The Battle of the Plains of Abraham was a pivotal battle in September 1759 that led to Britain gaining control of Canada. France and Britain were adversaries competing for territory and influence in North America. At the Plains of Abraham outside Quebec City, British General James Wolfe defeated French General Montcalm, capturing the important fortress of Quebec. Both Wolfe and Montcalm died from injuries sustained in the battle. The British victory resulted in France losing its North American colonies to Britain in the Treaty of Paris, marking a significant shift in colonial power in North America.
Napoleon realized his power came from military victories. He defeated the armies of Austria, Russia, and Prussia through surprise attacks and speed, gaining much territory in Europe. In 1807 his enemies signed the Treaty of Tilsit to end the conflict. The Treaty of Tilsit created an alliance between France and Russia, though this broke down when Russia allowed neutral shipping in 1810, leading Napoleon to invade Russia in 1812.
This document provides biographical information about Erich Mendelsohn in 3 sentences. It states that he was born in Poland on March 21 and died in 1953. It also mentions one of his books called "A Touring Exhibition Organised by Modern British Architecture Germany 1921".
After the French surrender of Canada in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British gained control over New France. The terms of the treaty gave Britain all of France's North American colonies except Louisiana and two small islands. This ended the wars between Britain and France for dominance in North America. The French residents of Canada, known as les Habitants or Canadiens, were allowed to keep their lands and religion under British rule as they were not seen as a threat without French military support. The British issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which made the former New France the Province of Quebec and established rules for western land expansion that angered the 13 colonies.
Salutary Neglect & French and Indian WarJason Richard
The document provides information on several topics:
1) It discusses John Zenger's arrest and trial for libel against the governor of New York in 1734, in which Zenger was found not guilty, establishing freedom of the press.
2) It describes the policy of "salutary neglect" used by England in the 1600-1700s to decrease trade regulations and allow the colonies to prosper, which also led the colonies to believe they no longer needed England.
3) It explains how self-government developed in the colonies through entities like the Virginia Company and the establishment of legislatures, giving more power to the people than in England.
The document discusses the Seven Years War between the French and English in North America from 1754-1763. It describes how the conflict began over territorial disputes in the Ohio Valley and General Braddock's defeat against the French and Native Americans in 1755. Though the early years of the war went poorly for the British, new Prime Minister William Pitt strengthened Britain's efforts starting in 1757. The British went on to capture key French forts and cities like Quebec and Montreal, defeating the French navy and taking Caribbean colonies to end France's empire in North America by 1763.
After the American Revolution, many American loyalists who supported British rule fled north to British North America. Around 43,000 went to Quebec and 8,000 to the Maritimes. This influx of loyalists made the existing French-speaking Canadiens population in Quebec uncomfortable. In response, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the colony of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Upper Canada was meant for the English-speaking loyalists and had British laws and Protestant traditions, while Lower Canada maintained French culture, Catholicism, and French civil law for the Canadiens population. Joseph Brant, a Mohawk leader who supported the British, negotiated to have land along the Grand River in Ontario set aside for the Six Nations
Covers the major events leading up to the French and Indian War, including the breaking of the Covenant Chain, George Washington's conflict with the French in the Ohio River Valley, the convening of the Albany Congress, and Benjamin Franklin's Albany Plan of Union. Also covers the Braddock Expedition and the Battle of the Monongahela.
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham was a pivotal battle in September 1759 that led to Britain gaining control of Canada. France and Britain were adversaries competing for territory and influence in North America. At the Plains of Abraham outside Quebec City, British General James Wolfe defeated French General Montcalm, capturing the important fortress of Quebec. Both Wolfe and Montcalm died from injuries sustained in the battle. The British victory resulted in France losing its North American colonies to Britain in the Treaty of Paris, marking a significant shift in colonial power in North America.
Napoleon realized his power came from military victories. He defeated the armies of Austria, Russia, and Prussia through surprise attacks and speed, gaining much territory in Europe. In 1807 his enemies signed the Treaty of Tilsit to end the conflict. The Treaty of Tilsit created an alliance between France and Russia, though this broke down when Russia allowed neutral shipping in 1810, leading Napoleon to invade Russia in 1812.
This document provides biographical information about Erich Mendelsohn in 3 sentences. It states that he was born in Poland on March 21 and died in 1953. It also mentions one of his books called "A Touring Exhibition Organised by Modern British Architecture Germany 1921".
After the French surrender of Canada in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British gained control over New France. The terms of the treaty gave Britain all of France's North American colonies except Louisiana and two small islands. This ended the wars between Britain and France for dominance in North America. The French residents of Canada, known as les Habitants or Canadiens, were allowed to keep their lands and religion under British rule as they were not seen as a threat without French military support. The British issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which made the former New France the Province of Quebec and established rules for western land expansion that angered the 13 colonies.
Salutary Neglect & French and Indian WarJason Richard
The document provides information on several topics:
1) It discusses John Zenger's arrest and trial for libel against the governor of New York in 1734, in which Zenger was found not guilty, establishing freedom of the press.
2) It describes the policy of "salutary neglect" used by England in the 1600-1700s to decrease trade regulations and allow the colonies to prosper, which also led the colonies to believe they no longer needed England.
3) It explains how self-government developed in the colonies through entities like the Virginia Company and the establishment of legislatures, giving more power to the people than in England.
The document discusses the Seven Years War between the French and English in North America from 1754-1763. It describes how the conflict began over territorial disputes in the Ohio Valley and General Braddock's defeat against the French and Native Americans in 1755. Though the early years of the war went poorly for the British, new Prime Minister William Pitt strengthened Britain's efforts starting in 1757. The British went on to capture key French forts and cities like Quebec and Montreal, defeating the French navy and taking Caribbean colonies to end France's empire in North America by 1763.
After the American Revolution, many American loyalists who supported British rule fled north to British North America. Around 43,000 went to Quebec and 8,000 to the Maritimes. This influx of loyalists made the existing French-speaking Canadiens population in Quebec uncomfortable. In response, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the colony of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Upper Canada was meant for the English-speaking loyalists and had British laws and Protestant traditions, while Lower Canada maintained French culture, Catholicism, and French civil law for the Canadiens population. Joseph Brant, a Mohawk leader who supported the British, negotiated to have land along the Grand River in Ontario set aside for the Six Nations
Covers the major events leading up to the French and Indian War, including the breaking of the Covenant Chain, George Washington's conflict with the French in the Ohio River Valley, the convening of the Albany Congress, and Benjamin Franklin's Albany Plan of Union. Also covers the Braddock Expedition and the Battle of the Monongahela.
