If you are detail-oriented, enjoy helping people, and want career growth, you may want to become a health and safety manager. This role involves overseeing safety protocols and ensuring compliance with regulations to protect employee and public health. Health and safety managers also provide training and address any issues that arise. It is a stable career path that supports important work.
Overview presentation on how incorporating the ViSalus Sciences opportunity into an existing Fitness Business can become highly profitable and maintain consistent growth potential.
Overview how DSRs in the foodservice distribution industry need to approach their sales tactics to maximize wallet share for their company. Sales leaders in distribution need to be able to identify which members of their sales team are Order Takers, and how they can help them become Order Makers.
Generic medicines are of the same quality & composition as the branded medicines & are available at cheaper rates.But it is not available in markets as doctors write commercial medicines like Ranbaxy & Cipla.
The idea is to sell generic medicines nationwide & make medicines affordable.
health-matrix.org ,breakfast4health.org ,waterloohealthcare.org Change your diet. To restore your gum health, eat organic foods and a diet rich in fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Incorporate flaxseed into your diet for the omega-3 fatty acids; green tea to help cleanse your oral cavity; and Vitamin C and Coenzyme Q10 supplements. Avoid sugar and acidic foods and stop smoking as soon as possible.
Overview presentation on how incorporating the ViSalus Sciences opportunity into an existing Fitness Business can become highly profitable and maintain consistent growth potential.
Overview how DSRs in the foodservice distribution industry need to approach their sales tactics to maximize wallet share for their company. Sales leaders in distribution need to be able to identify which members of their sales team are Order Takers, and how they can help them become Order Makers.
Generic medicines are of the same quality & composition as the branded medicines & are available at cheaper rates.But it is not available in markets as doctors write commercial medicines like Ranbaxy & Cipla.
The idea is to sell generic medicines nationwide & make medicines affordable.
health-matrix.org ,breakfast4health.org ,waterloohealthcare.org Change your diet. To restore your gum health, eat organic foods and a diet rich in fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Incorporate flaxseed into your diet for the omega-3 fatty acids; green tea to help cleanse your oral cavity; and Vitamin C and Coenzyme Q10 supplements. Avoid sugar and acidic foods and stop smoking as soon as possible.
В Зугрэсской СОШИ № 31 с 13 по 18 февраля 2017 года проведена предметная неделя математики. Участниками данного мероприятия стали учителя-дефектологи, воспитатели, обучающиеся 5-9 классов. Неделя проведена в соответствии с утверждённым планом под руководством руководителя школьного методического объединения учителей математики Рудневой Л.В. Для активизации мыслительной деятельности учащихся использованы оригинальные наглядные пособия, проведены различные интересные конкурсы. Обучающиеся оформляли математические газеты. С большим интересом школьники решали и отгадывали красочно оформленные занимательные задачи, кроссворды, загадки, ребусы.
Посмотрели всей семьей творческие работы участников конкурса «Цветочное настроение», и нам с мамочкой захотелось показать свою поделку. Не только показать, но и раскрыть подробно этапы ее появления, чтобы каждый желающий смог самостоятельно собрать свой букет. «Розочки в корзинке» - поделка из шишек (природного материала). Спасибо Наталье Юрьевне за креативную идею! Такая оригинальная поделка с яркими цветочками станет великолепным и неповторимым подарком для мамы, бабушки, сестренки, а также знакомых и друзей!
sportrabbit.org ,sportindustryjobs.org ,betterfootball.org Check with local schools or the parks and recreation department to find a place that will allow you to host your events. Have the approximate dates that your season will run and the days of the week you would like the facility to be available to your league.
A local business owner in Oxford Mississippi, Good Nutrition manager, Ms. Cynthia Bolden, asked for ideas to make her business prosper further in the Lafayette county community. Good Nutrition is an all natural supplement store and distributor of Nature's Sunshine products.
Successful marketing strategies for green business works when these 5 straight forward principles are followed. Discover these principles and use them for your marketing campaign.
