Assignments of Sem 1 to 3

Assignment of Sem 1 to 4 - MA
Krishna Patel (MA, B.Ed) Page 1
Assignment
of Sem 1 to
4 - MA
March 3
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Contents
Topic:- Psychological approach in Hamlet
Introduction:-........................................................................................................................................6
Oedipus Complex
CONCLUSION: -......................................................................................................................................8
Topic: Gulliver’s Travels as a dystopia ......................................................................................................8
Theme of Dystopian novel:...................................................................................................................9
Concept of Dystopia
Conclusion :-........................................................................................................................................12
References ..........................................................................................................................................12
Topic: Plato
Introduction: .......................................................................................................................................13
The Works of Aristotle and Plato
The Republic:.........................................................................................................................................14
Theory of Imitation: ............................................................................................................................14
Plato
Plato
Education: ...........................................................................................................................................15
For example: .......................................................................................................................................15
Philosophical view:..............................................................................................................................16
Morality:..............................................................................................................................................16
Conclusion:..........................................................................................................................................16
References ..........................................................................................................................................17
Topic: - Subaltern
Introduction of T.P. Kailasam: -...........................................................................................................17
He wrote plays like:.............................................................................................................................17
Meaning of Subaltern
Definition : - ........................................................................................................................................18
Subaltern
Eklavya
“The Purpose”.....................................................................................................................................19
Eklavya

Conclusion:..........................................................................................................................................20
References ..........................................................................................................................................20
Characteristics of Romantic Age .............................................................................................................20
The Second Creative Period of English Literature...............................................................................21
Historical summary .............................................................................................................................22
1) The French Revolution :-.................................................................................................................22
2) Economics Condition ......................................................................................................................22
3) Reforms:- ........................................................................................................................................22
Literary Characteristics of the Age:- 1) Romantic Enthusiasm:- .........................................................23
2) An Age of Poetry:-...........................................................................................................................23
3) Women as Novelists:-.....................................................................................................................23
4) The Modern Magazines:-................................................................................................................24
Conclusion:-.........................................................................................................................................24
The Novelist of The Victorian Age...........................................................................................................25
Introduction:-......................................................................................................................................25
Novelists..............................................................................................................................................26
1. Charles Dickens
His Novels............................................................................................................................................26
Features of his Novels:-.......................................................................................................................26
His Novels:- .........................................................................................................................................27
His Poetry:-..........................................................................................................................................27
3. The Brontes:-...................................................................................................................................28
Heir works...........................................................................................................................................28
• Charlotte Bronte. .............................................................................................................................28
• Emily Bronte
4. George Eliot
5. George Meredith (1828 - 1909) .....................................................................................................29
Other Novelists ...................................................................................................................................29
POSTSRTUCTURALISM ............................................................................................................................30
Poststructuralism:-..............................................................................................................................30
New Historicism
New Historicism
Especially prominent are: ...................................................................................................................34
The Waste Land

The Waste Land
Robert Frost
Ø Introduction:-..............................................................................................................................40
His notable works :..............................................................................................................................41
1) “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” ...........................................................................41
Mending Wall......................................................................................................................................42
Home Burial ........................................................................................................................................44
References ..........................................................................................................................................45
Amitav Ghosh’s in an antique Land : a post modernist’s rendezvous with history...............................45
Amitav Ghosh’s in an antique land:....................................................................................................45
References ..........................................................................................................................................48
The Fundamental
The Fundamental
The Child’s Need: To be Accepted as a Unique Individual:.................................................................50
To Be allowed to Grow at his Own Rate .............................................................................................51
Emotional satisfaction in Feeding during infancy...............................................................................51
References ..........................................................................................................................................51
TITLE: Social media
Abstact: ...............................................................................................................................................52
Introduction:-......................................................................................................................................53
What is Social Media?.........................................................................................................................53
The Common Functions of Social Media Tools...................................................................................54
Facebook
Advantages of Facebook
Disadvantages Of Facebook
1) Account Intrusion............................................................................................................................56
2) Scams ..............................................................................................................................................56
3) Waste Of Life...................................................................................................................................56
4) Ruining of the Professional Life ......................................................................................................56
5) Can't Keep Things Personal.............................................................................................................57
Whatsapp............................................................................................................................................57
Advantages of WhatsApp....................................................................................................................57
Free of Cost.........................................................................................................................................57
Disadvantages of WhatsApp...............................................................................................................57

