Just assignment of college

1. Prepared by : Vandan M Patel
Enrollment No:162037101142

2. Introduction Of Biochemistry
• History
• What is biochemistry
• Biochemistry and life
• Biochemical Energy
• Transfer of Information from DNA to Protein

3. History
• Life: 150 years ago
• Biochemistry: 60 years ago

4. What is Bio Chemistry
• Bio= life
• Chemistry = how things interact
• Biochemistry = the branch of science in which
you study the chemical and physical processes
that occur in an organism.

5. Definition
• The science that is concerned with the
structures, interactions, and transformations
of biological molecules
• The chemistry of life

6. Biochemistry can be subdivided three
principal areas
• Structural chemistry
• Metabolism
• The chemistry of processes and substances
that store and transmit biological information
(molecular genetics)

7. Biochemistry and Life
• The cell is the fundamental unit of life
• Prokaryotes and eukaryotes
• Eukaryotic cells
– animal cells
– plant cells (chloroplasts and cell walls)

8. Biochemistry and Life
• Cells are composed of:
– Small molecules
– Macromolecules
– organelles

9. Biochemistry and Life
The Approximate Chemical Composition of Bacterial Cell

10. Biochemistry and Life
• Expect for water, most of the molecules found
in the cell are macromolecules, can be
classified into four different categories:
– Lipids
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids

11. Biochemistry and Life
• Lipids are primarily hydrocarbon structures
• Carbohydrates, like lipids, contain a carbon
backbone, but they also contain many polar
hydroxyl (-OH) groups and therefore very
soluble in water.
• Proteins are the most complex macromolecules
in the cell. They are composed of linear
polymers called polypeptides, which contain
amino acids connected by peptide bonds.

12. Lipid Structure

13. Carbohydrates Structure

14. Biochemistry and Life
• Each amino acid contains a central carbon atom attached
to four substituents
– A carboxyl group
– An amino group
– A hydrogen atom
– An R group
• Nucleic acids are the large macromolecules in the cells.
They are very long linear polymers, called polynucleotides,
composed of nucleotides.

15. Amino Acids Structures

16. Biochemistry and Life
• A nucleotide contains :
– A five-carbon sugar molecules
– One or more phosphate groups
– A nitrogenous base
• DNA: A, T, G, C
• RNA: A, U, G,C

17. DNA Contain Four Bases

18. Covalent Structure of DNA

19. Biochemical Energy
• All cellular functions re quire energy.
• The most-important chemical form of energy in
most cells is ATP, adenosine 5’-triphosphate.
• ATP ADP + Pi
• Most ATP synthesis occurs in chloroplasts and
mitochondria

20. Energy Transfer

21. Transfer of Information from DNA to
Protein

22. PlantCells

23. Overview of Plant Structure
• Plants are Earth’s Primary Producers
– Harvest Energy from sunlight by converting light energy
into chemical energy
• They store this Chemical Energy in bonds formed
when the synthesize Carbohydrates from Carbon
Dioxide and Water.
• Non- motile
– Have evolved to grow towards resources throughout their
life span.

24. Overview of Plant Structure
• The vegetative body
consists of:
• Leaf: Photosynthesis
• Stem: Support
• Roots: anchorage and
absorption of water &
minerals.
• Nodes: leaf attached to
stem.
• Internode: Region of stem
between two nodes

25. The leaf

26. The Stem

27. The Root

28. The Plant Cell

29. The Nucleus
• Contains almost all of the
genetic material
• What it contains is called
the nuclear genome –
this varies greatly
between plant species.
• Surrounded by nuclear
envelope- double
membrane - same as the
plasma membrane.
• The nuclear pores allow
for the passage of
macromolecules and
ribosomal subunits in and
out of the nucleus.