The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and the United Kingdom. Several factors contributed to the start of the war, including British interference with American shipping through blockade and impressment of American sailors. The war resulted in no major territorial changes and did not accomplish the goals of either side. It did, however, increase national pride in both the United States and Canada and confirmed Canada's existence as a separate entity from the United States.
The French and Indian War was a conflict between France and Britain for control of North America in the 18th century. France and Britain both claimed land in the Ohio Valley, leading to clashes between their forces. The war expanded into a global conflict known as the Seven Years' War. Key battles included the British defeat at Fort Duquesne in 1754 and their victory at Quebec in 1759. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ended the war, ceding French North American territories to Britain. This shifted the balance of power in North America and had long-term effects on British-colonial relations.
The French society of the 17th century was strictly hierarchical, with the king and aristocrats at the top and peasants and serfs at the bottom. Peasants lived difficult, brutal lives working small plots of land for little reward and facing epidemics, famine, and forced labor for their lords. City life in large cities like Paris brought some escape from the countryside but most urban residents still lived in poverty and faced high food prices and inflation. The growing middle class, or bourgeoisie, faced laws, regulations, monopolies and taxes that made it difficult to profit from new businesses and investments. By the late 18th century, financial troubles from wars and the lavish court of Louis XIV had left the French government deeply
Wilson's Fourteen Points outlined a post-war peace plan that called for German troops to leave Russia, reductions in armaments for all countries, no more secret treaties between nations, free navigation of seas, establishment of an international organization, removal of economic barriers and imperialism, independence for Belgium, return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, impartial settlement of colonial disputes, readjustment of Italian borders, and self-determination for peoples of Austria-Hungary and the Turkish Empire. The fourteen points aimed to address the main causes of World War I and promote long-term stability and peace in Europe.
The document summarizes key events leading up to the American Revolution, including the Stamp Act of 1765 which imposed taxes on the colonies without colonial representation in British Parliament. This led to protests and riots, including tarring and feathering of tax collectors. Another point discussed is why the Americans invaded Canada during the revolution - hoping the Canadian population would join the cause against Britain, though this did not happen due to cultural and religious differences between English and French Canada.
Quakers were the first religious group to oppose slavery in Britain. John Newton, a former slave ship captain, became a prominent critic of slavery after writing the hymn "Amazing Grace". William Wilberforce, a member of British Parliament, led the successful effort to abolish slavery in the British Empire with support from the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade.
Quakers were the first religious group to oppose slavery in Britain. John Newton, a former slave ship captain, became a prominent critic of slavery after writing the hymn "Amazing Grace" and converting from his pro-slavery views. William Wilberforce, a British politician, led the successful parliamentary campaign to abolish the slave trade throughout the British Empire with support from the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade.
The document discusses the history of the Apprentice Boys of Derry, a Protestant organization that commemorates the 1689 Siege of Derry. It describes how in 1688, Protestants fled to Derry to escape Catholic King James II. In 1689, when the governor wished to surrender Derry, 13 apprentice boys closed the gates, starting a 105-day siege. The apprentice boys' parades in Derry became controversial and helped spark The Battle of Bogside in 1969, marking the start of The Troubles. The parades were then banned but restrictions were later lifted.
Lieutenant Colonel George Washington led British troops into the Ohio River Valley claimed by the French, but they were forced to surrender to the French at Fort Necessity in western Pennsylvania. This event started the French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War, a global war fought between Britain and France primarily in North America and Europe. The war resulted in France losing its North American territories to Britain, which became the dominant colonial power, though it spent vast sums and went deeply into debt financing the conflict.
The French explored North America beginning in 1524 seeking the Northwest Passage to Asia. Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River and claimed the land for France. Attempts to establish colonies failed due to harsh winters. The fur trade became important as Europeans traded goods for furs from Native peoples. Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec City in 1608 and formed an alliance with the Huron people, expanding French imperial interests in the region. New France was established as a royal colony in 1663, governed by an intendant, governor, and bishop to represent French interests in the new territory.
King promised not to implement conscription during World War 2, but passed the National Resources Mobilization Act in 1940 allowing conscription for home defense. In 1942 he held a referendum on overseas conscription which passed in all provinces except Quebec, angering Quebec who felt betrayed. As Canada's casualties mounted in 1944, Minister of Defense Ralston resigned over King's refusal to send conscripts overseas, though he later changed his mind. King replaced Ralston with General McNaughton hoping he could convince conscripts to volunteer for overseas duty, but McNaughton was unsuccessful. King finally agreed late in the war to send 12,000 conscripts overseas, leading to riots in Quebec protesting this move.
This document describes a documentary series called "100 Years - 100 Films" that chronicles major historical events of the 20th century through eyewitness interviews and archival footage. It examines 100 pivotal events from 1900 to 1999, sourcing over 7 million meters of film and interviews with 600 witnesses. A large international team of editors, researchers, and film crews spent three years curating the 100 films to tell the story of the century through those who lived it.
The Berlin Wall was built in 1961 and divided East and West Berlin during the Cold War. It underwent four generations of improvements to make it stronger and harder to escape from East Berlin. Over time, political changes in Eastern Europe weakened the Soviet Union's control and the wall fell in 1989, leading to German reunification in 1990.
The Wars of the Roses was a civil war between the House of Lancaster and the House of York for the English throne. King Henry VI was a weak ruler who lost much of England's territory in France. This led Richard, Duke of York to seize more power. York and his supporters, the Yorkists, fought Lancaster supporters for control of the throne. The Yorkists, led by Edward of York, defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton in 1461, killing over 8,000 men and establishing Edward IV as the first Yorkist king of England.
Queen Wilhelmina was the only child of King William III of the Netherlands and reigned from 1898 to 1948. During World War I, she visited troops on the front lines to see conditions firsthand. In World War II, she evacuated to Britain after the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands and broadcasted weekly messages to the Dutch people. After the war, she was a beloved symbol of hope and resistance for the Netherlands during the occupation and abdicated the throne in 1948.