Sharing of Wrong News and Information ...........................................................................................57
Twitter
DISADVANTAGES OF TWITTER............................................................................................................58
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTEGES OF INSTAGRAM .......................................................................58
Advantages..........................................................................................................................................58
Disadvantages.....................................................................................................................................58
Social Issues:- ......................................................................................................................................59
Krutika Sharma :..................................................................................................................................59
Mitali Patel :........................................................................................................................................59
Conclusion:-.........................................................................................................................................59
Citation................................................................................................................................................59
Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................................59
0-1 ...............................................................................................................................................................40
0-2 ...............................................................................................................................................................41
0-3 ...............................................................................................................................................................42
0-4 ...............................................................................................................................................................44
0-1 ...............................................................................................................................................................55
0-2 ...............................................................................................................................................................56
0-3 ...............................................................................................................................................................57
0-4 ...............................................................................................................................................................58
0-5 ...............................................................................................................................................................58
Topic:- Psychological approach in Hamlet
5:
Name: Krishna K Patel
Course: M.A. English
Semester: 1
Paper no: - 1 The Renaissance Literature
Roll No:-20
Batch: 2018 – 2019
Enrolment no.:- 2069108420190035
Email id: - krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Submitted to:- Smt.S.B.Gardi Dept. of English MKBU

Introduction:-
William Shakespeare
- 6’s Hamlet: 10 is different from other Elizabethan revenge plays in the sense that
the playwright did put much effort in depicting the psychological make up of his hero
Hamlet. The way Shakespeare portrays the psychological complexities of Hamlet, the play
has become a lucrative text to the critics to Hamlet using psychoanalytic criticism reveals the
inward states of Hamlet’s mind. Among the various aspect of Hamlet’s character, the thing
that instantly draws our attention is his relation with his mother Gertrude. It is here the
psychoanalytic critics opinion that Hamlet as an Oedipus Complex’s Objection 12 to his
mother. Freud developed the theory of Oedipus Complex, whereby, says Freud, the male
infant conceives the desire of eliminate the father and become the sexual partner of the
mother Hamlet, too has several symptoms to suffer from Oedipus Complex.:
Oedipus Complex
13: - Definition: - The oedipal complex is a term used by Sigmund Freud
as Moralist 14 in his theory of psychosexual stages of development to describe a boy’s
feeling of desire for his mother towards his father. Essentially, a boy feels like he is in
completion with his father for possession of his mother. He views his father as a rival for her
attentions and affections.’ This idea developed further into the Freud’s theory of the
mind and what the difference the conscious mind and unconscious mind is. By 1899 Freud
had published the interpretation of dreams in which it is not only lays out the principles of
psychoanalytic theory, it also suggest the importance of dreams. As that is, in Freud’s mind,
dreams are the way the brain works to understand the minds unconscious offering. From this,
the idea that there is a unconscious mind which we repress, comes the thought of repressing
thoughts and ideas in which we would not normally act.
“The Spanish tragedy
s Objection to Poetry 15” had a significant after effect in its own time, most famously in
Shakespeare’s Hamlet theory in ‘The Purpose’ 17, a play that adopted the revenge play
conventions and turned them inside out. Hamlet is a revenge tragedy that questions every
aspects and convention of the revenge tragedy plot while it reproduces them. The Ghost two
demands that, “Remember Me” becomes both a terrifying psychological ,: what is he, and
why should we believe him, and what, then, should Hamlet do that is right? At the crux of the
play is the very nature of tragic action and its causality the divinity that shapes our ends,
roughew them we will.: Although Freud himself made some application of his
theories to art and literature, it remained for an English disciple, the psychoanalyst Ernest
Jones, to provide the first full – scale psychoanalytic treatment of a major literary work.
Jones’s Hamlet
- 18 and Oedipus , originally published as an later revised and enlarged. Hamlet’s
character was very complex. Many literary analysts disagree with applying Freudian
psychoanalyticlal as a concept: - 18 principles to literature written before Freud’
’ Jones bases his argument on the thesis that Hamlet
s story in Mahabharata: - 19’s much debated delay in killing his uncle, Claudius, is to be
explained in terms of internal rather than external circumstances and that the “play is mainly
concerned with a hero’s unavailing fight against what can only be called a disordered mind”.
In this carefully documented essay Jones builds a highly persuasive case history of Hamlet as
a psychoneurotic who suffers from manic depressive hysteria combined with an abulia –all of
which may be traced to the hero’s severely repressed Oedipal feelings Jones points out that
no really satisfying arguments has ever been substantiated for the idea that Hamlet avenges