30. The Endoplasmic reticulum
• Connected to the nuclear
envelope
• 3D-network of continuous
tubules that course through the
cytoplasm.
• Rough ER : Synthesize, process,
and sort proteins targeted to
membranes, vacuoles, or the
secretory pathway.
• Smooth ER : Synthesize lipids
and oils.
• Also:
– Acts as an anchor points for actin
filaments
– Controls cytosolic concentrations
of calcium ions

31. The Endoplasmic reticulum
• Proteins are made in the
Rough ER lumen by an
attached ribosome.
• Protein detaches from the
ribosome
• The ER folds in on itself to
form a transport vesicle
• This transport vesicle “buds
off” and moves to the
cytoplasm
• Either:
– Fuses with plasma
membrane
– Fuses with Golgi
Apparatus

32. The Golgi Network
• Proteins or lipids made
in the ER contained in
transport vesicles fuse
with the Golgi.
• The Golgi modifies
proteins and lipids from
the ER, sorts them and
packages them into
transport vesicles.
• This transport vesicle
“buds off” and moves
to the cytoplasm.
• Fuse with plasma
membrane.

33. The Mitochondria
• Contain their own DNA and
protein-synthesizing
machinery
– Ribosomes, transfer RNAs,
nucleotides.
– Thought to have evolved
from endosymbiotic
bacteria.
– Divide by fusion
– The DNA is in the form of
circular chromosomes, like
bacteria
– DNA replication is
independent from DNA
replication in the nucleus

34. The Mitochondria
Site of Cellular Respiration
• This process requires oxygen.
• Composed of three stages:
– Glycolysis--glucose splitting,
occurs in the cell. Glucose is
converted to Pyruvate.
– Krebs cycle--Electrons are
removed--carriers are
charged and CO2 is
produced. This occurs in the
mitochondrion.
– Electron transport--
electrons are transferred to
oxygen. This produces H2O
and ATP. Occurs in the mito.

35. The Chloroplast
• Contain their own DNA and
protein-synthesizing
machinery
– Ribosomes, transfer RNAs,
nucleotides.
– Thought to have evolved
from endosymbiotic
bacteria.
– Divide by fusion
– The DNA is in the form of
circular chromosomes, like
bacteria
– DNA replication is
independent from DNA
replication in the nucleus

36. The Chloroplast
• Membranes contain chlophyll
and it’s associated proteins
– Site of photosynthesis
• Have inner & outer membranes
• 3rd membrane system
– Thylakoids
• Stack of Thylakoids = Granum
• Surrounded by Stroma
– Works like mitochondria
• During photosynthesis, ATP
from stroma provide the energy
for the production of sugar
molecules

37. The Vacuole
• Can be 80 – 90% of the plant cell
• Contained within a vacuolar membrane
(Tonoplast)
• Contains:
– Water, inorganic ions, organic acids, sugars, enzymes,
and secondary metabolites.
• Required for plant cell enlargement
• The turgor pressure generated by vacuoles
provides the structural rigidity needed to keep
herbaceous plants upright.

38. The Plant Cell wall

39. SYNOPSIS
• INTRODUCTION
• PROPERTIES
• CELL WALL LAYERS
• COMPOSITION
• FORMATION
• EUKARYOTIC CELL WALLS
• PROKARYOTIC CELL WALLS
• FUNCTIONS.

40. INTRODUCTION
• A plant cell wall was first observed and named
simply as a “wall” by Robert Hooke in 1665.
• In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link proved
that cells have independent cell walls.
• A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds
some types of cells , situated outside the cell
membrane .
• It can be tough, flexible and rigid which provides
cell with both structural support and protection

41. PROPERTIES
• RIGIDITY:
• tensile strength
• Hydraulic turgor pressure
• Inflation
• PERMEABILITY:
• Primary cell wall- 30 to 60kDa
• CO2 , H2O – apoplastic flow
• pH

42. CELL WALL LAYERS

43. CELL WALL LAYERS
• Cell wall thickness-0.1μm to several μm.
• LAYERS-
1.PRIMARY CELL WALL:
- thin, flexible, extensible
- Contains cellulose, hemicellulose and pectins.
- Permeable
- Size 30 to 60kDa.
2. SECONDARY CELL WALL:
- Thick
- Present inside primary cell wall
- Contains lignin for strength and density of wood
- Cellulose fibers

44. 3. MIDDLE LAMELLA:
- Outermost layer between adjacent plant cells
- Contains pectins
- Gives stability (form plasmodesmata)
- Made up of calcium and magnesium pectates.