1) The French and Indian War began in 1754 between Britain and France over land in North America, including the Ohio River Valley.
2) A young George Washington led British forces but was defeated by the French at Fort Necessity in 1754. However, the tide turned when William Pitt became Britain's new leader in 1757.
3) In 1759, British General Wolfe defeated the French General Montcalm and captured Quebec, effectively ending French control in North America. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ceded French territories to Britain.
The document summarizes the experiences of the 222nd Infantry Regiment as part of the 42nd Infantry Division in liberating the Dachau concentration camp in late April 1945. It describes the regiment fighting German resistance as they advanced towards Munich. Upon arriving at Dachau, soldiers were unprepared for the horrors they discovered, including thousands of dead bodies and emaciated prisoners. The liberation was an emotional scene as prisoners greeted their American liberators. The experiences had a profound impact on the soldiers who helped expose the Nazi atrocities.
The Machal: American Jewish Support for Israel in 1947COL G_NYARNG
Volunteers from overseas, known as Machal, provided critical support to Israel during its war for independence in 1948. Around 4,400 volunteers from 56 countries joined the Israeli armed forces, including 1,000 from the United States and Canada. Many were WWII veterans with military skills and experience needed by Israel. One Machal pilot from the US described how they were able to defeat the better equipped Arab forces through determination and willingness to fight despite having little. Their participation was an expression of solidarity with the Jewish people and helped Israel achieve independence.
The story of one of the first Lone Wolves of the IDF, Mickey Marcus. Marcus was a former NY Army National Guard officer who fought in WWII and was recruited to assist the early general staff of the emerging IDF during the Israeli War of Independence.
This document provides an overview of Jewish participation and experiences in World War I. It discusses where Jews served with the Central Powers like Austria-Hungary and Germany as well as with the Allies. It describes the formation of the Jewish Legion to allow Jews to fight for Israel's liberation. It details American Jewish support efforts through organizations like the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. It also honors Jewish soldiers who fought and received honors for their valor like military crosses and medals of honor.
The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and the United Kingdom. Several factors contributed to the start of the war, including British interference with American shipping through blockade and impressment of American sailors. The war resulted in no major territorial changes and did not accomplish the goals of either side. It did, however, increase national pride in both the United States and Canada and confirmed Canada's existence as a separate entity from the United States.
The French and Indian War was a conflict between France and Britain for control of North America in the 18th century. France and Britain both claimed land in the Ohio Valley, leading to clashes between their forces. The war expanded into a global conflict known as the Seven Years' War. Key battles included the British defeat at Fort Duquesne in 1754 and their victory at Quebec in 1759. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ended the war, ceding French North American territories to Britain. This shifted the balance of power in North America and had long-term effects on British-colonial relations.
The French society of the 17th century was strictly hierarchical, with the king and aristocrats at the top and peasants and serfs at the bottom. Peasants lived difficult, brutal lives working small plots of land for little reward and facing epidemics, famine, and forced labor for their lords. City life in large cities like Paris brought some escape from the countryside but most urban residents still lived in poverty and faced high food prices and inflation. The growing middle class, or bourgeoisie, faced laws, regulations, monopolies and taxes that made it difficult to profit from new businesses and investments. By the late 18th century, financial troubles from wars and the lavish court of Louis XIV had left the French government deeply
Wilson's Fourteen Points outlined a post-war peace plan that called for German troops to leave Russia, reductions in armaments for all countries, no more secret treaties between nations, free navigation of seas, establishment of an international organization, removal of economic barriers and imperialism, independence for Belgium, return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, impartial settlement of colonial disputes, readjustment of Italian borders, and self-determination for peoples of Austria-Hungary and the Turkish Empire. The fourteen points aimed to address the main causes of World War I and promote long-term stability and peace in Europe.
The document summarizes key events leading up to the American Revolution, including the Stamp Act of 1765 which imposed taxes on the colonies without colonial representation in British Parliament. This led to protests and riots, including tarring and feathering of tax collectors. Another point discussed is why the Americans invaded Canada during the revolution - hoping the Canadian population would join the cause against Britain, though this did not happen due to cultural and religious differences between English and French Canada.
Quakers were the first religious group to oppose slavery in Britain. John Newton, a former slave ship captain, became a prominent critic of slavery after writing the hymn "Amazing Grace". William Wilberforce, a member of British Parliament, led the successful effort to abolish slavery in the British Empire with support from the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade.
Quakers were the first religious group to oppose slavery in Britain. John Newton, a former slave ship captain, became a prominent critic of slavery after writing the hymn "Amazing Grace" and converting from his pro-slavery views. William Wilberforce, a British politician, led the successful parliamentary campaign to abolish the slave trade throughout the British Empire with support from the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade.
The document discusses the history of the Apprentice Boys of Derry, a Protestant organization that commemorates the 1689 Siege of Derry. It describes how in 1688, Protestants fled to Derry to escape Catholic King James II. In 1689, when the governor wished to surrender Derry, 13 apprentice boys closed the gates, starting a 105-day siege. The apprentice boys' parades in Derry became controversial and helped spark The Battle of Bogside in 1969, marking the start of The Troubles. The parades were then banned but restrictions were later lifted.
Lieutenant Colonel George Washington led British troops into the Ohio River Valley claimed by the French, but they were forced to surrender to the French at Fort Necessity in western Pennsylvania. This event started the French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War, a global war fought between Britain and France primarily in North America and Europe. The war resulted in France losing its North American territories to Britain, which became the dominant colonial power, though it spent vast sums and went deeply into debt financing the conflict.
The French explored North America beginning in 1524 seeking the Northwest Passage to Asia. Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River and claimed the land for France. Attempts to establish colonies failed due to harsh winters. The fur trade became important as Europeans traded goods for furs from Native peoples. Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec City in 1608 and formed an alliance with the Huron people, expanding French imperial interests in the region. New France was established as a royal colony in 1663, governed by an intendant, governor, and bishop to represent French interests in the new territory.