1. MISSION STATEMENTTo provide our customers with the best medi.docxjackiewalcutt
1. MISSION STATEMENT:
To provide our customers with the best medicines to help alleviate common cold and allergy symptoms in order to help you get through your day.
2. MARKETING OBJECTIVES:
· To emphasis grocery store sales and dominate this space
· Increase stock price $10.00 a share every year
· Increase the sales for to at least 300 people over the next five years
· To increase net income to $100 million in the next eight years
· To increase brand awareness to 85% for Allround.
· Spend no more than $22 million on Allround brand advertising.
· Increase promotional allowances to 20% for Grocery Stores over the next three years
· To keep cost of goods sold under 40%
3. SWOT ANALYSIS:
STRENGTHS:
· Brand awareness peaked at 85.8% for Allround, the highest of any competitors
· Allround is the most often purchased brand
· 18% of the market intended to buy Allround, 18.5% actually bought it
· Point of Purchase promotion strategy is working
· Allround dominates sales with 18.3% of the market
· On average, Allround have 1.7 square feet of shelf space. In many cases, this is three times that of competitors. All Allround products consistently control shelf space.
· Stock price has nearly tripled in 4 years and continues to show a path of growth
· Allround+ is the most recommended product of its kind
· Allright is the most recommended allergy medicine
· Allstar’s products lead the market in satisfaction across the board
· Allround dominates the retired market with the closest competitor holding half the share of Allround,
WEAKNESSES:
· MSRP fluctuation. At times the price failed to keep pace with inflation. At other times, the price was considered too high. The products’ price was not consistent during the first years (periods).
· The gross margin dropped so much in the first few years that is has just now recovered to its original percentage.
· Allstar’s sale force is large relative to competitors. Likely to be unnecessary due to the market dominance of Allstar’s products.
· The cost of goods sold is significantly higher than Allstar’s closest competitor, B & B.
· Allstar’s net income is significantly lower than B & B’s
· Allround+ trails Besthelp+ in every channel.
· Allround’s sales have dropped consistently over time to the point of matching Besthelp.
OPPORTUNITIES:
· Convenience stores’ growth is currently at 25.9%. Allstar’s focus on grocery stores may need to alter in order to capitalize on the growing convenient store market.
· Retail sales unceasingly increase by ~6%. A focus on retail and away from mass merchants could be beneficial.
· The trend among competitors is limited or no alcohol in products. An alcohol-free brand reformulation may be due.
· There are no 12-hour multi-liquid products on the market. A reformulation or brand extension into this market should be evaluated.
· Allright continues to be the only non-drowsy 4-hour capsule on the market. An expansion into a 12-hour non-drowsy capsule should be researched.
· Price is t ...
I need some information from an article inserted in the discussion C.docxanthonybrooks84958
I need some information from an article inserted in the discussion CITED and another article with an up to date reference CITED also
THIS IS THE DISCUSSION I NEED REVISED.
Key differences between the organization’s target markets
Marketing is a major activity in the business world. There is a need for managers and marketers to put into consideration the fact that decisions made in the process will affect the outcomes of the organization (Kotler, 2012). Targeting is the best strategy to ensure that management in organizations can effectively capture more people to buy products from the entity. A lot needs to be put into consideration to enhance effectiveness in marketing activities. Marketing is the backbone of every organization which aims to achieve maximum wealth and profits in the long run.
The target market of non-alcoholic beer in the Muslim countries and health conscious citizens who are aware of the drawbacks of alcoholic drinks and taken steps to opt for nonalcoholic drinks. The primary market is the religiously inclined, as the population that is bound not to drink alcohol, but want to be a part of social group within parties by not standing odd one out, the non alcoholic drink is a substitute for them. Considering the main areas where the drink can be sold out, it’s the parties, pubs, alcohol outlets. The secondary target will be youth that is considering trying beer for the first time, and wants to opt for something that is alcohol free. The drink will give them option to start, but it’s a very small market unless they want to stick with non-alcoholic drink for a long time.
