It is a anti- hypertensive drug. It is non-selective beta blocker drug. Hence it is beta blocker drug so it has many side effect.Not only Propranolol but also Timolol,Atenolol are beta blocker drugs.
It is a anti- hypertensive drug. It is non-selective beta blocker drug. Hence it is beta blocker drug so it has many side effect.Not only Propranolol but also Timolol,Atenolol are beta blocker drugs.
This ppt covers the classification of anti psychotics with structures and IUPAC names, MOA, uses, metabolism and side effects. Dopaminergic pathways also given
Recent Structure Activity Relationship Studies of 1,4-Benzodiazepinespeertechzpublication
Structure activity relationship studies of 1,4-benzodiazepines have been discussed especially
with their effects as antianxiety and anticonvulsants. The currently available benzodiazepines are
associated with various side effects. Nowadays the purpose of these studies is to minimize side effects
with these drugs. A very little alteration is possible on the benzene ring while the modification can be
done on the diazepine ring. It can adopt the different conformations and in some cases some aromatic
and heterocyclic rings have been fused with this part in order to see the effect of these conformation
blockers on the pharmacological activity. The structure activity studies are also linked to molecular
modeling studies. This is important in adding some information for the interaction of these drugs with
the receptors and how this interaction can be improved.
Metabolic fate of benzodiazepines and their identificationNehaBadhwar1
Benzodiazepines, sometimes called "benzos", are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. As depressants—drugs which lower brain activity—they are prescribed to treat conditions such as anxiety, insomnia, and seizures.
The most common side effects associated with benzodiazepines are:
sedation,
dizziness,
weakness, and
unsteadiness.
Other side effects include:
transient drowsiness commonly experienced during the first few days of treatment,
a feeling of depression,
loss of orientation,
headache,
sleep disturbance,
confusion,
irritability,
aggression,
excitement, and
memory impairment.
It contains classification, SAR, MOA, metabolism and usd of hypnotics and sedatives. Barbiturates and benzodiazepines were discussed as per PCI syllabus. This helps B.Pharm students to learn with focus
A drug or other substance that affects how the brain works and causes changes in mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, or behavior.
Depending on the substance, psychoactive drugs can cause euphoria, increased energy, sleepiness, hallucinations, and more.
Examples of psychoactive substances include alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, marijuana, and certain pain medicines.
Many illegal drugs, such as heroin, LSD, cocaine, and amphetamines are also psychoactive substances. Also called psychotropic substance.
This PPT on hypnotics and sedatives covers the Introduction, SAR classification and mechanism of action of drugs listed as per PCI syllabus for in medicinal chemistry for B. Pharmacy
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The slide has some brief introduction to nucleotide chemistry, History, General features of nucleotides, Nomenclature, Individual properties of bases, Classification
and Synthetic analogues of biomedical importance.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
2. INTRODUCTION
Benzodiazepines (BZD), sometimes called
"benzos", are a class of psychoactive
drugs whose core chemical structure is the
fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring.
Diazepine is a heterocycle with
two nitrogen atoms, five carbon atom and the
maximum possible number of
cumulative double bonds. The "benzo" prefix
indicates the benzene ring fused onto the
diazepine ring.
Different benzodiazepines have been
developed through chemical substitutions at
two major positions on the benzodiazepine
structure , Therefore, all benzodiazepines are
simply variations on the same core chemical
structure.
4. HISTORY
The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was synthesized
in 1955 by Leo Sternbach.
Following chlordiazepoxide, Diazepam was synthesized in 1959 and
marketed by Hoffmann–La Roche under the brand name Valium in
1963.
The introduction of benzodiazepines led to a decrease in the
prescription of barbiturates, and by the 1970s they had largely replaced
the older drugs for sedative and hypnotic uses.
6. ADVANTAGES OF BDZ
BDZ’s have high therapeutic index. Ingestion of even 20 hypnotic doses does
not usually endanger life.
