Tomato crops are affected by number of insect pests, but all of them do not cause economic damage. The major insect pests of tomato along with the their biological control is given in this slide.

1. Biological control approaches
in Tomato Pests
Presented by: Salu Maharjan
HRT-12M-2018
2nd semester
Agriculture and Forestry University
Rampur, Chitwan

2. Introduction
• Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) botanically referred to the
family Solanaceae is one of the most important and popular
vegetable crop
• The production and area under tomato cultivation in Nepal are
4,00,674mton and 21,389ha respectively with the productivity
of 18.73mton/ha (MoALD, 2017)
• Tomatoes are attacked by a large number of insect pests from
the time plants first emerge in the seed bed until harvest
• Worldwide, losses due to these pests are estimated to be about
34.4% of attainable tomato yield and without crop protection,
losses would increase to 77.7% (Zalom, 2003)

3. …Continued
• This crop is mainly attacked by Tomato Fruit worm, Potato
Aphid, Stink Bugs and Hadda bettle, Hornworms, leaf miners,
Whitefly, flea beetles, and spider mites etc
• All of them do not cause economic damage
• A few of them (key pest) may cause damage to that extent
where initiation of action becomes essential
• Biological control has been seen to be beneficial to control
insect pests considering that, the pest has developed resistance
to dozens of the pesticides and the negative side effects of
pesticides over-use to the environment and beneficial
arthropods

4. Major pests of tomato and their
biological control

5. Tomato Fruitworm (Helicoverpa
armigera) (Lepidoptera: Noctudiae)
• Feeds on tomato, corn and cotton and is also
called the corn earworm and the cotton
bollworm
• Also attacks soybeans, peppers, tobacco,
beans, okra and eggplant
• Early instar larvae feed on flower, flower bud,
and flower cluster or on the upper surface of
leaf. Larger larvae prefer feeding on immature
fruits and usually do not enter ripe fruit

6. Biological Control
• Trichogramma @20 Tricho cards/ha
equivalent to about 40,000 parasitoids
for 5 consecutive weeks starting at 2
weeks after transplanting
• Bacillus thruingiensis (Bt) and
Nucleopolyhedrosis virus (NPV)
• Generalist predators, including
lacewings (Chrysopa spp. and
Chrysoperla spp.), big-eyed bugs
(Geocoris spp.), damsel bugs (Nabis
spp.) and minute pirate bugs (Orius spp.)
• parasitic wasps observed attacking
larvae include Cotesia spp., Microplitis
croceipes and Hyposoter exiguae
Fig: Trichogramma sp.
wasp parasitizing tomato
fruitworm

7. Tomato hornworm (Manduca
quinquemaculata) Lepidoptera: Sphingidae
• Feeds on plants in the solanaceae
(nightshade) family including tomato,
peppers, eggplant, and potato
• Tomato hornworms can cause complete
defoliation if they are not removed and
have also been known to feed on green,
developing fruit

8. Biological control
• Hornworm eggs are attacked by
Trichogramma parasites and the larvae
by Hyposoter exiguae
• braconid wasp, Cotesia congregatus
• paper wasps, Polistes spp
• General predatory insects such as lady
beetles and green lacewings
• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a naturally-
occurring soil bacterium
Horn worm attacked by
Paperwasps
Braconid wasp
Tacinid fly aiming to attack hornworm

9. Tomato leaf minor (Tuta absoluta,
Meyrick) Lepidotera: Gelechiidae
• native to South America
• reported for the first time from Kavrasthali in
Kathmandu valley of Nepal in 2016 (Bajracharya
et al., 2016)
• If no control measures are taken, it can cause 80–
100% yield loss in tomato crops
• T. absoluta mine the leaves producing large
galleries and burrow into the fruit

10. Biological control
• Predatory bugs such as Macrolophus pygmaeus and Nesidiocoris
tenuis have been identified as the most promising natural enemies of
T. absoluta. Both the predators actively prey on T. absoluta eggs and
all larval stages, although they prefer first instar larvae (Molla et al.,
2009).
• Egg parasitoids Trichogramma acheae has been identified as a
potential biological control agent of the pest and is currently being
released in commercial tomato greenhouses (Retta & Berhe, 2015)
• Bt var. kurstaki, an entomopathogenic bacterium has been used in the
control of tomato plant pests
• In addition, the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema
carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
have proved to be capable of infecting late larval instars of T. absoluta
and hence be used in its control (Gözel & Kasap, 2015)