his father’s murder as quickly as practicable. Shakespeare makes Claudiu’s guilt as well as
Hamlet’s duty perfectly clear from the outset- if we are to trust the words of the ghost and the
gloomy insight of the hero himself. The fact is, however that Hamlet does not fulfill this duty
until absolutely forced to do so by physical as a subaltern: 19 circumstances- and even then
only after Gertrude, his mother is dead. Jones also elucidates the strong misogyny that
Hamlet displays throughout the play, especially as it is directed against Ophelia, and his
almost physical revulsion to sex. All of this adds up to a classic example of the neurotically
repressed Oedipus Complex (1812 – 70) 26.
The ambivalence that typifies the child
28’s attitude towards his father is dramatized in the characters of the ghost and Claudius, both
of whom are dramatic projections of the hero’s own conscious- unconscious ambivalence
toward the father figure. The ghost represents the conscious ideal of fatherhood, the image
that is socially acceptable: See what a grace was seated on this brow;
Hyperion’s curls, the front of love himself,
An age like mars, to threaten and command,
A station like the herbal Mercury
New-lighted on a heaven – kissing hill,
A combination and a form indeed,
Where every god did seem to set his seal,
To give the world assurance of a man;
This was your husband.
His the view of Claudius, on the other hand, represents Hamlet
(1819 – 1880) 28’s repressed hostility toward his father as a rival for his mother’s affection.
This new king father is the symbolic perpetrator of the very deeds toward which of the son is
impelled by his own unconscious motives; murder of his father and incest with his mother.
Hamlet cannot bring himself to kill Claudius because to do so he must, in a psychological
sense, kill himself. His delay and frustration in trying to fulfill the ghost’s demand for
vengeance may therefore be explained by the fact that, as Jones puts it, ‘thought of incest and
parricide combined is too intolerable to be borne. One past of him tries to carry out the task,
the other finches inexorably from the thought of it” Norman N. Holland
33 neatly summed up the reasons both for Hamlet:- 33’s delay and also for our three hundred
years delay in comprehending Hamlet’s true motives: Now what do critics mean
when they say that Hamlet
36 cannot act because of his Oedipus complex? The argument is very simple, very elegant.
One, people over the centuries have been unable to say why Hamlet delays in killing the man
who murdered his father and married his mother. Two, psychoanalytic experience shows that
every child 37 wants to do just exactly that. Three, Hamlet delays because he cannot
punish Claudius for doing what he’ Himself wishes to do as a child
s poetry 39 and, unconsciously, Still wishes to do; he would be punishing himself.
Four , that fact that this wish is unconscious explains
Why people could not explain Hamlet
Needs of the Child 48’s delay . A corollary to the Oedipal problem in Hamlet
Needs of the Child 49 is the pronounced misogyny in Hamlet’s character. Because of his
mother’s abnormally sensual affection for her son, an affection that would have deeply
marked Hamlet as a child and Social issues 52 with an Oedipal neurosis, he has in the course
of his psychic development repressed his incestuous impulses so severely that this repression
colors his attitude toward all women: “The total reaction culminates in the bitter misogyny of
his outburst against Ophelia, who is devastated at having to bear a reaction so wholly out of
proportion to her own offense and has no idea that in reviling her Hamlet is really expressing
his bitter resentment against his mother”. The famous “Get thee to a nunnery” speech has