Hypnotic does not affect respiration or cardiovascular functions. Higher doses
produce mild respiration & hypotension which is problematic only in patients
with respiratory insufficiency & cardiac abnormality.
BZDs have practically no action on other body system
BZDs cause little distortion of sleep pattern
BZDs do not alter disposition of other drug by microsomal enzyme induction.
They have lower abuse liability: tolerance is mild, psychological & physical
dependence & withdrawal syndrome are less marked.
A specific BZDs antagonist flumazenil is available which can be used in case of
poisoning.
7. MECHANISM OF ACTION
Benzodiazepines work by increasing the efficiency of a natural brain
chemical, GABA, to decrease the excitability of neurons. This reduces the
communication between neurons and, therefore, has a calming effect on many
of the functions of the brain.
GABA controls the excitability of neurons by binding to
the GABAa receptor. GABAa receptors contain an ion channel that
conducts chloride ions across neuronal cell membranes. GABAa receptor
complexes also contain a single binding site for benzodiazepines.
Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex promotes binding of
GABA, which in turn increases the conduction of chloride ions across the
neuronal cell membrane. This increased conductance raises the membrane
potential of the neuron, resulting in inhibition of neuronal firing.
9. SAR
DIAZEPINE RING (B):
1. Diazepine ring (B) is essential for
activity.
2. Carbonyl group at P-2 is essential for
activity.
3. Double bond between P-4, P-5 is
essential for optimum activity.
4. Shifting double bond to P-3, P-4
deceases activity.
5. Phenyl group at P-5 increases
activity.
10. SAR
DIAZEPINE RING (B):
6. Substitution at P-3 decreases activity
except hydroxyl group which
increases polarity and metabolism.
7. Addition of electron rich ring at P-
1,2 forms derivatives having
increased affinity e.g Alprazolam,
Midazolam.
11. SAR
BENZENE RING (A):
1. Electronegative substitution (NO2,
X) at P-7 is essential for activity,
Higher electronegativity; increases
activity.
2. For optimum activity P-6, 8, 9 must
remain un-substituted.
12. SAR
PHENYL RING (C):
1. Electropositive substitution at P-2’
or P-6’ or both increases activity.
2. Substitution at P-4’ decreases
activity.
14. DIAZEPAM SYNTHESIS
STEP 2:
Azocoupling of Diazonium salt with Ethyl a-benzylacetoacetic ester in an
alkaline solution gives 4-Chlorophenyl hydrazone of ethyl ester of phenyl
pyruvic acid.
15. DIAZEPAM SYNTHESIS
STEP 3:
4-Chlorophenyl hydrazone of ethyl ester of phenyl pyruvic acid in presence
of Hydrochloric acid undergoes Fischer indole synthesis reaction and form
Ethyl ester of 5-chloro-3-phenylindolyl-2-carboxylic acid
16. DIAZEPAM SYNTHESIS
STEP 4:
5-chloro-3-phenylindolyl-2-carboxylic acid when alkylated with dimethyl
sulfate gives 1-methyl-5-chloro-3-phenyl-indolyl-2-carbocylic acid ethyl
ester.
17. DIAZEPAM SYNTHESIS
STEP 5:
1-methyl-5-chloro-3-phenyl-indolyl-2-carbocylic acid ethyl ester when
reacted with ammonia gives 1-methyl-5-chloro-3-phenyl-indolyl-2-amide.
18. DIAZEPAM SYNTHESIS
STEP 6:
1-methyl-5-chloro-3-phenyl-indolyl-2-amide is reduced by lithium
aluminum hydride gives 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-chloro-2-
aminomethylindole.
19. DIAZEPAM SYNTHESIS
STEP 7:
1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-chloro-2-aminomethylindole is treated with
chromium oxide to open the indole ring to form 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-
chloro-2-aminobenzophenone.
20. DIAZEPAM SYNTHESIS
STEP 8:
1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-chloro-2-aminobenzophenone under the reaction
conditions cyclizes into Diazepam.