King promised not to implement conscription during World War 2, but passed the National Resources Mobilization Act in 1940 allowing conscription for home defense. In 1942 he held a referendum on overseas conscription which passed in all provinces except Quebec, angering Quebec who felt betrayed. As Canada's casualties mounted in 1944, Minister of Defense Ralston resigned over King's refusal to send conscripts overseas, though he later changed his mind. King replaced Ralston with General McNaughton hoping he could convince conscripts to volunteer for overseas duty, but McNaughton was unsuccessful. King finally agreed late in the war to send 12,000 conscripts overseas, leading to riots in Quebec protesting this move.
This document describes a documentary series called "100 Years - 100 Films" that chronicles major historical events of the 20th century through eyewitness interviews and archival footage. It examines 100 pivotal events from 1900 to 1999, sourcing over 7 million meters of film and interviews with 600 witnesses. A large international team of editors, researchers, and film crews spent three years curating the 100 films to tell the story of the century through those who lived it.
The Berlin Wall was built in 1961 and divided East and West Berlin during the Cold War. It underwent four generations of improvements to make it stronger and harder to escape from East Berlin. Over time, political changes in Eastern Europe weakened the Soviet Union's control and the wall fell in 1989, leading to German reunification in 1990.
The Wars of the Roses was a civil war between the House of Lancaster and the House of York for the English throne. King Henry VI was a weak ruler who lost much of England's territory in France. This led Richard, Duke of York to seize more power. York and his supporters, the Yorkists, fought Lancaster supporters for control of the throne. The Yorkists, led by Edward of York, defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton in 1461, killing over 8,000 men and establishing Edward IV as the first Yorkist king of England.
Queen Wilhelmina was the only child of King William III of the Netherlands and reigned from 1898 to 1948. During World War I, she visited troops on the front lines to see conditions firsthand. In World War II, she evacuated to Britain after the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands and broadcasted weekly messages to the Dutch people. After the war, she was a beloved symbol of hope and resistance for the Netherlands during the occupation and abdicated the throne in 1948.
1) The French and Indian War began in 1754 between Britain and France over land in North America, including the Ohio River Valley.
2) A young George Washington led British forces but was defeated by the French at Fort Necessity in 1754. However, the tide turned when William Pitt became Britain's new leader in 1757.
3) In 1759, British General Wolfe defeated the French General Montcalm and captured Quebec, effectively ending French control in North America. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ceded French territories to Britain.
The document summarizes the experiences of the 222nd Infantry Regiment as part of the 42nd Infantry Division in liberating the Dachau concentration camp in late April 1945. It describes the regiment fighting German resistance as they advanced towards Munich. Upon arriving at Dachau, soldiers were unprepared for the horrors they discovered, including thousands of dead bodies and emaciated prisoners. The liberation was an emotional scene as prisoners greeted their American liberators. The experiences had a profound impact on the soldiers who helped expose the Nazi atrocities.
The Machal: American Jewish Support for Israel in 1947COL G_NYARNG
Volunteers from overseas, known as Machal, provided critical support to Israel during its war for independence in 1948. Around 4,400 volunteers from 56 countries joined the Israeli armed forces, including 1,000 from the United States and Canada. Many were WWII veterans with military skills and experience needed by Israel. One Machal pilot from the US described how they were able to defeat the better equipped Arab forces through determination and willingness to fight despite having little. Their participation was an expression of solidarity with the Jewish people and helped Israel achieve independence.
The story of one of the first Lone Wolves of the IDF, Mickey Marcus. Marcus was a former NY Army National Guard officer who fought in WWII and was recruited to assist the early general staff of the emerging IDF during the Israeli War of Independence.
This document provides an overview of Jewish participation and experiences in World War I. It discusses where Jews served with the Central Powers like Austria-Hungary and Germany as well as with the Allies. It describes the formation of the Jewish Legion to allow Jews to fight for Israel's liberation. It details American Jewish support efforts through organizations like the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. It also honors Jewish soldiers who fought and received honors for their valor like military crosses and medals of honor.
The document traces the evolution of military public affairs from the Revolutionary War to modern conflicts. It discusses how the military's relationship with the media and public has changed over time, from directly communicating with citizens to tighter control of information to the current environment of embedded journalists. It emphasizes the importance of keeping the public informed to maintain support for military operations.
The 42nd Infantry Division has a long history serving in multiple conflicts. It was formed in 1917 for World War I and deployed to France. In World War II, it fought in southern France and liberated the Dachau concentration camp. During the Cold War, it served as a strategic reserve. More recently, it has responded to domestic disasters and the 9/11 attacks. In 2004, the division headquarters deployed to Iraq as Task Force Liberty to help stabilize the country. The division continues to train with units from across the United States and participate in missions around the world.
My Summer Vacation: Training with the IDF Partnering with the Home Front Command פיקוד העורף Shared Future 2010 Bilateral Homeland Security Training between IDF Home Front Command and DoD National Guard Bureau, Dept. of Homeland Security, Dept. of State July 28 – WMD response exercise July 29 – Conventional Missile response July 29 – Visit to Saroka Medical Center. The Home Front Command was created in 1992 following the Gulf War to handle homeland defense after civilian population centers in Israel faced missile attacks. There were noticeable differences between the Israeli and American approaches to threats, such as the sense of urgency in Israel due to the existential threats faced. The
The 42nd Infantry Division and Task Force Liberty in Iraq, 2005COL G_NYARNG
The document provides a history of the 42nd Infantry Division from World War I through its deployment to Iraq as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom from 2004 to 2005. It details the Division's operations against insurgents in Iraq and its efforts to train Iraqi security forces, complete reconstruction projects, and facilitate the transition of control to Iraqi authorities. The Division helped set conditions for democratic elections in Iraq before departing in 2005.
The document summarizes the history of the 165th Infantry Regiment, known as the "Fighting 69th", during World War 1. It details the regiment mobilizing in New York in 1917 under Colonel William Donovan and Father Duffy and deploying to France in 1918. It describes the regiment's major defensive and offensive operations including the Second Battle of the Marne, St. Mihiel, and Meuse-Argonne Offensives. It also lists three Medal of Honor recipients from the regiment - Sergeant Richard O'Neil, Sergeant Michael Donaldson, and Lieutenant Colonel William Donovan for their heroic actions during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel in 1918.