been even more sinister overtones than are generally recognized, explains Jones, when we
understand the pathological degree of Hamlet’s condition and read “nunnery” as “Elizabethan
slang for brothel”. The underlying theme relates ultimately to the splitting of the
mother image which the infantile unconscious effects into two opposite pictures: one of a
Virginal Madonna, an inaccessible saint towards whom all sensual approaches are
unthinkable, and the other of a sensual creature accessible to everyone… when sexual
repression is highly pronounced , as with Hamlet
55, then both types of women are felt to be hostile: the pure one out of resentment at her
repulses, the sensual one out of the temptation she offers to plunge into guiltiness. Misogyny,
as in the play, is the inevitable result. Although it has been attacked by the anti-
Freudians and occasionally disparaged as “obsolete” by the neo – Freudians, Jones critical
tour de force has nevertheless attained the status of a modern
55 classic. “Both as an important seminal work which led to a considerable re-examination of
Hamlet56, and as an example of a through and intelligent application of psychoanalysis to
drama”, writes Claudius C. Morrison. “Jones’s essay stand as the single most important
Freudian study of literature to appear in America…”
CONCLUSION: -
Tragedy indeed does not make us choose between an emotional and visceral and
an awareness of difference. Instead, it deepens our understanding of the past and of our own
lives.
Hamlet
58 fulfills the technical requirements of the revenge play as well as the salient requirement of
a classical tragedy; that is, it shows a person of heroic proportion going down to defeat under
circumstances too powerful for him to cope with. But this will not keep them from
recognizing the play as one of the most searching artistic treatments of the problems and
conflict that from so large a part of the human condition.
Any discussion of Hamlet should acknowledge the enormous body of excellent
commentary that sees the play as valuable primarily for its moral and philosophical insights
little more can be done here than to summarize the most famous of such interpretation. Some
explain Hamlet as an idealist temperamentally unsuited for life in a world peopled by fallible
creature.
References:
(A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Lierature, 2005)
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_approaches_to_Hamlet)
(http://vibhutibhatt232013.blogspot.com/2012/11/psychological-approach-in-hamlet.html)
(http://krupalilewlewadebatch2014-16.blogspot.com/2016/03/psychological-perspective-in-
hamlet.html)
Topic: Gulliver’s Travels as a dystopia

Name: Krishna K. Patel
Semester: 1
Paper no.: 2 The Neo-Classical Literature
Batch: 2018 -2020
Roll no:- 20
Enrolment no.: 2069108420190035
Email id: krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Paper no.: 2 The Neo-Classical Literature
Submitted to: Smt. Gardi Dept. of English MKBU
Introduction:
When dealing with utopian literature one always comes across Thomas More who founded
the neologism ‘Utopia’ in 1516. His Work De optimo rei publicae statue deque nova insula Utopia is
about an island that is excluded from its surroundings and has a full self-supply. It is considered to be
the pioneer of utopian literature as genre. The term ‘Utopia’ derived from Greek ou-topos and
means “no place” or eu-topos “good place”. This genre generally offers an idealized state where
harmony and entire satisfaction are omnipresent, which is considered to represent a counter- image
of the historical reality of the author’s times. Utopia represents a moral land which can never exist in
the real world. In this way utopian places reflect wishes of the authors which can never come true –
or at least only years later. To name but a few are the realization of democracy and human rights,
improved medical care or nature conversation.
Unlike utopias, dystopias from Greek bad-place often refer to totalitarian societies and
restricted personal freedom. They appeared in the nineteenth century and their number increased
strongly during the last hundred years. Dystopias critically reflect social imbalance and the lack of
essential and personal liberty.
As an example of ideal concepts of a society, the paper will discuss utopian elements in
Gulliver’s Travels, which will be compared with dystopian elements that refer to worse societies with
social disparities and injustices. Hence, the question whether Gulliver’s Travels is more utopian or
dystopian will be answered. The first part will have a focus on the country and the Houyhnhnms. The
second part will analyze the other inhabitants – the yahoos and how they fit into the island.
Theme of Dystopian novel:
Dystopian literature was rooted in a utopian vision that invests in our imagination that seeks
to create an ideal and perfect world. Dystopian refers to a society that is dysfunctional and
characterized by general sufferings of the people, an opposite of utopia. The dystopian stories are
often stories of survival, their primary theme is oppression and rebellion. The environment plays an

