermost layer is thick
walled and called epidermis.

182. •Operculum is differentiated
from theca by a well-marked
constriction.
•Just below the constriction
there is a diaphragm (rim).
•It is composed of two to three
layers of radially elongated
pitted cells.

183. •Immediately above the rim is
annulus which consists of 5-6
superimposed layers of cells.
• Its upper cells are thick but
two lowermost layers of cells
are thin.

184. •Annulus separates the theca
from the operculum. Below
the operculum lies the
peristome
•The peristome consists of two
rings of radially arranged
peristomial teeth. In each ring
there are sixteen teeth.

185. •The teeth are not cellular but
they are simply the strips of
the cuticle.
•The teeth of the outer ring
(exostome) are conspicuous,
red with thick transverse
bands while the teeth of the
inner ring (endostome) are
small, delicate, colourless and
without transverse bands.

186. •Inner to peristome teeth lies a
mass of thin walled
parenchymatous cells.

188. Funaria is a
stegocarpous
moss (dehisce
along a pre-
determined
line)

189. •At maturity the seta also
shows jerky movements.
•Twisting and swinging of seta
in dry weather further aids in
the dispersal of spores.

190. Structure of Spore
•Spore is the first cell of the
gametophytic phase.
•Each spore is spherical 12-20 µ
in diameter and surrounded by
two wall layers.

191. •The outer wall is thick, smooth,
brown and known as
exosporium, while the inner
wall is thin, hyaline and called
endosporium.
• Spore wall encloses single
nucleus, chloroplasts and many
oil globules.

192. Germination of Spore