This document provides an overview of business research methods. It discusses what business research is, the importance and objectives of research, and different types of research including descriptive, exploratory, applied, and basic research. It also outlines the stages of the research process including defining objectives, research design, sampling, data collection, analysis, and reporting. Finally, it discusses problem formulation and identifying the appropriate unit and variables for analysis.

1. CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
SOURCE:
TEXT BOOK: ZIKMUND, W.G., BABIN,B.J.,
CARR,J.C., GRIFFIN,M., (2021) ,BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS, 9TH EDITION,
CENGAGE LEARNING

2. WHAT IS RESEARCH???

3. 1 3
BUSINESS RESEARCH
Business research is the application of the scientific method
in searching for the truth about business phenomena.
The process includes:
idea and theory development
problem definition
searching for and collecting information
analyzing data
communicating the findings and their implications

4. For effective decision making
To understand frequently changing business environment
To explore new markets and opportunities
To explore the concepts
To identify problem areas in the existing framework ,to
investigate causes and based on that to generate solutions to
the identified problems
WHY IS RESEARCH
NEEDED/IMPORTANCE

5. The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
Research objectives
The goals to be achieved by conducting research
OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH

6. TYPES OF RESEARCH
BUSINESS RESEARCH
CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
APPLIED RESEARCH
BASIC RESEARCH
EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH
CAUSAL RESEARCH

7. 1 7
APPLIED AND BASIC BUSINESS
RESEARCH
Applied business research
conducted to address a specific business decision for a specific firm
or organization.
Example:
Which health insurance plan should a business provide for its employees?

8. 1 8
APPLIED AND BASIC BUSINESS
RESEARCH
Basic business research (also called pure research)
conducted without a specific decision in mind that usually does not
address the needs of a specific organization.
Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge in general.
Not aimed at solving a pragmatic problem.
Example:
Do consumers experience cognitive dissonance in low-involvement
situations?
Does employee tenure with a company influence productivity?

9. 4 9
STAGES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Process stages:
1. Defining the research objectives
2. Planning a research design
3. Planning a sample
4. Collecting the data
5. Analyzing the data
6. Formulating the conclusions and preparing the report

10. ©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible web site, in whole or in part.
EXHIBIT 4.5 STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
4 10

11. ©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible web site, in whole or in part.
EXHIBIT 4.6 FLOWCHART OF THE
BUSINESS RESEARCH PROCESS
4 11

12. 1 12
MANAGERIAL VALUE OF BUSINESS
RESEARCH
The decision-making process associated with the
development and implementation of a business
strategy involves four interrelated stages:
1. Identifying problems and opportunities
2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities
3. Selecting and implementing a course of action
4. Evaluating the course of action

13. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IN MARKETING
Market & consumer analysis
Product research
Pricing research
Promotional research
Place research

14. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IN FINANCE
Asset pricing, capital markets and corporate finance
Financial derivatives and credit risk modeling research
Market-based accounting research
Auditing and accountability
Other areas: financial forecasting, behavioural finance, volatility
analysis

15. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IN
HUMAN RESOURCES
Training & development studies
Selection and staffing studies
Performance appraisal design and evaluation
Organization planning and development
Incentive and benefits studies
Emerging areas critical factor analysis, employer branding
studies

16. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IN
PRODUCTION & OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Operation planning and design
Demand forecasting and demand estimation
Process planning
Project management and maintenance effectiveness studies
Logistics and supply chain-design and evaluation
Quality estimations and assurance studies

17. CHAPTER-6
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM
TEXT BOOK: ZIKMUND, W.G., BABIN,B.J.,
CARR,J.C., GRIFFIN,M., (2021) ,BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS, 9TH EDITION,
CENGAGE LEARNING

18. 6 2
GOOD DECISIONS START WITH A GOOD
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Decision Statement
A written expression of the key question(s) that the research
user wishes to answer.
Problem Definition
The process of defining and developing a decision statement
and the steps involved in translating it into more precise
research terminology, including a set of research objectives.

