program related to combating fires in larger buildings

1. BIG FIRE = BIG WATER
A DISCUSSION OF LARGE FIRE STRATEGY AND
TACTICS

2. INTRODUCTION
Large fires present a unique set of challenges for fire departments. They differ from
the bread and butter house fires that are often routine. This presentation will
address some of these challenges and better prepare firefighters , engineers, and
officers for the “Big One”

3. OBJECTIVES
• Participants will demonstrate a knowledge of proper size-up of large fires
• Participants will recognize the unique hazards present with fires in large buildings
• Participants will become familiar with industry accepted methods of calculating
required flow
• Participants will demonstrate proper techniques for long hose stretches
• Participants will demonstrate proper techniques for supporting elevated streams
• Participants will demonstrate proper techniques for utilizing master stream devices

4. SIZE-UP
The initial size-up of a large fire is a critical step in
developing an incident action plan.
An acronym that can be used to assure the proper
information is gathered is:
COAL WAS WEALTH
C – Construction
O – Occupancy
A – Apparatus
L – Life Hazard
W – Water Supply
A – Auxiliary Appliances and Aides
S- Street Conditions
W – Weather
E – Exposures
A – Area
L – Location and extent of the
fire
T – Time
H – Height

5. CONSTRUCTION
Construction type has a significant effect
on fire tactics.
• Fire Spread
• Time to collapse
• Access
• Concealed Spaces and voids

6. CONSTRUCTION(continued)
Construction Classifications
• Type I – Fire Resistive
• Structural elements are
constructed of non-combustible
material. (concrete encased steel
• Typically large multi-story building
• Type II – Non-combustible
• Structural elements have limited
combustibility (usually masonry
walls with structural steel and
decked roof system)
• While structure itself may not
burn, rapid collapse is a possibility
due to exposed steel components
• Most modern commercial
buildings are Type II

7. CONSTRUCTION (continued)
• Type III – Ordinary
• Load bearing walls are
noncombustible, and the roof
assemblies are constructed of
wood
• This type of construction is
prevalent in most “downtown”
or “main street “ areas
• Type IV – Heavy Timber
• Exterior is usually masonry with
the floor and roof systems
constructed of large solid or
laminated wood beams.
• Usually warehouses and
manufacturing buildings and
some older churches

8. CONSTRUCTION (continued)
Type V – Wood Frame
• Most common type of construction.
• Structural components are primarily
made of wood.
• Homes, newer small businesses, and
some motels

9. OCCUPANCY
The occupancy type has a direct affect on
incident priorities. Additionally, the
configuration and contents are dependent
on type of occupancy.

10. OCCUPANCY(continued)
Occupancy groups:
• Group A -Assembly
• Group B -Business
• Group E -Educational
• Group F -Factory Industrial
• Group H -Hazardous
• Group I -Institutional
• Group M -Mercantile
• Group R -Residential
• Group S –Storage
Identify the type of occupancy and determined
the types of hazards associated with it.
• Consider the materials present and how
they affect fire load.
Try to determine if the building has been
renovated to a different type of occupancy than
originally intended.
• Renovations can create voids and
confusing floor plans

11. APPARATUS & STAFFING
Determine if enough resources are available to mitigate the incident.
• Large fires are manpower intensive.
• Larger hand lines must be used.
• Longer stretches will be required.
• Size of the structure can cause the scene to be spread out over long distances.
• Large amounts of water may be required
• Elevated streams may be required

12. LIFE HAZARD
Life hazard concerns are significant in commercial buildings. Statistically, the majority of
multiple firefighter deaths occur in commercial buildings.
• Disorientation
• Large open spaces
• Narrow aisles
• Maze-like configurations
• Highly piled stock

13. Life Hazard Considerations
• Heavy fire loads
• Building size
• Stock amount and configuration
• Overhead hazards
• Rooftop air conditioners
• Roof mounted heavy machinery
• Hoppers
• Water tanks
• Voids and concealed spaces
LIFE HAZARD(Continued)
Two career firefighters killed following a partial
collapse

14. Charleston Sofa Super Store: 9 Firefighters
killed
Worcester Cold Storage Fire: 6
Firefighters killed
Houston Motel Fire: 4
Firefighters Killed
Memphis Family Dollar: 2 firefighters die

15. WATER SUPPLY
It is necessary to understand the amount of water required to extinguish the fire and the
resources available.
• Be familiar with the available water supply in the area
• Pre-planning
• Familiarization of local water system
• Be familiar with the capabilities of responding apparatus
• Place pieces with larger pump capacities at the water source
• Be familiar with methods to calculate the estimated required fire flow

16. WATER SUPPLY (Continued)
Calculating the estimated required fire flow:
• National Fire Academy formula:
Designed to estimated the flow requirements for offensive,
interior operations where a direct attack will be used to extinguish
the fire.
• 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
3
x % of involvement

17. WATER SUPPLY (Continued)
Example: NFA Formula
• If this building is 100’ long by 50’ wide
• We assume 50% involvement
• (100 x 50)/ 3 = 1667
• 1667 x .50 = 833
• Estimated required fire flow would be:
833 gpm
LIMITATIONS:
• Designed f or offensive, interior operations involving direct attack
• Formula becomes inaccurate if the level of involvement is greater than 50% or if the
required flow is greater that 1000gpm
• Formula is based on area and not volume. Ceiling heights greater that 10 feet may
require more flow.
• This method is best used for pre-plan calculations