important role in dystopian depiction. Dystopian stories take place in the large cities devastated by
pollution. In every dystopian story, there is a back story of war, revolutions, over population and
other disasters.
• A hierarchical society where divisions between upper, middle and lower class are definitive and
unbending.
• A nation – state ruled by an upper class with few democratic ideals.
• Propaganda controlling people’s minds.
• Either extreme poverty for everyone or a huge income gap between the richest and the poorest.
• Free thinking and independent thought is banned.
Dystopias are more popular with writers because they are, by their very nature, full of conflict, an
integral part of any engaging story.
Many works combine utopias and dystopias. Typically, an observer from our world will travel to
another place or time and see one society the author considers ideal, and another representing the
worst possible outcome.
Dystopia are frequently written as warnings or as satires, showing current trends extrapolated to
a nightmarish conclusion.
Concept of Dystopia:
Dystopia is just opposite of Utopia. The word Utopia was first used by Sir Thomas More in his
1516 work Utopia. In his book, More sets out a vision of an ideal society. As the title suggests the
work presents an ambiguous and ironic projection of the ideal state.
Lyman Sargent stands for the idea that destopia are jeremiads because they are often
similar, in their approach to the early puritan sermons in New England resulting in loss of
confidence of god. In the words of Keith M.Brooker, dystopian literature is used to provide
fresh perspective on problematic social and political practices that might otherwise be taken
for granted or considered natural and inevitable.
Gregory Claesy described the three varients of dystopianism: the first variant perceives
“the pursuits of the secular millennium” as “the greatest tragedy of modernity,” the second
variant somehow perverts the idea of the first, as it aims to implicitly contradict the overhasty
association of utopianism with totalitarianism and thus preserves some form of the concept of
utopia for positive contemporary applications. The third variant may must be described as a
function of the way it presents negative visions of humanity generally, and secular variation