19. Decision problem Research problem
What should be done to increase the
customer base of organic products in the
domestic market
What is the awareness and purchase
intention of health conscious consumers
for organic products
How to reduce turnover What is the impact of shift duties on
turnover intentions
Can the housing and real estate growth
be accelerated
What is the current investment in real
estate and housing
How to improve the supply chain
performance
How does industry leader manages its
supply chain
MANAGEMENT DECISION PROBLEM RESEARCH
PROBLEM

20. 6 4
THE PROBLEM-DEFINITION PROCESS
Problem
When there is a difference between the current conditions and a
more preferable set of conditions.
Problems Mean Gaps
Business performance is worse than expected business performance.
Actual business performance is less than possible business
performance.
Expected business performance is greater than possible business
performance.

21. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION PROCESS
Management Decision Problem
Discussions
with subject
experts
Review of
existing
literature
Organization
Analysis
Qualitative
analysis
Management Research Problem / Question
Research framework / Analytical model
Statement of Research Objectives
Formulation of Research Hypothesis

22. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION PROCESS
Management decision problem: the issue/decision that needs
to be resolved through research
Discussion with experts: to get the right perspective on the
issue, discussion/dialogue is held with subject/industry
expert.
Review of literature: the most valuable source of framing the
research question is to review the past work done on related
topic(s).
Qualitative surveys: primary exploratory loosely structured
surveys to attain the environmental context.

23. ©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible web site, in whole or in part.
EXHIBIT 6.2THE PROBLEM-DEFINITION
PROCESS
6 7

24. 6 8
UNDERSTAND THE BUSINESS DECISION
Situation Analysis
The gathering of background information to familiarize researchers
and managers with the decision-making environment.
Interview Process
Develop many alternative problem statements
Think about possible solutions to the problem
Make lists
Be open-minded

25. 6 9
UNDERSTAND THE BUSINESS DECISION
Identifying Symptoms
Interrogative techniques
Asking multiple what, where, who, when, why, and how questions about
what has changed.
Probing
An interview technique that tries to draw deeper and more elaborate
explanations from the discussion.

26. 6 10
WRITING MANAGERIAL DECISION STATEMENTS INTO
CORRESPONDING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Decision statements must be translated into research
objectives.
Once the decision statement is written, the research essentially
Research objectives are the deliverables of the research
project.

27. 6 11
DETERMINE THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS
Unit of Analysis
Indicates what or who should provide the data and at what level of
aggregation.
Individuals (such as customers, employees, and owners)
Households (families, extended families, and so forth)
Organizations (businesses and business units)
Departments (sales, finance, and so forth)
Geographical areas
Objects (products, advertisements, and so forth).
Multi-level analysis studies variables measured at more than one unit
of analysis.

28. 6 12
DETERMINE THE RELEVANT VARIABLE
What is a Variable?
Anything that varies or changes from one instance to another; can
exhibit differences in value, usually in magnitude or strength, or in
direction.

29. The research problem also requires identification of the key
variables under the particular study
Research variables: To carry out an investigation, it becomes
necessary to convert the concepts to be studied into
empirically testable and observable variables
Dependent variable variable to be analysed /variable gets
influenced by other variables
Independent variable variable that can be stated as
influencing or impacting the dependent variable
TYPES OF RESEARCH VARIABLES

30. A moderator is a variable that affects the strength of the
relation between the predictor and criterion variable
Moderator variable is a third party variable that modify the
relationship between an independent variable (IV) and a
dependent variable (DV). Objective of the moderator variable
is to measure the strength of the relationship between the IV
& DV.
They have the potential to modify the direction and magnitude
of the above stated association.
MODERATING VARIABLE

31. A mediating variable explains the relation between the
independent (predictor) and the dependent (criterion)
variable. It explains how or why there is a relation between
two variables.
Intervening variables are the temporal occurrence which
follows the independent variable and precedes the dependent
variable
INTERVENING/MEDIATING VARIABLE

32. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

33. Research objectives are to be formulated according to the
basic thrust areas of the research which are crucial to the
study being conducted
This section makes active use of verbs such as
1. To find out
2. To determine
3. To establish
4. To measure
STATEMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

34. Any assumption that the researcher makes on the probable
direction of the results that might be obtained on completion
of the research process is termed as a hypothesis
A hypotheses is any assumption/presupposition that the
researcher makes about the probable direction of the results
that might be obtained on the completion of the research
process
Types
Descriptive
Relational
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

35. 6 19
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research Proposal
A written statement of the research design.
Uses for the Proposal
As a planning tool
As a contract
Funded Business Research
Basic research usually performed by academic researchers that is
financially supported by some public or private institution as in
federal government grants.