Race towards Life: The liberation of Dachau, April 29, 1945COL G_NYARNG
Imagery and a narrative of the liberation of the 33,000 prisoners of Concentration Camp Dachau in 1945 by Soldiers of the U.S. Army's 42nd and 45th Infantry Divisions.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Your Skill Boost Masterclass: Strategies for Effective Upskilling
Black Rattlers in the Great War
1.
2. The 15th NY Infantry in the
Great War, 1914-1918
Col. Richard Goldenberg
New York National Guard
3. The 15th NY
Mobilization
Welcome to France
All that Jazz
In the Fight
Battle of Henry Johnson
Homecoming
What did it achieve
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15. • Leading NYC band leader
in 1910
• Led 15th NY Regimental
Band across 2,000 miles
for performances across
France
“My success had come ...
from a realization of the
advantages of sticking to the
music of my own people.”
Editor's Notes
The biggest question leading up to 1917: Whose war was this anyway?
When the US entered the war in April 1917, would African Americans be a part of the war effort?
Over 350,000 African-Americans served overseas for the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) during the war. The African American community largely set aside the challenges of the homefront in order to earn the right of citizenship through combat. Not unlike many of the American immigrant communities. Would service eliminate discrimination?
Most toiled away in important but menial positions—as stevedores, camp laborers, clerks. But between about 40,000 and 50,000 black American troops served under French commanders in the war, largely in the 93rd Division of the AEF, consisting of the 369th through the 372nd regiments. No black troops experienced as much combat as those assigned to the French military.
Albany, NY and NYS have unique contributions to the Great War, especially for African Americans. But other historical highlights include the famous 42nd Rainbow Division, created in NY.
The 69th Infantry, the famed Irish Regiment of NYC. The 7th “Silk Stocking” Regiment of midtown and the draftee 77th Division.
With the election in 1914 of the Republican and Union League Club member Charles Seymour Whitman as governor of New York, the prospects of the regiment movement improved. Two years would pass, however, before the approaching war and manpower shortages in the New York National Guard provided Whitman the opening to act on the 1913 law. In May 1916 he announced his intention and by June the seemingly impossible had been realized, but not without disappointing terms—a white commander and an almost all-white officer cadre would lead the unit. Yet, if the commander had to be white, William Hayward—a native Nebraskan, Public Service Commissioner, Union League Club member, and close friend of the governor—was an ideal choice. For the most part, he lived up to his belief that blacks “ought to be given an opportunity to shine in the National Guard without prejudice.”[9]
Many more blacks viewed the war as an opportunity for victory at home and abroad. W.E.B. Du Bois, a founder of the NAACP in 1909, urged his fellow African Americans to “Close Ranks” in a (now infamous) piece he wrote for the Crisis in July 1918, despite the persistent segregation of black officers at training camp. “Let us, while this war lasts, forget our special grievances and close our ranks shoulder to shoulder with our white fellow citizens and the allied nations that are fighting for democracy,” Du Bois advised.
Prior to WWI, nearly 90 percent of all African Americans lived in the Southern United States in the shadow of slavery, with most working the same lands that their forbearers had toiled in as human chattel. These newly arrived transplants to the northern industrial centers helped establish a foundation for the future social, economic and political infrastructures needed for the development of a powerful black middle-class. As such, they became capable of challenging the stifling system of oppression and Jim Crow segregation responsible for impeding the advancement of the community.
Recruits for the 15th NY came from across NYC, NYS and the northeast. Including Henry Johnson, 5’4” an d130 pounds, who took the train down to Harlem to enlist in June 1917.
Black Rattlers
“The French called them the ‘Men of Bronze’ out of respect, and the Germans called them the ‘Harlem Hellfighters’ out of fear,” explains Max Brooks, author of The Harlem Hellfighters, a new graphic novel about the first African-American infantry unit to fight in World War I.
Newly formed the regiment had some 3,000 Soldiers, including some African American Officers.
Not entirely unique. In Massachusetts, the 26th Yankee Division also had Boston’s African-American unit, Company L, 372nd Infantry, which was separated during mobilization and fought with the French army and was awarded the Croix de Guerre for collective unit gallantry.
Like the 369th, the 372nd was part of the 93rd Colored Division. Although organized as an all-black division for the war, these regiments did not fight as one. Instead, each was assigned to French divisions, as the French were requesting the immediate use of American divisions to reinforce the French army. Each of the regiments took part in major combat operations and received battlefield accolades for their service with the French army.
The recruitment took place in Harlem, New York.The battalion trained at Camp Whitman (Poughkeepsie, N.Y.); guard duty in New York City; in further training in South Carolina; shipped overseas 27 December 1917;
Called into Federal service on 25 July 1917 at Camp Whitman, New York. While at Camp Whitman, the 369th Infantry learned basic military practices. These basics included military courtesy, how to address officers and how to salute. Along with these basics they also learned how to stay low and out of sight during attacks, stand guard and how to march in formation. After their training at Camp Whitman, the 369th was called into active duty in New York. While in New York, the 369th was split into three battalions in which they guarded rail lines, construction sites and other camps throughout New York. Then on 8 October 1917 the Regiment traveled to Camp Wadsworth in Spartanburg, South Carolina, where they received training in actual combat. Camp Wadsworth was set up similar to the French battlefields. While at Camp Wadsworth they experienced significant racism from the local communities and from other units. There was one incident in which two soldiers from the 15th Regiment, Lieutenant Europe and Noble Sissle, were refused by the owner of a shop when they attempted to buy a newspaper. Several soldiers from the white, 27th Division came to aid their fellow soldiers. Lieutenant Europe had commanded them to leave before violence erupted. There were many other shops that refused to sell goods to the members of the 15th Regiment, so members of the 27th and 71st Divisions told the shop owners that if they did not serve black soldiers that they can close their stores and leave town. The white soldiers then stated "They're our buddies. And we won't buy from men who treat them unfairly."
In December 1917, when Colonel Hayward's men had departed from New York City, they had not been permitted to participate in the farewell parade of New York's National Guard, the so-called Rainbow division. The reason Hayward was given was that "black is not a color in the Rainbow."