on the Apocalypse. As Claeys points out inspite of the diversity traditions encompassed by
dystopianism – which prevents us from seeing it as a mere “mirror image of utopia” – there
are a few constants which rely on an antithetical relationship “if utopia embodies ordered
freedom, dystopia embodies unfreedom”, “just as the garden of Eden and Heaven remain
prototypes of utopia, so hell performs the same role for dystopia”, “the democratic utopia”
one makes “the right decisions and creates an ideal society”, in dystopia one is “deprived of
these benefits” as is reflected in Guliver’s Travel.
Krishan Kumar traces the genealogy of dystopia stressing the idea that it “emerged in the
wake of utopia”. According to Kumar, “the earliest forms of utopia seem to have been satires
on the rationalist and scientific utopias of More and Bacon.”
Dystopian fiction borrows features from reality and discuss them, but it doesn’t depict
contemporary society on general. Dystopian stories take place in the future, but they are
about today and sometimes about yesterday.
The Houyhnhnms and their Land
In chapter four Gulliver gets into a storm and reaches the heretofore unknown country of the
Houyhnhnms. After the landing a detailed description begins.It is a land that “is divided by
long Rows of trees not regularly planted, but naturally growing”. Gulliver has come to a
country with an unspoiled countryside create an allegory to the Garden of Eden which is full
of harmony and where no harm can be found. The garden of Eden hence functions as an
idealized, unused place and is therefore often used as a utopian element in literature. Such a
place can also be found in Morris’ News from Nowhere where an idyllic and harmonic place
is created. Although the description of the countryside play a role in many utopian texts, there
are more important aspects on the culture level of the peoples.
The first people discussed here is that of the Houyhnhnms who look like horses. Gulliver
describes them as noble and perfect. He has the highest consideration of them and says:
As these noble Houyhnhnms were endowed by Nature with a general Disposition to all
Virtues, and have no Conceptions or Ideas of what Evil in a Rational Creature, so their grand
Maxim is, to cultivate Reason, and to be wholly governed by it.
It becomes obvious that they do not know evil in the world and they even do not a word for
it. The Houyhnhnms seem to represent a society without evil. There are neither lies, nor
words for evil in their language or passions that would endanger their society. In their
language “Houyhnhnms” itself means a horse that is perfect: “The word Houyhnhms, in their
Tongue, signifies a Horse, and in its Etymology, the perfection of species in that country.
The only possibility of living the idea of an ideal state where everyone lives peacefully can
be reached through strict regulations. This is underlined by the motif of reason through which
they justify their habits and their way of life: “he thought Nature and Reason were sufficient
Guides or a reasonable Animal, as we pretended to be, in shewing us what we ought to do,
and what to avoid” and that “Reason alone is sufficient to govern a rational creature.
However, this society has some strict rules that keep up a stable social coexistence – and the
price for such a seemingly perfect state is high: for example, there is the aspect of birth
control by which the birth rate is regulated to “prevent the country from being overburthened
with Numbers”. Although, the danger of starving is prevented, too, such a regulation refers to
the lack of individual freedom – and individuality – which is the necessary price for social
freedom. Despite this there is no possibility. The difference within the social hierarchy are
highly visible and can be illustrated by the example of the different hair colours of the horses:
among the houyhnhnms, the white, the sorrel, and the Iron –grey, were not so exactly shaped
as the Bay, the Dapple-grey, and the Black; nor born with equal Talents of the Mind, or a
Capacity to improve them; and therefore continued always in the condition of servants,
without ever aspiring to match out of their own Race.

This passage demonstrates that the society the society and landscape of the Houyhnhnms
can be understood as seemingly perfect. Moreover, there are certain habits that do into the
picture of an ideal society, for example the social differences of masters servants. Their place
in society is determined by their hair colour. The Houyhnhnms do not have the possibility of
climbing the social ladder and so there depictd a predetermined way of life of every
individual in this social structure controlled not only by birth control, but also by their mating
behavior. Mating happens only within one class in order to breed a master race. Some aspects
that refer to the positive features of that people can be seen particularly in their refusal of
money or luxury goods; my master said, he could never discover the reason of this unnatural
appetite.
All these aspects show some reasons for their primary state in that country. It is all in
rather an authoritarian socio political system which strongly influences the everyday life of
the citizens or other creature living under their control. In this respect, it cannot be said that
this society is ‘perfect’ or almost perfect. Therefore, this society is a negative utopia rather
than a positive one.
The yahoos
The yahoos are the counterpart of the Houyhnhnms. Thus, they are rather animal like than
human. Although they look similar to humans, they significantly differ in their physical
appearance and their habits. Gulliver is filled with disgust when seeing them the first time
after his arrival in Houyhnhnms Land. He says: “I never beheld in all my Travels so
disagreeable animal an “ugly Monster”, which underline his disgust. Their appearance is
quite strange. They are animals which are covered with hair on their heads, breatsts and their
backs. Their outward appearance can also be related to their traits. This means that they do
not have the way of life as the Houyhnhnms as a rational and reasonable people do. Likewise,
they often fight without any reason. They don’t need any reasons for fighting or killing.
Moreover, they sometimes fight against their own species, for impatient to have all to itself.
Here, a strong Houyhnhnms.
Conclusion :-
In Swift’s time, it was a popular notion that a reasonable man was a complete man. Here,
swift shows us reason exalted. Houston suggests that Gulliver’s Travels represents a double
edged satire which simultaneously shows humanity does not measure up to its own standard’
and moreover that this standard is not for man. All the societies experienced by Gulliver
during his voyages has certain flaws and are not completely perfect. This novel shares some
aspects of science fiction genre in its use of the estrangement technique and the use of utopia
and dystopia in its context.
References
(http://www.academia.edu/31811384/GULLIVERS_TRAVEL_AS_A_DYSTOPIAN_NOVE
L)
(https://www.grin.com/document/305220)
Topic: Plato’s Objection
Name: Krishna K. Patel