36. CHAPTER-7
RESEARCH DESIGN
TEXT BOOK: ZIKMUND, W.G., BABIN,B.J.,
CARR,J.C., GRIFFIN,M., (2021) ,BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS, 9TH EDITION,
CENGAGE LEARNING

37. 7 2
RESEARCH
Quantitative business research
Descriptive and conclusive
Addresses research objectives through empirical assessments that
involve numerical measurement and statistical analysis.
Qualitative business research
Exploratory
Uses small versus large samples
Asks a broad range of questions versus structured questions
Subjective interpretation versus statistical analysis

38. RESEARCH

39. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
ResearchDesign
Exploratory Research Design Conclusive Research Design
Descriptive Research Causal Research
Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design
Single Cross-Sectional Design Multiple Cross-Sectional Design

40. 7 5
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
Qualitative business research
Research that addresses business objectives through techniques that
allow the researcher to provide elaborate interpretations of
phenomena without depending on numerical measurement
Its focus is on discovering true inner meanings and new
insights.

41. 7 6
USES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is useful when:
It is difficult to develop specific and actionable decision statements
or research objectives.
The research objective is to develop a detailed and in-depth
understanding of some phenomena.
The research objective is to learn how a phenomenon occurs in its
natural setting or to learn how to express some concept in colloquial
terms.
The behavior the researcher is studying is particularly context-
dependent.
A fresh approach to studying the problem is needed.

42. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
Exploratory research designs: are the simplest, most
flexible and most loosely structured designs. As the name
suggests, the basic objective of the study is to explore and
obtain clarity on the problem situation.
Descriptive research designs: are more structured and formal
in nature. As the name implies the objective of these studies
is to provide a comprehensive and detailed explanation of
the phenomena under study.

43. Exploratory research design It is flexible in its approach and
involves a qualitative investigation and most loosely
structured
The main aim of exploratory research is to explore and obtain
clarity about the problem situation
It mostly involves a qualitative investigation
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

44. It is used to
Define and conceptualize the research problem to be
investigated
Explore and evaluate the diverse and multiple research
opportunities
Assist in the development and formulation of the research
hypothesis
Operationalize and define the variables under study
Identify the possible nature of relationship that might exist
between the variables under study
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

45. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
TECHNIQUES/METHODS
Secondary resource analysis: Secondary sources of data
give information in terms of details of previously collected
findings in facts and figures which has been
authenticated and published.
Case method: it is intricately designed and reveals a
comprehensive and complete presentation of facts, as they
occur, in a single entity. This could be an individual, an
organisation or an entire country.

46. Expert opinion survey: valuable insights obtained from
experts which might be based on their experience in the
field or based on academic work done on the concept.
Personal/Depth interview: A one-on-one interview between a
professional researcher and a research respondent
conducted about some relevant business or social topic.
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
TECHNIQUES/METHODS

47. 7 12
CONVERSATIONS
Conversations
An informal qualitative data-gathering approach in which the
researcher engages a respondent in a discussion of the relevant
subject matter.
Semi-structured interviews
Written form and ask respondents for short essay responses to
specific open-ended questions.
Advantages
An ability to address more specific issues
Responses are easier to interpret
Without the presence of an interviewer, semi-structured interviews can be
relatively cost effective

48. 7 13
FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW
Focus group discussions: a carefully selected representative
sub set of the larger respondent gather to discuss together,
in a short time frame, the subject/topic to be investigated.
An unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group (6-
10 people) led by a moderator who encourages dialogue
among respondents.
Advantages:
1. Relatively fast
2. Easy to execute
3. Provide multiple perspectives
4. Flexibility to allow more detailed descriptions
5. High degree of scrutiny

49. 7 14
FOCUS GROUP RESPONDENTS
Group Composition
6 to 10 people
Relatively homogeneous
Similar lifestyles and
experiences

50. 7 15
THE FOCUS GROUP MODERATOR
Moderator
A person who leads a focus group interview and insures that
everyone gets a chance to speak and contribute to the discussion.
Qualities of a good moderator:
Develops rapport with the group
Good listener
Tries not to interject his or her own opinions
Controls discussion without being overbearing

51. It tests and authenticate the propositions revealed by
exploratory research. It is a quantitative research
In comparison to exploratory research , these studies are
more structured and definite
CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH

52. It provides a comprehensive and detailed explanation of the
phenomena under study
It is conducted to describe business or market characteristics
Descriptive researches are mainly used in segmenting and
targeting the market, to understand consumers perception
about any product or services, to understand the impact of
marketing efforts on sales etc
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

53. Cross sectional research design involves the collection of
information from a sample of a population at any one point of
time i.e. only once
Its applicability is most relevant for a specific period
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES

54. Single cross sectional design- It is a cross sectional design in
which one sample of respondents is drawn from the target
population and information is obtained from this sample once
Multiple cross sectional design- A cross sectional design in
which there are two or more samples of respondents and
information from each sample is obtained once
CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN

55. Longitudinal study involves measurement of the same
population over a period of time
A single sample of the identified population is studied over a
stretched period of time and often referred to as time series
analysis
The study involves the selection of a representative panel or a
group of individuals that typically represents the population
under study
It involves the repeated measurement of the group over fixed
intervals of time
Once the sample is selected, it needs to stay constant over
the period of the study
LONGITUDINAL STUDY

56. Structured interviews of large numbers*
Observations with structured observation sheet
Survey is the best method to get quantitative judgment
TECHNIQUES OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN

57. ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT
AND SCALING

58. MEASUREMENT AND SCALING
Measurement: The term means assigning
numbers or some other symbols to the characteristics of
certain objects. When numbers are used, the researcher must
have a rule for assigning a number to an observation in a way
that provides an accurate description.
Scaling: Scaling is an extension of measurement. Scaling
involves creating a continuum on which measurements on
objects are located.

59. 13 3
WHAT DO I MEASURE?
Measurement
The process of describing some property of a phenomenon, usually by
assigning numbers in a reliable and valid way.
Concept
A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences,
or processes
Scales
A device providing a range of values that correspond to
different characteristics or amounts of a characteristic
exhibited in observing a concept

60. Nominal scale: This is the lowest level of measurement. Here,
numbers are assigned for the purpose of identification of the
objects. Any object which is assigned a higher number is in no way
superior to the one which is assigned a lower number.
Assigns a value to an object for identification or classification purposes.
Most elementary level of measurement
Example:
(a) Yes (b) No
The assigned numbers cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied
or divided. The only arithmetic operations that can be carried out
are the count of each category. Therefore, a frequency
distribution table can be prepared for the nominal scale
variables and mode of the distribution can be worked out.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

61. 1. Nominal scale is also called a category scale. It uses
multiple items to elicit a single response.
In which department do you work with?
Marketing
Finance
Production
HR
NOMINAL SCALE - BIFURCATIONS

62. 2. Ordinal scale
This is the next higher level of measurement than the nominal
scale measurement
One of the limitations of the nominal scale is that it can not
be said whether the assigned number to an object is higher or
lower than the one assigned to another option
An ordinal scale measurement tells whether an object has
more or less of characteristics than some other objects
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

63. ORDINAL SCALE
Example:
Rank the following attributes while choosing a restaurant for
dinner. The most important attribute may be ranked one, the
next important may be assigned a rank of 2 and so on.
Ranking scales allowing things to be arranged based on how
much of some concept they possible.

64. 3. Interval scale:
The interval scale measurement is the next higher level of
measurement.
It takes care of the limitation of the ordinal scale
measurement where the difference between the score on the
ordinal scale does not have any meaningful interpretation.
In the interval scale the difference of the score on the scale
has meaningful interpretation.
It is assumed that the respondent is able to answer the
questions on a continuum scale.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

65. 4. Ratio scale
This is the highest level of measurement and takes care of the
limitations of the interval scale measurement, where the ratio
of the measurements on the scale does not have a
meaningful interpretation.
A scale of measurement of data having a fixed zero value,
which permits the quantitative comparison of differences of
values
How many students are there in MBA branch?
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

66. ATTITUDE
MEASUREMENT

67. 14 11
WHAT IS AN ATTITUDE?
Attitude
An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given manner to
various aspects of the world.
Components of attitudes:
Affective Component
The feelings or emotions toward an object
Cognitive Component
Knowledge and beliefs about an object
Behavioral Component
Predisposition to action
Intentions
Behavioral expectations

68. Single item scale : There is only one item to measure
Multiple item scale : There are many items that play a role in
forming the underlying construct that the researcher is trying
to measure
ATTITUDE SCALES

69. Comparative scales
Involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms
In comparative scales it is assumed that respondents make
use of a standard frame of reference before answering the
question
COMPARATIVE SCALE