45. The Plant Cell wall
• Cell walls are held together
by the middle Lamella.
• Made up of:
• Cellulose
• Xyloglucan
• Pectin
• Proteins
• Ca ions
• Lignin
• other ions
• Water

46. COMPOSITION
• Primary cell wall- cellulose,
hemicellulose(xyloglycan) & pectin
• Plant epidermis- cutin and wax
• Secondary cell wall-
• cellulose: 35-50%
• Xylan: 20-35%
• Lignin : 10-25%

47. FORMATION
• Middle lamella – first formed from cell plate
during cytokinesis.
• Primary cell wall -composed of cellulose fibrils,
produced at plasma membrane by cellulose
synthase complex.
• Microfibrils – held by hydrogen bonds(tensile
strength).
• Secondary cell wall – constructed between
plasma membrane and primary wall.
• Plasmodesmata – interconnecting channels of
cytoplasm that connect protoplasts.

48. EUKARYOTIC CELL WALLS
• Composed of polysaccharides(chitin) ,
polymer(cellulose).
• Chitin and cellulose joined by ß-1,4 linkage
• EXAMPLES: Fungal cell walls, algae, water
molds,slime molds etc.
• FUNGAL CELL WALL- consist of chitin and
polysaccharides.
• Matrix of 3 components- chitin, glucans and
proteins.

49. • ALGAL CELL WALL-consist of cellulose
or glycoproteins.
• Components – mannans , xylans , alginic acid,
sulphonated polysaccharides.
• WATER MOLDS – consists of
cellulose(4-20%) and glucans.
• SLIME MOLDS – composed of
cellulose.

50. PROKARYOTIC CELL WALL

51. PROKARYOTIC CELL WALLS
• BACTERIAL CELL WALL- major component is
peptidoglycan(strong shell).
• Gram negative bacteria- thin cell wall.
• Gram positive bacteria- thick cell wall.
• ARCHAEAL CELL WALLS- lack peptidoglycan.
• Composed of pseudopeptidoglycan, sulfated
polysaccharides , glycoproteins.

52. FUNCTIONS
• To give cell rigidity and strength.
• To act as a physical barrier to the plant.
• To prevent cell swelling and bursting as a
result of osmotic pressure.
• To promote cell to cell signalling through their
cell walls.

53. Role of Biochemistry in Livestock
• In animal husbandry :
• The quality of milk can be checked by biochemical
tests.
• It also helps diagnose any disease condition in
animals and birds.

54. Role of Biochemistry in Livestock
• In fisheries :
• The water quality is regularly monitored by
biochemical tests.
• Any drastic change in water chemistry &
composition of fishery ponds can lead to the vast
death of fishes and prawns.
• Hence the tests are done on a regular basis to see
salt content (calcium content), pH, accumulation
of waste due to not changing water for long, etc.

55. Role of Biochemistry in Livestock
• Adulteration :
• Even the composition of food material
produced, their alteration or adulteration for
example in honey can be found by
biochemical tests.
• Biochemistry tests help prevent
contamination.

56. Role of Biochemistry in Livestock
• Enhance Yield :
• In fisheries, use of substances to promote fish
growth, their reproduction, etc.
• So, biochemistry plays a valuable role
in fishery, poultry, sericulture, beekeeping,
(Livestock), etc.

57. Role of Biochemistry in Food Industry

58. Biochemistry Enzymes used in Food Industry

59. Dairy Industry
• Rennet
• Lactase
• Protease
• Catalase

60. Rennet
• Extracted from the forth stomach of young calves
• Contains enzymes that cause milk to become
cheese
• It separates solid curd and liquid whey
• Different animal rennet are used for different
cheese
• Most common vegetable rennet is “thistle”
Enzymes

61. Lactase
• Present in the brush border of the small intestine
• Artificially extracted from yeast
• Required for the digestion of whole milk
• Used in production of lactose free milk
• Also used in production of ice cream and
sweetened flavoured and condensed milks
Enzymes

62. Catalase
• Produced from bovine livers or microbial sources
• Breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and
molecular oxygen
• Along with glucose oxidase it is used in treating food
wrappers to prevent oxidation
• Also used to remove traces of hydrogen peroxide in
the process of cold sterilization

63. Protease
• Widely distributed in biological world
• Hydrolyses the specific peptide bond to
generate para-k-casein and macro peptides in
production of cheese
• Results in bitter flavour to the cheese and also
in desired texture

64. Baking Industry
• Maltogenic amylase
• Glucose oxidase
• Pentosanase

65. Maltogenic amylase
• Flour supplement
• It has anti staling effect
• It modifies starch while most of the starch
starts to gelatinise
• Resulting starch granules become more
flexible during storage.