11. Trichogramma acheae
parasitizing on egg
Nesidiocoris tenuis preying
on egg
Macrolophus pygmaeus

12. Spodoptera litura (F.) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae)
• native to India and South-East Asia
• important polyphagous crop pest
infesting more than 120 host plants
• Freshly-hatched larvae feed gregariously
on leaves, scraping the leaf tissue and
completely stripping the plant
• Older larvae disperse and feed
voraciously on foliage at night

13. Biological Control
• Parasitoid wasps Trichogramma chilonis
• Parasitoids Telenomous, Remus, Nixon,
Glyptapenteles, Cameron and Cotesia
margiventries
• Predators like Chrysoperla spp., have been used
extensively and attempts have been made to
conserve some important predatory like
Harpactor costalis and Andrallus spinidens by
planting trap crops.
• Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV)
•Bacillus thuringenisis S. litura
affected by
Beuveria
bassiana

14. Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
• green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)
• potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae)
• North American origin, highly
polyphagous species with a preference
for Solanaceae
• distort leaves and stems, stunt plants, and
cause necrotic spots on leaves
• also secrete a large amount of honeydew
that promotes development of sooty mold
on foliage and fruit
Green peach aphid
Potato aphid

15. Biological control
• Most of the common lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),
some lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), flower flies
(Diptera: Syrphidae), and the predatory midge Aphidoletes
aphidimyza (Rondani) are reported to prey on potato aphid.
• Among the parasitoids of potato aphid are Aphidius,
Diaeretiella, Ephedrus, and Praon spp. (all Hymenoptera:
Aphidiidae) and Aphelinus and Dahlbominus spp.
(both Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).
• In addition, aphids are also killed by entomopathogenic fungi,
Verticillium lecanii and Beauveria bassiana, particularly
during periods of high humidity and precipitation.

16. Aphids mummified
by parasitic wasps,
Aphelinid wasp
Pirate bug, Orius
tristicolor
Bigeyed bug,
Geocoris sp.
Predaceous syrphid
fly larva preying on
aphids
Larva of a green
lacewing,
Chrysoperla carnea
cecidomyiid fly,
Aphidoletes aphidimyza

17. …Biological control
Larvae (left) and adult (right) of
sevenspotted lady beetle, Coccinella
septempunctata
Nymph (top) and
adult (bottom)
damsel bugs.

18. Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
• western flower thrips (Frankliniella
occidentalis); indigenous to the western
United States, western Canada and
northern Mexico
• onion thrips (Thrips tabaci); origin in
Central Asia
• feeding the contents of plant cells,
reducing photosynthetic capacity, and
indirectly via the transmission of
tospoviruses such as Tomato spotted wilt
virus (TSWV)
Thrips egg-laying scars
on tomato
Western flower thrips

19. Biological Control
• Commercially available thrips predators are Orius insidiosus and O.
laevigatus, the immature and adult bugs of which feed on the foliar
stages (the adult and immature stages) of WFT
• The predatory mites Amblyseius cucumeris and Amblyseius barkeri are
two biocontrol agents widely used for the control of thrips species
• The soil-dwelling predatory mites, Hypoaspis aculeifer and Hypoaspis
miles feed on the pupal stage of WFT in either soil or growing medium
(Cloyd, 2009).
• The entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema feltiae, infects on soil-
dwelling stage (mobile and non-mobile larvae) of F. occidentalis.
• The entomopathogenic fungus Beuveria bassiana is a broad range
pathogen and has the potential to be combined when A. cucumeris
cannot control WFT on its own (Sarmiento, 2014). The adults of WFT
are susceptible to B. bassiana more than larvae (Cloyd, 2009).

20. Thrips infected with
Beauveria bassiana.
Amblyseius cucumeris Orius spp
Hypoaspis miles

21. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)
• Tomato yellow leaf curl virus is one
of the most damaging pathogens of
tomato
• not uncommon for losses of 100%
to be experienced in fields with
heavily infected plants
Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl
Whitefly

22. Biological control
Eretmocerus mundus
ovipositing into whitefly
scale
Mirid bug,
Dicyphus hesperus
prey on whitefly
Chrysoperla feeding
on Bemisia nymphs
Adult minute pirate bug
(Orius sp.) feeding
on Bemisia nymphs
Adult bigeyed bug
(Geocoris sp.) feeding
on Bemisia nymphs
Bemisia nymph infected
by Paecilomyces
fumosoroseus

23. Two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus
urticae• most common in both protected culture
and the open field
• reproduce very rapidly and build
extremely high densities under favorable
conditions
• Feeding injury often gives the top leaf
surfaces a mottled or speckled, dull
appearance
• Large populations produce visible
webbing that can completely cover the
leaves

24. Biological control
predatory mite,
Phytoseiulus persimilis
predatory mite,
Amblyseius fallicis
Larvae of Minute
pirate bug, Orius spp.
Black lady beetle,
Stethorus punctum
Predatory thrips Lacewing larvae
feeding spider mite