18. WATER SUPPLY(Continued)
Calculating estimated fire flow
• Iowa State University method:
This method was created in the 1950s and is based on the volume of the structure.
This formula is based on a 30 second application.
Required fire flow =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
100

19. WATER SUPPLY(Continued)
Example: Iowa State University method
Using the same dimensions as the previous
example, plus an estimated height of 20 feet.
• (100 x 50 x 20)/100 = Estimated fire flow
• (100,000)/100 = 1000
Estimated Fire flow Is 1000 gpm

20. WATER SUPPLY (Continued)
Activity:
Utilizing the formulas provided, determine the estimated required fire flow for the
following building.
NFA Formula:
Fire flow =
(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
3
x % involvement
Iowa State University Formula:
Fire flow =
(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
100 Length = 75 feet
Width = 40 feet
Involvement =
30%
Height = 20 feet

21. WATER SUPPLY(Continued)
• NFA formula:
• GPM = {(Length x Width)/3} % of involvement
• = (75 x 40)/3 = 1000
• = 1000 x .30 = 300
• Required flow = 300 GPM
• Iowa State University formula:
• GPM = (length x width x height)/100
• = (75 x 40 x 20)/100 = 600
• Required flow = 600 GPM

22. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES AND AIDS
Fire protection resources on scene are of great value:
• Sprinkler systems
• Sprinkler systems should be supported early in the incident
• Standpipes
• May be utilized to reduce long hose stretches
• Ventilation management equipment.
• May be utilized to control flow paths

23. AUXILIARY APPLIANCES AND AIDES
• Plant managers, Plant engineers, Fire engineers, and
Maintenance supervisors are very good sources of information.
• Familiar with products on the premises
• Familiar with building features that may affect fire behavior or
firefighting operations

24. STREET CONDITONS
Access to larger fire scenes should always be a concern.
• Traffic around the structure
• Access to the building
• Access to water supply
• Apparatus staging
• Power lines and other obstacles to ladder trucks
• Proximity of operational areas to apparatus
• Don’t let your apparatus become an exposure

25. WEATHER
Weather conditions can have a
profound affect on operations at
large fires
• Manpower
• Extreme temperatures can
drastically reduce a firefighter’s
work capacity
• Life safety
• Flooding and severe weather
can cause a heightened risk to
firefighters.
• High winds affect fire behavior

26. EXPOSURES
Exposures become endangered due to heavy
fire conditions, huge amounts of radiant heat,
and proximity to the fire building.
Considerations:
• Life hazard – the most severely threatened
life hazard is the first consideration
• Flame frontage – exposures directly
threatened by the actual fire front
• Exposure distance – the closer the
exposure, the more danger of involvement
• Wind – structures downwind are subject
to higher heat transfer
• Exposure construction and features –
buildings with a combustible finish will
absorb heat quicker than those with non-
combustible exteriors.

27. AREA
Area is a key size-up concern. The bigger the building, the bigger the problem.
• Consider the square footage involved vs. square footage threatened
• Utilize pre-fire plans are good sources of information.
• Compartmentalization
• Construction features that increase danger of collapse
• Exposed structural component
• Trusses span long distances
• Parapet walls
• Mansards and facades
• Contents
• Hazardous materials
• Heavy fire load

28. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF THE
FIRE
Determination of what is actually burning is critical.
• Contents/ Fire load
• Structural components

29. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF THE
FIRE
Determine the possibility of hidden fires and fire extension
• Shafts, ducts, and hoppers
• Suspended ceilings

30. TIME
Time of day can affect incident priorities depending on the type of occupancy.
• Numbers of workers present can be affected by the time of day.
• Access to the structure will be affected by time of day
• Vehicles in lot
• Secured access points
• Stock levels (fire load) can be affected by time of day

31. HEIGHT
Concerns with the height of the building are related to reach and fire spread.
• Will your aerial apparatus have the needed reach.
• Most buildings are within reach of the aerial equipment dependent on access to the
perimeter of the building.
• Be aware of buildings that have parapets and mansards.
• One story may not actually be one story.
Look for indicators of the buildings actual height.

32. HEIGHT(Continued)
The height of the building can directly effect fire spread.
• Consider each floor above the fire as an exposure
• Based on construction features and materials, fire can spread quickly
upward through a building.

33. ADDITIONAL CONCERNS FOR THE
INCIDENT COMMANDER
• Large fires may be hard to size up. Conflicting reports can be common due to large
floor spaces and high ceilings. It is often appropriate to view reports from the roof as
most reliable. Interior crews may have a limited perspective of fire conditions.
• Communicate mode of attack
• All personnel should be informed of the type of operation.
• Accountability must be established early in the incident . Incident Management Tools
should be utilized to ensure all personnel know their responsibility and work area.
• Quickly establish divisions/sectors

34. • Develop an exit strategy.
• Quickly recognize when fire conditions change and warrant an evacuation of fire
department personnel.
• Fires can develop at an alarming speed
• When working above ground level, make sure ground ladders are in place to
provide alternate means of egress
• Do not hesitate to force extra doors to provide access points to the fire.
• Be aware of ventilation flow paths

35. ADDITIONAL CONCERNS FOR
THE INCIDENT COMMANDER
Develop a risk profile for collapse potential
• Construction characteristics
• Wide spans
• Exposed trussed roof systems
• Heavy loads on the roof
• Facades and Mansards
• Establish Collapse Zones
• Recognize potential for collapse early
in the incident and place apparatus in
safe locations.

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