Actually, Hamilton Fish, Jr., had almost not become a soldier. He came from a dyed-in-the-wool Republican political family and hailed from the same district as his later “friend” and bitter foe, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His great grandfather, Nicholas Fish, was a colonel in the Revolutionary War, the first Adjutant General of the State of New York, the first Supervisor of Revenue in New York, and, as he told it, “An intimate friend of Lafayette and Alexander Hamilton.”
His grandfather, also named Hamilton Fish, was a member of the House of Representatives, Lieutenant Governor and Governor of New York, one of its two U.S. Senators, and U.S. Secretary of State under President Ulysses S. Grant. Our Hamilton Fish was born in Garrison, NY on December 7, 1888, while his father—also named Hamilton Fish—was Speaker of the New York Assembly at the state capital of Albany as well as a member of Congress.
Our “Ham” Fish attended St. Mark’s School and graduated from Harvard University (as did FDR) at the age of 20 with a cum laude degree in political science. He was offered an appointment to teach government and history at Harvard, “which I regretfully declined,” he noted.
As he added later, he was proud of his pre-World War I heritage and record, and had every right to be: “I am directly descended from Peter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch Governor of New Amsterdam, and Louis Morris, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and Robert Livingston, the first Lord of the Manor, and of Thomas Hooker.” (His later nemesis, FDR, was also of Dutch descent.)
“I had served for two years in the National Guard,” he remembered later, “training at Plattsburg, N.Y., while I was an Assemblyman in the New York State legislature. My commanding officers were impressed by my performance and recommended that I be promoted to captain. An examination was required to achieve the promotion, but I had studied the drill regulations extensively and knew I could pass the exam.…
“On the day of the examination, I was met by a major I did not know who himself had not been made captain until he was well over 50 years old. He asked me a number of questions that had nothing to do with military training and declared me too young for a captaincy.
Fish ran into Colonel William Hayward of the National Guard, who was then organizing an all-black regiment to train for combat duty in France. “He asked me if I wanted to join the Regiment as a captain. I accepted his offer on the spot and became one of the first officers of what was later designated the 369th Infantry Regiment, the famed Harlem Hell Fighters.”
"40 hommes ou 8 chevaux" is French for "40 men or 8 horses," which indicated the capacity of the railcar. American soldiers became acquainted with these cars in the First World War, when they were used extensively to transport troops to the front.
When the African American National Guard Soldiers of New York's 15th Infantry Regiment arrived in France in December 1917, they expected to conduct combat training and enter the trenches of the Western Front right away.They could not have been more wrong.The black troops were ordered to unload supply ships at the docks for their first months in France, joining the mass of supply troops known as stevedores, working long hours in the port at St. Nazaire.
“We had been trained to fight as soldiers, not to work as laborers, and all of us were anxious to get to the front lines, but the American military command was reluctant to integrate the armed forces by assigning black troops to white regiments. -- CPT Fish
The African American regiment was a quick and easy source of labor, according to author Stephen Harris in his 2003 book, "Harlem's Hell Fighters.""First, Pershing would have a source of cheap labor," Harris wrote. "Second, he wouldn't have to worry about what to do with black Soldiers, particularly when he might have to mix them in with white troops."But officers, leaders and the combat Soldiers had not signed up for labor. They were committed to fighting the Germans and winning the war. "They had no place to put the regiment," said infantry Capt. Hamilton Fish, according to the Harris book. "They weren't going to put us in a white division, not in 1917, anyway; so our troops were sent in to the supply and services as laborers to lay railroad tracks. This naturally upset our men tremendously."
What to do with black soldiers generally once they were trained bedeviled leadership. AEF commander General John J. Pershing and others refused to integrate the armed services, and military leaders struggled with how to assign the 93rd Division. By assigning it to the French army, Pershing fulfilled a pledge to supply combat regiments to the French, while also freeing “himself from the dilemma of how to use the African-American fighting regiments of the provisional 93rd,”
The regiment's best advocate was their commander, Col. William Hayward."It was time for us to try to do something towards extricating ourselves from the dirty mess of pick-swinging and wheel barrel trundling that we were in," Hayward had said to Capt. Arthur Little, according to Jeffrey Sammons in his 2014 book "Harlem's Rattlers and the Great War." "We had come to France as combat troops, and, apparently, we were in danger of becoming labor troops," Hayward said.Hayward argued his case in a letter to General Pershing, outlining the regiments' mobilization and training, and followed up immediately with a personal visit to Pershing's headquarters.He would bring with him the regiment's most formidable weapon in swaying opinion: the regimental band, lauded as one of the finest in the entire Expeditionary Force.
Initial training on the wear and use of French gas masks for the 369th. The American mask had a nose clip that did not fit will with the black troops.
While the regiment literally laid the tracks for the arrival of the two million troops deploying to France, the regimental band toured the region, performing for French and American audiences at rest centers and hospitals. The 369th Band was unlike any other performance audiences had seen or heard before, noted Harris. The regimental band is credited with introducing jazz music to France during the war.The military band would frequently perform a French march, followed by traditional band scores such as John Philip Sousa's "Stars and Stripes Forever.""And then came the fireworks," said Sgt. Noble Sissle, band vocalist and organizer, in the Harris account, as the 369th Band would play as if they were in a jazz club back in Harlem.
Noble Sissle, a well-known musician in the band, “when the band had finished and people were roaring with laughter, their faces wreathed in smiles, I was force to say that this is just what France needs at this critical time.”
Parisians’ enthusiasm for big band jazz soon developed into a fascination with African American music, art, and literature that fueled the creation of a vibrant expatriate community of black artists and intellectuals after the war.
After some three months of labor constructing nearby railways to move supplies forward, the Soldiers learned that they had orders to join the French 16th Division for three weeks of combat training.They also learned they had a new regimental number as the now-renamed 369th Infantry Regiment. Not that it mattered much to the Soldiers; they still carried their nickname from New York, the Black Rattlers, and carried their regimental flag of the 15th New York Infantry everywhere they went in France.
Col. Hayward summed up his situation this way, “we are les enfants perdus (the lost children) and glad of it. Our great American general simply put the black orphan in the basket and set it on the doorstep of the French, pulled the bell and went away.’