66. Glucose Oxidase
• Oxidizes glucose and produce gluconic acid and
hydrogen peroxide
• H2O2 is strong oxidizing agent that strengthens
the disulfide and non-disulfide cross-links in
gluten
• Good working conditions help proper function of
bakery system.

67. Pentosanases
• Exact mechanism is not yet discovered
• Improves dough machinability, yielding a more
flexible, easier-to-handle dough.
• The dough is more stable and gives better oven
spring during baking

68. Meat Industry
Protease
Papain

69. Protease
• Cleaves the bond that hold the amino acids
together.
• As the enzymes break apart proteins, which
disrupts or loosens muscle fibres and
tenderizes it.

70. Papain
• Found in papaya
• 95% of meat tenderizers available in grocery
store are made from papain
• It is extracted from latex in papaya fruits
• These enzymes are purified and sold in powder
or liquid form Enzymes

71. • Conventional way of making paper pulp
• Making pulp using enzymes (Biopulping)
• Pulp bleaching using enzymes (Biobleaching)
• Enzymes used for de-inking
• GM trees with less of lignin
• Paper from bagasse
Role of Biochemistry in Paper Industry

72. Conventional way of making paper pulp
• Bark of wood is removed.
• The logs obtained are cut into smaller pieces
called chips.
• The chips are cooked by heating under pressure
using caustic soda and sulfur.
• By this lignin that binds the cellulose fibers are
removed. This is the chemical pulping process.
• It gives 30% yield lesser than by mechanical
pulping.

73. Conti……..
• In mechanical pulping, debarked logs are
forced through rotating toothed steel discs.
• The discs tear the logs and remove the lignin.
• The lignin degraded gives paper a brownish
tinge which are used for printing newspapers.

74. Making pulp using enzymes
(Biopulping)
• It improves penetration and effectiveness of
chemicals during the “cooking” of wood chips for
separating the cellulose fibers from the lignin.
• Biopulping reduces the demand for energy and
chemicals, improves paper quality, and decreases
the environmental impact of pulp production
(Pullman et al., 1998).
• Biotechnology, silviculture, trees and other
bioresources can be used to enhance the
properties required in cellulose fibers (Buschle-
Diller and Ren).

75. Pulp bleaching using enzymes
(Biobleaching)
• Chlorine is used for bleaching process which has a
huge polluting potential. Pulp is usually tinged with
brown color due to lignin content.
• Enzyme enhances this bleaching process by two
ways.
• Xylase breaks down the carbohydrate xylan (this
entraps pulp lignin) to reduce the need for chlorine
in bleaching but gives numbers of byproducts dioxins
and PCBs.
• Lipases are used to control deposits of pitch.

76. •Catalase is used to convert residual hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen.
• Biobleaching of pulp with enzymes advantages:
• reduction of chlorine consumption;
• pulp dewatering;
• deinking;
• removal of pitch;
• degradation of dissolved and suspended organics in
concentrated effluents of mills.
•It enhances fibrillation to give stronger paper (Eriksson,
1997).
• Biobleaching eliminates few of processing steps, thereby
simplify and reduce the severity of treatment of wastewater.

77. Enzymes used for de-inking
• Cellulase enzymes are used for this deinking
process.
• This makes the use of recycled paper as a viable
option to reduce the number of trees needed to
be cut to make paper.
• A deinking process involving sodium hydroxide,
flocculants, dispersants and surfactants is used
widely currently.
• The alkali can make the treated pulp yellow and,
consequently, hydrogen peroxide is used
subsequently to bleach the alkali deinked pulp.

78. GM trees with less of lignin
• Lignin (chain of galacturonic acid) that binds
the cellulosic fibers can be reduced by making
GM trees with less of lignin but wood with less
of lignin degrades quickly to release more
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

79. Paper from bagasse
• Deforestation is a matter of concern for both
the environmentalists and the paper industry
this has forced.