70. EXAMPLE

71. This is especially challenging if choices are quite different
from one another
Paired Comparison Analysis helps to work out the relative
importance of a number of different options
PAIRED COMPARISON

72. PAIRED COMPARISON- EXAMPLE

73. Despondence are asked to rank the preference
RANKING ORDER SCALE
Soft Drinks Rank
Pepsi
Coke
Sprite
Limca
Mirinda

74. The respondents are here asked to distribute a given
number of points across various items
CONSTANT SUM SCALE
Soft Drinks Points
Pepsi
Coke
Sprite
Limca
Mirinda

75. Non comparative scales, each object is scaled independently
of the others in the stimulus set.
NON COMPARATIVE SCALE

76. This is a continuous scale in which the respondent is asked to
tick the preference on a graph
GRAPHIC RATING SCALE
Alternative Presentation of Graphic Rating Scale
Please indicate how much do you like fast food by pointing
to the face that best shows your attitude and taste. If you
do not prefer it at all, you would point to face one. In case
you prefer it the most, you would point to face seven.

77. In this scale the respondents are provided with a scale that
has a number of brief description associated with each of the
response categories
Number of categories used
Balanced versus unbalanced scale
ITEMIZED RATING SCALE

78. 14 22
SELECTING A MEASUREMENT SCALE
Balanced Rating Scale
A fixed-alternative rating scale with an equal number of
positive and negative categories; a neutral point or point of
indifference is at the center of the scale.
Example:
Very Neither Satisfied Very
Satisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied
How satisfiedare you with the bookstorein the Student Union?

79. 14 23
SELECTING A MEASUREMENT SCALE
Unbalanced Rating Scale
A fixed-alternative rating scale that has more response
categories at one end than the other resulting in an
unequal number of positive and negative categories.
Example:
Neither Satisfied Very
Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied
How satisfiedare you with the bookstorein the Student Union?

80. LIKERT SCALE
Is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with statements
on a 5-point scale

81. The respondent is required to rate each attitude object on a
number of five or seven point rating scales
This scale is widely used to compare the images of competing
brands, companies or services.
Here the respondent is required to rate each attitude or object
on a number of five-or seven-point rating scales.
This scale is bounded at each end by bipolar adjectives or
phrases.
SEMANTIC SCALE

82. SEMANTIC SCALE

83. SEMANTIC SCALE

84. It is used to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude
STAPLE SCALE

85. 13 29
THREE CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT:
ERROR POSSIBILITY
Sensitivity
Reliability Validity
Good
Measurement

86. This occurs when the observed measurement on a construct or
concept deviates from its true values.
Reasons
Mood, fatigue and health of the respondent
Variations in the environment in which measurements are
taken
A respondent may not understand the question being asked
and the interviewer may have to rephrase the same. While
rephrasing the question the bias may get into
the responses.
MEASUREMENT ERROR

87. Reliability
Reliability is concerned with consistency, accuracy and
predictability of the scale.
Methods to measures Reliability
Cronbach alpha computes the average of all possible split half
reliability for a multiple item scale.
Less than 0.60 is not reliable
CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT

88. Validity
The validity of a scale refers to the question whether we are
measuring what we want to measure.
Different ways to measure Validity
Content (face)validity- subjective judgment of experts
Concurrent validity new measurement technique compared
with old technique
Predictive validity ability of the measured phenomena at
one point of time to predict another phenomenon at a future
point of time
CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT

89. Sensitivity refers to an ability to accurately
measure the variability in a concept.
Sensitivity of a scale is generally increased by adding more
response points
SENSITIVITY

90. QUESTIONNAIRE
DESIGNING

91. Formalized Non Formalized
Unconcealed Most research studies use
Standardized Questionnaires like
these.
The response categories
have more flexibility
Concealed Used for assessing
psychographic and subjective
constructs
Questionnaires using
projective techniques or
sociometric analysis
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Concealed : The degree to which the purpose of the study is concealed /hidden
Formalization : The degree to which the response category is defined

92. 1. Convert the research objectives into the information needs
2. Content of the question
3. Determining the types of questions
4. Question design criteria
5. Determine the questionnaire structure
6. Written presentation of the questionnaire with coding
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN PROCESS

93. Chapter-9
SAMPLING
CONSIDERATIONS

94. Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a
predetermined number of observations are taken from a
larger population.
SAMPLING