Hayward said this to a French colonel with an “English spoken here” sign on him, and he commented back, “weelcome leetle black babie.”
The Rattlers soon had to turn in their American equipment and arms, including their Springfield model 1902 rifles. In return they received the French Lebel rifles, which the men regarded as an inferior weapon.
French rations took time to adjust to as well, with large amounts of soup and bread rather than meat and vegetables. The wine ration was welcomed, although perhaps too enthusiastically at first. French Soldiers were more accustomed to watering their wine with water.
The Americans, unused to wine on a daily basis, encountered a few incidents early on of drunken wild shooting, and the wine rations soon stopped.
While the 369th Infantry would become part of the U.S. Army's 92nd Infantry Division, it would be assigned to fight with French forces. This solved the dilemma for Pershing and the American Expeditionary Forces of what to do with the African-American troops.The black troops would see combat, but alongside French forces, who were already accustomed to the many races and ethnicities already serving in the ranks of their colonial troops."The French army instructors literally welcomed their African American trainees as comrades in arms," Sammons wrote. "To the pragmatic French army instructors, the Soldiers were Americans, black Americans, to be trained for combat within their ranks. The trainees clearly excelled at their tasks."After learning valuable lessons in trench warfare from their French partners, the Soldiers of the 369th finally had their chance to prove their worth as combat troops when they entered the front lines, holding their line against the last German spring offensive near Chateau-Thierry.
“French rifles, helmets, belts and canteens that had no water but, much to the delight of the men, were filled with French wine. After a month or so, we were judged ready to fight … and assigned to the French 4th Army under the command of the famous one-armed French Gen. Gouraud, with whom I became quite friendly, thanks to my fluency in French.” – CPT Fish
the Colored Officers Training Camp (COTC). These men were to lead units in the all-black 92nd, one of two lone divisions reserved for black combatants. Accommodating 1,250 candidates between the ages of twenty-five and forty, the camp was supported by General Leonard Wood (1860-1927) and Secretary of War Newton D. Baker (1871-1937).[13] Of the African American men selected, a great majority came from black colleges and universities, such as Howard University, Hampton Agricultural and Industrial Institute, Lincoln University, Atlanta University, Morehouse College, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute and Morgan College. Under the direction of General Charles Ballou (1862-1928), the COTC candidates were trained to endure the physical and mental rigors of war. Ballou insisted that “strong bodies, keen intelligence, absolute obedience to order, unflagging industry, exemplary conduct, and character of the highest order” were required for success.[14] Yet, even with their college training, commitment to the war effort and the endorsement of officials in Washington, whites resisted the implications of the “so-called Negro” being capable of leadership, courage and bravery under fire.
Former President Theodore Roosevelt called Johnson one of the “five bravest Americans” to serve in World War I.
While standing watch in the Argonne Forest in May 1918, two 369th soldiers, Pvt. Henry Johnson and Pvt. Needham Roberts, were attacked by a 12-man German raiding party. Outnumbered and under fire, the two men fought off the initial attack, but after Roberts was badly wounded. Johnson remained with the injured soldier to keep him from being taken prisoner by the Germans.
MoH in June 2015. ‘The least we can do is to say we know who you are, we know what you did for us, we are forever grateful,’ Obama said
Pvt. Henry Johnson served as a member of Company C, 369th Infantry Regiment, 93rd Division, American Expeditionary Forces, during combat operations against the enemy on the front lines of the Western Front in France.
While on night sentry duty, May 15, 1918, Johnson and a fellow Soldier, Pvt. Needham Roberts, received a surprise attack by a German raiding party consisting of at least 12 soldiers.
While under intense enemy fire and despite receiving significant wounds, Johnson mounted a brave retaliation resulting in several enemy casualties. When his fellow Soldier was badly wounded, Johnson prevented him from being taken prisoner by German forces.
Johnson exposed himself to grave danger by advancing from his position to engage an enemy soldier in hand-to-hand combat. Wielding only a knife and being seriously wounded, Johnson continued fighting, took his Bolo knife and stabbed it through an enemy soldier's head.
Displaying great courage, Johnson held back the enemy force until they retreated. The enemy raid's failure to secure prisoners was due to the bravery and resistance of Johnson and his fellow comrade. The effect of their fierce fighting resulted in the increased vigilance and confidence of the 369th Infantry Regiment.
The "Our Colored Heroes" lithograph, published by E.G. Renesch in 1918, depicts the German raid on then-Pvt. Henry Johnson and Pvt. Needham Roberts during World War I. The lithograph quotes Gen. Pershing, who praises the two African American sentries, who "continued fighting after receiving wounds and despite the use of grenades by a superior force." (Image courtesy of the Tennessee State Library and Archives)
So by the end of the 369th Infantry's campaign in World War 1 they were present in the Champagne – Marne, Meuse – Argonne, Champagne 1918, Alsace 1918 campaigns in which they suffered nearly 1500 casualties. The 369th also fought in distinguished battles such as Belleau Wood and Chateau-Thiery.
American troops arrived in Europe at a crucial moment in the war. Russia had just signed an armistice with Germany in December 1917 freeing Germany to concentrate her troops on the Western Front. If Germany could stage a huge offensive before Americans came to the aid of her war-weary allies, Germany could win the war.
The 369th Infantry helped to repel the German offensive and to launch a counteroffensive. General John J. Pershing assigned the 369th to the 16th Division of the French Army. With the French, the Harlem Hellfighters fought at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood. All told they spent 191 days in combat, longer than any other American unit in the war.
The 369th first saw combat in May 1918 and served in the trenches against German troops until July 3, 1918. After a brief period of relief, the 369th was put back into combat during the Second Battle of the Marne.
While fighting in the trenches, German propaganda pamphlets were dropped on the 369th, asking why black Americans fight for people that discriminate against them, tempting them to join the German war effort.
"My men never retire, they go forward or they die," said Colonel Hayward. Indeed, the 369th was the first Allied unit to reach the Rhine.