The target market of Heart Juice is only the health conscious citizens looking for the substitute of soft drinks and the advantages of Heart Juice are the additional benefit they acquire by giving priority to it over the soft drinks. The focus is on the generic market for daily usage and not the parties with the objective of becoming a daily health drink of the masses. The product is to be sold primarily in the retail outlets as reflected in the videos, against the rack of soft drinks and preservative juice. The market of heart juice is similar to the market of soft drinks, so it’s a very huge market in comparison with the non alcoholic market, as there is no age or health constraint with it. It can be used by any age group for better health.
Key differences between the sales forces:
Sales force for non-alcoholic beverage is oriented towards geographic based sales as the sales team needs to understand the market and with the demographic details to sell out the product. The focus of sales team is in two totally different segments, one is the very common channel to sell out drinks for parties, and the other segment is support groups with the population that is struggling to quit alcoholic drinks. The tactic of the sales forces is to promote the product by spreading awareness regarding the drawbacks of alcohol, as the target market of non-alcoholic drink is.
Content tips for health and wellness brandsEmily Hubbell
The health and wellness industry is booming—and so is content marketing. Discover the latest developments in the health and wellness industry, key content challenges for health and wellness brands, and quick steps for mapping your customer's journey. Created by Em Writes, a content agency specializing in custom content and strategy for health, wellness and tech trailblazers. Learn more at em-writes.com.
В Зугрэсской СОШИ № 31 с 13 по 18 февраля 2017 года проведена предметная неделя математики. Участниками данного мероприятия стали учителя-дефектологи, воспитатели, обучающиеся 5-9 классов. Неделя проведена в соответствии с утверждённым планом под руководством руководителя школьного методического объединения учителей математики Рудневой Л.В. Для активизации мыслительной деятельности учащихся использованы оригинальные наглядные пособия, проведены различные интересные конкурсы. Обучающиеся оформляли математические газеты. С большим интересом школьники решали и отгадывали красочно оформленные занимательные задачи, кроссворды, загадки, ребусы.
Посмотрели всей семьей творческие работы участников конкурса «Цветочное настроение», и нам с мамочкой захотелось показать свою поделку. Не только показать, но и раскрыть подробно этапы ее появления, чтобы каждый желающий смог самостоятельно собрать свой букет. «Розочки в корзинке» - поделка из шишек (природного материала). Спасибо Наталье Юрьевне за креативную идею! Такая оригинальная поделка с яркими цветочками станет великолепным и неповторимым подарком для мамы, бабушки, сестренки, а также знакомых и друзей!
sportrabbit.org ,sportindustryjobs.org ,betterfootball.org Check with local schools or the parks and recreation department to find a place that will allow you to host your events. Have the approximate dates that your season will run and the days of the week you would like the facility to be available to your league.
A local business owner in Oxford Mississippi, Good Nutrition manager, Ms. Cynthia Bolden, asked for ideas to make her business prosper further in the Lafayette county community. Good Nutrition is an all natural supplement store and distributor of Nature's Sunshine products.
Successful marketing strategies for green business works when these 5 straight forward principles are followed. Discover these principles and use them for your marketing campaign.
1. MISSION STATEMENTTo provide our customers with the best medi.docxjackiewalcutt
1. MISSION STATEMENT:
To provide our customers with the best medicines to help alleviate common cold and allergy symptoms in order to help you get through your day.
2. MARKETING OBJECTIVES:
· To emphasis grocery store sales and dominate this space
· Increase stock price $10.00 a share every year
· Increase the sales for to at least 300 people over the next five years
· To increase net income to $100 million in the next eight years
· To increase brand awareness to 85% for Allround.
· Spend no more than $22 million on Allround brand advertising.
· Increase promotional allowances to 20% for Grocery Stores over the next three years
· To keep cost of goods sold under 40%
3. SWOT ANALYSIS:
STRENGTHS:
· Brand awareness peaked at 85.8% for Allround, the highest of any competitors
· Allround is the most often purchased brand
· 18% of the market intended to buy Allround, 18.5% actually bought it
· Point of Purchase promotion strategy is working
· Allround dominates sales with 18.3% of the market
· On average, Allround have 1.7 square feet of shelf space. In many cases, this is three times that of competitors. All Allround products consistently control shelf space.