95. Population: Population refers to any group of people or objects that
form the subject of study in a particular survey and are similar in one
or more ways.
Element: An element comprises a single member of the population.
Sampling frame: Sampling frame comprises all the elements of a
population with proper identification that is available to us for
selection at any stage of sampling.
Sample: It is a subset of the population. It comprises only some
elements of the population.
Sampling unit: A sampling unit is a single member of the sample.
Sampling: It is a process of selecting an adequate number of elements
from the population so that t he study of the sample will not only help
in understanding the c haracteristics of the population but will also
enable us to generalize the results.
Census (or complete enumeration): An examination of each and every
element of the population is called census or complete enumeration
SAMPLING CONCEPTS

96. Sample saves time and cost.
A decision-maker may not have too much of time to wait till
all the information is available.
There are situations where a sample is the only option.
The study of a sample instead of complete enumeration may,
at times, produce more reliable results.
A census is appropriate when the population size is small.
SAMPLE V/S CENSUS

97. A representative sample is a small quantity of something that
accurately reflects the larger entity.
SAMPLE REPRESENTATIVENESS

98. Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a
predetermined number of observations are taken from a
larger population.
Types
1. Probability sampling
2. Non-probability sampling
SAMPLING DESIGN

99. Probability Sampling Design - Probability sampling designs are
used in conclusive research. In a probability sampling design,
each and every element of the population has a known chance
of being selected in the sample.
Types of Probability Sampling Design
Simple random sampling with replacement
Simple random sampling without replacement
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
PROBABILITY SAMPLING

100. Non-probability Sampling Designs - In case of non-probability
sampling design, the elements of the population do not have
any known chance of being selected in the sample.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling Design
Convenience sampling
Judgemental sampling
Snowball sampling
Quota sampling
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

101. SAMPLING VS NON-SAMPLING ERROR
Sampling error: This error arises when a sample is not representative
of the population.
Non-sampling error: This error arises not because a sample is not a
representative of the population but because of ot her reasons. Some
of these reasons are listed below:
Plain lying by the respondent.
The error can arise while transferring the data from the
questionnaire to the spreadsheet on the computer.
There can be errors at the time of coding, tabulation and
computation.
Population of the study is not properly defined
Respondent may refuse to be part of the study.
There may be a sampling frame error.

102. Points to be considered
The variability in the population- Higher the variability measured
by population standard deviation , the larger will be the sample
size
It is known as standard deviation
The confidence attached to the estimate - It is a matter of
judgement. The higher the confidence the larger will be the
sample size
It is known as LOS from which we identify Z score
It gives the idea on how close our estimate is to true population
The allowable error or margin of error- How accurate do we want
our estimate to be is again a matter of judgement. The greater
the precision, the larger the sample size will be.
It is known as precision or margin of error
DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

103. DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
Sample size for estimating population mean - The formula
for determining sample size is given as:
Where
n = Sample size
Population standard deviation
e = Margin of error
Z = The value for the given confidence interval

104. DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
Sample size for estimating population proportion
1. When population proportion p is known
2. When population proportion p is not known

105. CHAPTER-6
QUALITATIVE METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
TEXT BOOK: RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY-CHAWLA D.,
SONDHI N.

106. QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Qualitative methods of data collection explore
the latent and the unconscious constructs
through various means that are loosely
structured and require in-depth and closer
exploration and reporting of phenomena or
behavior, which would not be apparent through
more structured methods.

107. QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Research stage Qualitative Quantitative
Study objective Exploratory, investigative Definite, conclusive and
predictive
Research design Loosely structured Structured, controlled
conditions
Sampling plan Small samples Large/representative
samples
Type of approach Loosely structured Formatted & structured
Data analysis Textual and non-statistical Statistically tested and
authenticated
Study deliverables Explanatory and supportive Conclusive and action
oriented

108. OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation involves viewing and recording individuals, groups,
organizations or events in a scientific manner in order to collect
valuable data related to the topic under study.
Method format:
Standardized and structured
Non-standardized and unstructured

109. OBSERVATION METHOD
Level of respondent consciousness
Disguised observation
Undisguised observation
Observation setting
Natural environment
Simulated environment
Role of the human par ticipant
Participating
Non-participating