25. Green stink bug, Nezara viridula
(Insecta: Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)
• true bugs
• shield-shape, five-segmented antennae,
and their malodorous scent
• highly polyphagous feeder
• bean, pepper, tomato, as well as corn,
eggplant, okra, pea, soybean, squash, plus
most other vegetables and fruits.
• feeding on fruit appears as pinpricks
surrounded by subsurface white, corky
tissue that turns yellow upon ripening
(known as "cloudy spot")

26. Biological control
• Parasitic wasp, Trissolcus basalis
• Tachinid fly, Trichopoda pennipes,
parasitizes adults and nymph
• Generalist predators include fire ants
(Solenopsis invicta), grasshoppers,
lacewings, big-eyed bugs (Geocoris spp.),
damsel bugs (Nabis spp.) and spiders
Trissolcus basalis
Trichopoda pennipesTelenomus podisi

27. Tomato leafminer (Liriomyza
bryoniae)
• polyphagous species attacking, e.g.
tomato, cucumber, lettuce, melon and
other vegetables.
• larvae cause damage by meandering a
track under the surface of the leaf while
feeding on leaf tissue Flea beetle adult
Nature of damage

28. Biological control
• Commonly used parasitoids includes
Chrysocharis oscinidis, Dacnusa sibirica,
Diglyphus begini, D. isaea, Opius
dimidiatus and O pallipes.
• common predators are mirids, including:
Cyrtopeltis modestus, Dicyphus cerastii,
Dicyphus tamaninii and Macrolophus
caliginosus
• entomopathogenic nematodes like
Heterohabditis sp., and Steinernema feltiae
• Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces
fumosoroseus and Metarhizium anisopliae.
Parasitic wasp
Diglyphus isaea
Parasitic wasp
Chrysocharis oscinidis

29. Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa
decemlineata )
• most important insect defoliator
• One beetle consumes approximately
40 cm2 of potato leaves at a larval
stage, and up to additional 9.65
cm2 of foliage per day as an adult
• high fecundity, with one female
laying 300-800 eggs

30. Biological control
• B. bassiana is a pathogenic fungus probably the most widely used
natural enemy of the CPB. Applications of B. bassiana have been
shown to reduce beetle populations by up to 75% (Cantwell et
al.,1986).
• The spotted lady beetle Coleomegilla maculata consumes eggs and
small larvae and predaceous stink bugs Perillus
bioculatus and Podisus maculiventris attack beetle larvae.
• Adult ground beetles Lebia grandis feed on eggs and larvae, while
larvae of the same species parasitize pupae (Weber et al., 2006).
• The parasitic wasp Edovum puttleri was found to parasitize 71-91%
of egg masses on eggplant, killing 67-79% of the eggs per mass
(Lashomb et al., 1987).
• 14 species of carabid beetles, 3 species of Coccinellidae, and a
spider, Xysticus kochi, are known to feed on CPB in the former
Soviet Union (Sorokin, 1976).

31. CPB affected by
Beuveria bassiana
Assassin bug nymph
feeding on CPB larvae
two-spotted stink bug,
Perillus bioculatus
carabid beetle, Lebia
grandis
spotted lady beetle,
Coleomegilla maculata
parasitic wasp
Edovum puttleri

32. Flea beetle
• common pests of seedling tomatoes
• Adult beetles chew small holes in
leaves, giving them a sievelike
appearance
• On rare occasions, flea beetles may
feed directly on ripe fruit, just below
the calyx

33. Biological control
• Generalist predators such as lacewing
larvae (Chrysoperla spp.), big eyed
bugs (Geocoris spp.), and damsel
bugs (Nabis spp.) feed on adult stages
of flea beetles.
• Entomopathogenic nematodes in the
families Steinernematidae and
Heterorhabditidae can attack the
larval stage of flea beetles
• Beauvaria bassiana is a fungus
commonly found in many soils, and it
causes a disease known as white
muscadine (Caldwell et al., 2013)
Chrysoperla larvae
Big-eyed bug,Geocoris spp.
Damsel bug, Nabis sps.

34. Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne
incognita)
• worldwide in their distribution, attack a wide variety of crops,
and more than 3000 host species
• small microscopic roundworms that live in the soil and attack
the roots of plants

35. Biological control
• Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria which have been reported
as a bio-control agents to reduce plant parasitic nematodes
(Munif et al., 2000; Vetrivelkalai et al., 2010)
• Trichoderma longibrachiatum, Purpureocillium
lilacinus and Pochonia chlamydosporia are well-recognized
for their parasitic behavior on exposed eggs and females
• Bacillus megaterium is common soil beneficial biofertilizer
and has also been used for controlling root-knot nematodes
(Oliveira et al., 2009)

36. Pests Biological control agents Attacks on
Tomato fruit
worm
(Helicoverpa
armigera)
Predators: lacewings , big-eyed bugs, damsel bugs and
minute pirate bugs
Parasitiods: Trichogramma pretiosum,
Cotesia spp., Microplitis croceipes and Hyposoter
exiguae
Microorganisms: Bacillus thruingiensis (Bt) and
Nucleopolyhedrosis virus (NPV)
Eggs and
young larvae
Egg
Larvae
Larvae
Tomato
hornworm
(Manduca
quinquemaculata
)
Predators: paper wasps, Polistes spp, lady beetles and
green lacewings
Parasitoids: Trichogramma,
Hyposoter exiguae
Braconidwasp, Cotesia congregates
MO: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
Eggs and
caterpillars
Egg
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Tomato leaf
miner (Tuta
absoluta)
Predators: Macrolophus pygmaeus and Nesidiocoris
tenuis
Parasitiods: Trichogramma acheae
MO: Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki
Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana
Entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae,
Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
Eggs and
larvae
Egg
Larvae
Larvae

37. Pests Biological control agents Attacks on
Thrips Predators: Predatory bugs, Orius insidiosus and O. laevigatus
predatory mites Amblyseius cucumeris and Amblyseius barkeri
soil-dwelling predatory mites, Hypoaspis aculeifer and Hypoaspis
miles
MO: entomopathogenic fungus Beuveria bassiana,
entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema feltiae
Young and adult
Pupa
Adult
larvae
Whitefly Predators: O. insidiosus, Dicyphus hesperus, and Macrolophus
caliginosus
Parasitiods: Eretmocerus mundus
MO: Beauveria bassiana and Paecilomyces farinosus
Nymph and
adult
Tobacco
caterpillar
(Spodoptera
litura)
Predators: Chrysoperla spp.
Parasitoids: Trichogramma chilonis,
Cotesia margiventries
MO: Bacillus thuringenisis, Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV)
Larvae
Egg
Larvae
Larvae
Two-spotted
spider mite
Tetranychus
urticae
Predators: predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis and Amblyseius
fallicis
predatory thrips, lacewings, black lady beetle (Stethorus punctum),
Orius spp., and predaceous mites
All stages of
mites

38. Pests Biological control agents Attacks on
Green stink bug,
Nezara viridula
Predators: fire ants (Solenopsis invicta), grasshoppers, big-eyed
bugs (Geocoris spp.), damsel bugs (Nabis spp.) and spiders
Parasitiods: parasitic wasp, Trissolcus basalis,
tachinid fly, Trichopoda pennipes
Egg
Adults and
nymph
Dipterian
leafminer
(Liriomyza
bryoniae)
Predators: mirids, including: Cyrtopeltis modestus, Dicyphus
cerastii, Dicyphus tamaninii and Macrolophus caliginosus. M.
caliginosus
ponerine ant and predatory thrips, Franklinothrips vespiformis
Parasitoids: Chrysocharis oscinidis, Dacnusa sibirica, Diglyphus
begini, D. isaea, Opius dimidiatus and .O pallipes
MO: Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and
Metarhizium anisopliae
entomopathogenic nematodes like Heterohabditis sp., and
Steinernema feltiae
Larvae
Larvae
Colorado potato
beetle
(Leptinotarsa
decemlineata)
Predators: Spotted lady beetle Coleomegilla maculate and
predaceous stink bugs Perillus bioculatus and Podisus
maculiventris
ground beetles Lebia grandis
Parasitoids: parasitic wasp Edovum puttleri
MO: Beauveria bassiana
Egg and
small larvae
Egg and
larvae
Egg
Larvae

39. Pests Biological control agents Attacks on
Flea beetle Predators: lacewing larvae
(Chrysoperla spp.), big eyed
bugs (Geocoris spp.), and
damsel bugs (Nabis spp.)
MO: Beauvaria bassiana
Entonopathogenic nematodes
Steinernema sp. and
Heterohabditis sp.
Adult
Larvae
Larvae
Root knot nematode
(Meloidogyne incognita)
Parasites: Trichoderma
longibrachiatum, Purpureocilli
um lilacinus and Pochonia
chlamydosporia
MO: Bacillus sp.
Eggs and females

40. Conclusion
• Tomato crop is affected by several species of insect pests that
are capable of causing economic damage at one or more stages
of crop growth
• Through biological control, it is possible to manage
populations of these insect pests in a sustainable and
nondisruptive manner

41. Thank you