· Stock price has nearly tripled in 4 years and continues to show a path of growth
· Allround+ is the most recommended product of its kind
· Allright is the most recommended allergy medicine
· Allstar’s products lead the market in satisfaction across the board
· Allround dominates the retired market with the closest competitor holding half the share of Allround,
WEAKNESSES:
· MSRP fluctuation. At times the price failed to keep pace with inflation. At other times, the price was considered too high. The products’ price was not consistent during the first years (periods).
· The gross margin dropped so much in the first few years that is has just now recovered to its original percentage.
· Allstar’s sale force is large relative to competitors. Likely to be unnecessary due to the market dominance of Allstar’s products.
· The cost of goods sold is significantly higher than Allstar’s closest competitor, B & B.
· Allstar’s net income is significantly lower than B & B’s
· Allround+ trails Besthelp+ in every channel.
· Allround’s sales have dropped consistently over time to the point of matching Besthelp.
OPPORTUNITIES:
· Convenience stores’ growth is currently at 25.9%. Allstar’s focus on grocery stores may need to alter in order to capitalize on the growing convenient store market.
· Retail sales unceasingly increase by ~6%. A focus on retail and away from mass merchants could be beneficial.
· The trend among competitors is limited or no alcohol in products. An alcohol-free brand reformulation may be due.
· There are no 12-hour multi-liquid products on the market. A reformulation or brand extension into this market should be evaluated.
· Allright continues to be the only non-drowsy 4-hour capsule on the market. An expansion into a 12-hour non-drowsy capsule should be researched.
· Price is t ...
I need some information from an article inserted in the discussion C.docxanthonybrooks84958
I need some information from an article inserted in the discussion CITED and another article with an up to date reference CITED also
THIS IS THE DISCUSSION I NEED REVISED.
Key differences between the organization’s target markets
Marketing is a major activity in the business world. There is a need for managers and marketers to put into consideration the fact that decisions made in the process will affect the outcomes of the organization (Kotler, 2012). Targeting is the best strategy to ensure that management in organizations can effectively capture more people to buy products from the entity. A lot needs to be put into consideration to enhance effectiveness in marketing activities. Marketing is the backbone of every organization which aims to achieve maximum wealth and profits in the long run.
The target market of non-alcoholic beer in the Muslim countries and health conscious citizens who are aware of the drawbacks of alcoholic drinks and taken steps to opt for nonalcoholic drinks. The primary market is the religiously inclined, as the population that is bound not to drink alcohol, but want to be a part of social group within parties by not standing odd one out, the non alcoholic drink is a substitute for them. Considering the main areas where the drink can be sold out, it’s the parties, pubs, alcohol outlets. The secondary target will be youth that is considering trying beer for the first time, and wants to opt for something that is alcohol free. The drink will give them option to start, but it’s a very small market unless they want to stick with non-alcoholic drink for a long time.
The target market of Heart Juice is only the health conscious citizens looking for the substitute of soft drinks and the advantages of Heart Juice are the additional benefit they acquire by giving priority to it over the soft drinks. The focus is on the generic market for daily usage and not the parties with the objective of becoming a daily health drink of the masses. The product is to be sold primarily in the retail outlets as reflected in the videos, against the rack of soft drinks and preservative juice. The market of heart juice is similar to the market of soft drinks, so it’s a very huge market in comparison with the non alcoholic market, as there is no age or health constraint with it. It can be used by any age group for better health.
Key differences between the sales forces:
Sales force for non-alcoholic beverage is oriented towards geographic based sales as the sales team needs to understand the market and with the demographic details to sell out the product. The focus of sales team is in two totally different segments, one is the very common channel to sell out drinks for parties, and the other segment is support groups with the population that is struggling to quit alcoholic drinks. The tactic of the sales forces is to promote the product by spreading awareness regarding the drawbacks of alcohol, as the target market of non-alcoholic drink is.