110. Content analysis technique involves studying a previously
recorded or reported communication and systematically and
objectively breaking it up into more manageable units that
are related to the topic under study.
Material studied is usually ex-post facto.
Study and analysis is, however, primary and problem specific.
Content Analysis

111. CONTENT ANALYSIS
UNIVERSE OF CONTENT
Word
Theme
Character
Space measures
Time measures
Item

112. A focus group discussion involves collecting information from a
representative group of respondents in a neutral setting. The
process generally involves a moderator who maneuvers the
discussion on the topic under study.
It is essentially a sociological technique.
The group dynamics influence the individual to respond in
divergent ways.
Focus group discussion

113. KEY ELEMENTS OF FOCUS GROUP METHOD
Size: Ideal recommended size for a group discussion is
8 to 12 members.
Nature: Composition of the group should be homogenous-in
terms of demographic and psychographic traits and
product/subject knowledge.
It is
Acquaintance: recommended that the members in a group
should be strangers to each other.
Setting: Discussion setting should be neutral, informal and
comfortable.

114. KEY ELEMENTS OF
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
Time period: usually recommended that the discussion should
take place in a single setting.
Recording: human or mechanical recording of the entire
discussion.
Moderator: key conductor, might be a participant or a non-
participant.

115. The personal interview is a one to one interaction between the
investigator/interviewer and the interviewee. The purpose of
the dialogue is research specific and ranges from completely
unstructured to highly structured
Typical Usage:
Problem definition
Exploratory research
Primary data collection
Personal interview method

116. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective techniques involve indirect questioning. The
respondent is given a relatively ambiguous stimuli and the
underlying assumption is that the respondents would project
their underlying needs, emotions, beliefs and attitudes on to
this object .
Association techniques
Completion techniques

117. Chapter -5
DATA TYPES AND SOURCES
TEXT BOOK: RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY-CHAWLA D.,
SONDHI N.

118. SOURCES OF DATA
DATA SOURCES
SECONDARY METHODS
PRIMARY METHODS
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
Fully
Processed
Need Further
Analysis
Syndicated
Sources
Electronic
Database
Published

119. CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
Primary data is original, problem or project specific and
collected for the specific objectives and needs spelt out by the
researcher. The authenticity and relevance is reasonably high.
Secondary data is information that is not topical or research
specific and has been collected and compiled by some other
researcher or investigative body. It is recorded and published in
a structured format.

120. USES OF SECONDARY DATA
Problem identification and formulation stage: past data and
information on the topic under study. Can be extremely useful
in developing a conceptual framework for investigation.
Hypotheses designing: earlier work done on the topic and
market data as well as industry trends and market facts.
Could help in developing assumptions that can be translated
into testable hypotheses for the study.
Sampling considerations: respondent-related databases are
important sources of respondent statistics and relevant
contact details.
Primary base: can be used to design questionnaires for the
primary study.
Validation and authentication board: earlier records and
studies as well as data pools. Can also be used to support or
validate the information collected through primary sources.

121. BENEFITS OF SECONDARY DATA
Resource advantage
Accessibility of data
Accuracy and stability of data
Assessment of data

122. DRAWBACKS OF SECONDARY DATA
Applicability of data: the purpose for which the information
was earlier collected was unique to that study and thus the
information might not be absolutely applicable or relevant for
the current study objective.
Accuracy of data: the source and data credibility is a serious
issue of concern when using past data and records.

123. AUTHENTICATION OF SECONDARY DATA
Methodology check: in terms of sampling frame used, data
collection tools and methods of analysis and hypotheses
testing
Accuracy check: establishing source credibility.
Misrepresentation of data
Topical check: recency of findings and similarity of the
environment under study with past study
Financial check: the cost of accessing past or recorded data
in terms of the relevance for the study

124. INTERNAL DATA SOURCES
Company records: historical as well as current manufacturing
information, process and policy documents
Employee records: demographic data sets, performance
appraisals & grievance data
Sales data: cash register receipts, salespersons call records,
sales invoices and sales reports
Other sources: customer databases, CRM data, warranty
records, etc.

125. EXTERNAL DATA SOURCES
Published data: data that is in on public domains, which could be
compiled by public or private sources
Government sources: census data, other documented and
available government publications
Other data sources: essentially non-government sources like
books, periodicals, guides and directories, Indices and
standardized non-government statistical data

126. Refer in-class discussed online data bases
Refer text book pages 106,107 & 108
SOURCES