1st Lt. George S. Robb would also earn the Medal of Honor for his valor displayed in the fields of France. Despite being severely wounded several time while leading his platoon near Sechault, France, Robb displayed courage and tenacity by remaining with his platoon. When his commanding officer was killed, he assumed command of the entire company and continued to take out machine gun nests and sniping posts, greatly contributing to his battalion completing their objective.During World War I, the unit was credited with campaign participation in Champagne-Marne, Meuse-Argonne, Champagne 1918, Alsace 1918, and Lorraine 1918, earning a regimental French Croix de Guerre with Silver Star and Streamer, and more than 170 individual Croix de Guerre medals.
On September 25, 1918 the French 4th Army went on the offensive in conjunction with the American drive in the Meuse-Argonne. The Harlem Hellfighters turned in a good account of itself in heavy fighting, sustaining severe losses. They captured the important village of Séchault. At one point the 369th advanced faster than French troops on their right and left flanks. There was danger of being cut off. By the time the regiment pulled back for reorganization, it had advanced fourteen kilometers through severe German resistance.
Spending over six months in combat, perhaps the longest of any American unit in the war, the 369th suffered approximately fifteen hundred casualties but received only nine hundred replacements. The poor replacement system coupled with no respite from the line took its toll, leaving the unit exhausted by the armistice in November.
“After a brutal struggle during which heavy casualties were sustained, Sechault was taken and the 369th dug in to consolidate their advance position. The action depicted earned the (French) Croix de Guerre for the entire Regiment, but the Meuse-Argonne claimed nearly one-third of these black fighting men as casualties. This distinguished National Guard Regiment left its proud mark on the AEF as “The Regiment that never lost a man captured, a trench or a foot of ground.”
As for Fish, he recalled, “I rushed back to my company, just in time for the fighting, which raged incessantly for the next 48 hours in a horrifying exchange of machinegun and artillery fire. When it was all over, 30% of my Regiment had suffered casualties. For my part in the battle, I was awarded the Silver Star. The citation read:
“‘… Constantly exposed to enemy machinegun and artillery fire, his undaunted courage and utter disregard for his own safety inspired the men of the regiment, encouraging them to determined attacks upon strong enemy forces. Under heavy enemy fire, he assisted in rescuing many wounded men and also directed and assisted in the laborious task of carrying rations over shell-swept areas to the exhausted troops.’”
Melville Miller was 16 when he joined the Harlem Hellfighters, which was first formed as the 15th New York National Guard regiment. Decades after World War I, he could still recall marching through formerly German-occupied territory.
"That day, the sun was shining, and we were marching. And the band was playing," Miller told an interviewer for the 1977 documentary Men of Bronze. "Everybody's head [was] high, and we were all proud to be Americans, proud to be black, and proud to be in the 15th New York Infantry."
The praise he had received only served to heighten his sense of grievance for the way he and his buddies had been treated during the war – the way his people had always been and still were being treated. In March, he went to St. Louis as the star attraction of a program celebrating Negro contributions to the war effort. A series of “Colored preachers” began by calling for a new age of “equanimity” between the races -- equanimity as distinguished from equality. Then Johnson stepped up and delivered a “barrage.” War propaganda was a lie. There was no racial comradeship at the front. White troops refused to fight alongside blacks, not only because they were bigots but because they were cowards. “When it came to real fighting the Negroes were sent in,” not just because of their courage or skill, but because white officers wanted them dead: “Send the niggers to the front and there won’t be so many around New York.” The accusation may have been excessive and inaccurate, but the grievance it expressed was well-founded. The war had made Henry Johnson a hero, but it wasn’t his war, and it wasn’t a black man’s war. Look at what white men made out of it, he said, and see what little was conceded to black men: “If I was a white man I would be the next governor of New York.”
The reaction in the hall was fierce. Some of the preachers apologized for Johnson’s “bitter and vindictive” speech. But “More than 5,000 negroes cheered, kissed, and fairly carried ... Sergt. Henry Johnson, negro hero, around the Coliseum.” The black press endorsed Johnson’s speech. The New Orleans Crusader printed a piece on the Hell Fighters titled “Fighting the Savage Hun and Treacherous Cracker ... [The] ‘Hell Fighters’ might as well have been fighting the [American Army] for all the support they received from it.”
Even before the war concluded, thousands joined civil rights organizations to push for racial equality—from 1917 to 1919, the NAACP expanded its ranks sixfold. More militant veterans allied with the League for Democracy, organized by and for black veterans as a means to promote racial equality and democracy. The government took a dim view of the organization, including it in a 1919 report entitled “Negro Subversion.”
In cities like Washington, D.C., Omaha, Nebraska and Chicago, Illinois, riots broke out when African Americans challenged their previous status as holdovers from slavery. Unwilling to back down from threats of violence, African American men who were trained to fight and defend themselves on the battlefield fought back against attempts to return them to their previous condition as defenseless human chattel.
In the end, DuBois captured the attitude of black World War I veterans best in his 1919 poem, “Returning Soldiers”:
We return
We return from fighting
We return fighting
In February of 1919, the Harlem Hellfighters returned to New York for a parade up Fifth Avenue, where thousands lined up to cheer for a regiment that had amassed a record of bravery and achievement. Among the nearly 3,000 troops was a small man leading the procession from the convalescents’ section: Promoted to sergeant, Henry Johnson stood in the lead car, an open-top Cadillac, waving a handful of red lilies as the crowd shouted, “Oh, you Black Death!” along the seven-mile route. The Hellfighters’ arrival in Harlem “threw the population into hysterics,” the New York Times reported.
Henry Johnson. Upon his discharge, the Army used Johnson’s image to recruit new soldiers and to sell Victory War Stamps. (“Henry Johnson licked a dozen Germans. How many stamps have you licked?”)
He made it back home to Albany, New York, and resumed his job as a Red Cap porter at the train station, but he never could overcome his injuries—his left foot had been shattered, and a metal plate held it together. Johnson’s inability to hold down a job led him to the bottle. It didn’t take long for his wife and three children to leave. He died, destitute, in 1929 at age 32. As far as anyone knew, he was buried in a pauper’s field in Albany.
He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, a truth lost to history until his grave was rediscovered in the year 2002.
In 1924, Needham Roberts was captured for wearing his uniform after he had been released from hospital. In 1928, he was arrested for a sex wrongdoing. He crossed paths with the law again in the late 1940s, when he was blamed for molesting an 8-year-old young lady. Roberts and his second wife hanged themselves in the year 1949.