Content tips for health and wellness brandsEmily Hubbell
The health and wellness industry is booming—and so is content marketing. Discover the latest developments in the health and wellness industry, key content challenges for health and wellness brands, and quick steps for mapping your customer's journey. Created by Em Writes, a content agency specializing in custom content and strategy for health, wellness and tech trailblazers. Learn more at em-writes.com.
Today’s healthcare market provides ample challenges for businesses: increasing competition and commoditization, significant merger and acquisition (M&A) activity, and uncertainty with regulatory and government oversight. Healthcare companies have more than doctors to win over — they have to reach patients, providers, and payers too. The pressure is not on companies to perform — it’s on the brands.
Today’s healthcare market provides ample challenges for businesses: increasing competition and commoditization, significant merger and acquisition (M&A) activity, and uncertainty with regulatory and government oversight. Healthcare companies have more than doctors to win over — they have to reach patients, providers, and payers too. The pressure is not on companies to perform — it’s on the brands.
Today’s healthcare market provides ample challenges for businesses: increasing competition and commoditization, significant merger and acquisition (M&A) activity, and uncertainty with regulatory and government oversight. Healthcare companies have more than doctors to win over — they have to reach patients, providers, and payers too. The pressure is not on companies to perform — it’s on the brands.
Trajectory NOW & NEXT: Ten consumer trends that will impact all marketers, an...Eric Brody
This semi-annual report highlights ten consumer trends which we believe will have a lasting impact on how consumers will be interacting with brands. While all brand marketers will benefit from this report, it has a particular slant towards healthcare marketers and health and wellness marketers.
When target positioning for marketing, know your clients well enough to be your best friend. Make a clear definition of the type of person the business would appeal to. What are the likes, dislikes, experiences, and values of the prospect? What kind of energy is needed to appeal to them? Only then could you start targeting your search campaign.
living-businesscapitalbusinessnetwork.org ,smartgridbusinessnetwork.org ,living-business.org ,smartgreenbusiness.org Select the type of small business you want to open. The possibilities are virtually endless. If you want ideas or advice, visit Entrepreneur.com. You can also research at your local library to find a small business idea that piques your interest.
thetexaslawyer.org ,oreskylaw.org ,publicbusinesslaw.org ,theinjurylawnews.org You will never know when the information you have at your disposal might come in handy. Having it ready before any crisis strikes will help you take immensely wiser and more informed decisions which you will not regret later.
counselingeducation.org ,ormistoneducation.org ,creativeeducationsummit.org Investment in the education of its youth considered as most vital by all modern nations. Such an investment understandably acquires top priority in developing countries.
businessinarts.org , unitedsmallbusiness.org ,minoritybusinesssolutions.org , businesstheory.org If you have your own office equipment, and if you have bookkeeping experience, then you can set up an outsourcing secretarial service.
allconsumingnews.org ,7dnews.org, orkneynewstoday.org ,micronewsagency.org For writers or producers, you may need to compile a document that demonstrates your best written work and also produce a video reel.
homesmarthome.org ,thehomestop.org ,repair-home.org Keeping your business plans in mind, you can design a home salon to meet your needs, your clients' tastes and your budget. Designing the space is one of the first steps you will have to take to create an appealing and useful work space.
superiorhomeservices1.org ,eyeonhome.org ,homesmoving.org This is not a difficult task and the do-it-yourself home owner can do this with just a little bit of wood working knowledge. Follow the steps below to know how to build a porch on a mobile home.
moreabouthealth.org , healthequation.org , trilliumhealthcenter.org If you are a detail-oriented individual, who loves helping people and wants a rewarding career with growth potential, you may wish to become a health and safety manager.
fashionismydrug.org Fashion has set the social boundaries in the community. People would look distinguished and clean if they are sporting the right outfit. Children would look neat and tidy if they are wearing the prescribed attire when going to school.
mypetshop.org ,petsspark.org ,select4pets.org To get the pets for the shop, players must travel into the forest and shake the trees and bushes until a stray dog appears. When a dog appear,s the capture mini game begins.
Factory Supply Best Quality Pmk Oil CAS 28578–16–7 PMK Powder in Stockrebeccabio
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Hot Selling Organic intermediates
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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