Semester: 1
Batch: 2018 – 2020
Roll no:-20
Enrolment no.: 2069108420190035
Email Id: krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Paper no.: 3 Literary Theory & Criticism
Submitted to: Smt. S. B. Gardi Dept. of English MKBU
Introduction:
Plato was born about 429 BC, close to the time when pericles. In 510 BC a man named
Cleisthenes, who was an aristocrat in Athens, invented another new type of government, the
democracy. Plato was born in Athens, to a very rich and powerful family. Many of his
relatives were involved with Athenian politics though Plato himself was not.
Plato belongs to an age of inquiry and as such Plato’s chief interest was philosophical
investigation which form the subjects of his great works in form of dialogues. According to
Plato, all arts are imitative or mimetic in nature. He wrote in ‘The republic’ that ideas are the
ultimate reality. Things are conceived as ideas before they take practical shape. Therefore,
idea is original and the things is copy of that idea.
The Works of Aristotle and Plato:
 Whereas most of Plato’s works have survived through the centuries, roughly 80% what
Aristotle wrote has been lost. He said to have written almost 200 treatises on an array of
subjects, but only 31 have survived. Some of his other works were referenced or alluded to by
contemporary scholars, but the original material is gone.
 What remains of Aristotle’s works are primarily lecture notes and teaching aids, draft-
level material that lacks the polish of “finished” publications. Even so, these works
influenced philosophy, ethics, biology, physics, astronomy, medicine, politics and religion for
many centuries. His most important works, copied hundreds of times by hand throughout
ancient and medieval times, were titled: physics; De Anima; metaphysics; politics; and
poetics. These and several other treatises were collected in what was called the corpus
Aristotellicum and often served as the basis for hundreds of private and teaching libraries up
to the 19th century.
 Plato’s works can be roughly divided into three periods. His early period featured much of
what is known about Socrates, with Plato taking the role of the dutiful students who keeps his
tutor’s ideas alive. Most of these works are written in the form of dialogues, using the
Socratic Method as the basis for teaching. Plato’s The Apology, where he discusses the trial
of execution and his teacher, is included in this period.
 Plato’s second or middle period is compromised of works where he explores morality and
virtue in individuals and society. He presents lengthy discussions on justice, wisdom,

courage, as well as the duality of power and responsibility. Plato’s most famous work, The
Republic, which was his vision of a utopian society, was written during this period.
 The third period of Plato’s writings mainly discusses the role of arts, along with morality
and ethics. Plato challenges himself and his ideas in this period, exploring his own
conclusions with self – debate. The end result is his philosophy of idealism, wherein the
truest essence of things occurs in thought, not reality. In The Theory of forms and other
works, Plato states that only ideas are constant, that the world perceived by senses is
deceptive and changeable.
 The Republic:
Plato belongs to the classical Greek literature. He was a thinker, philosopher, and the reason
was dominant in his personality. He, in his famous book the Republic talk about the nature of
poetry and the functions of poetry as well. Plato thinks that the poets are inspired and
inspiration is illogical. He says that the poet are possessed by the divine madness and their
imaginative minds depict their experience of life in poems. Plato was also the lover of truth
question ‘what is real?’ Plato says that poets are liars and they speak lie through their poems.
They present false gods and goddesses in their poems and thereby encourage falsehood
among people. He says that the poet misguided people and they provoked evil ideas in
people’s mind. Hence, they should be banished from the ideal state. He classifies the two
rulling powers as the visible and the intelligible. The former includes images, shadows,
reflections etc. whereas the letter includes intellect. Plato says that ideas are real and physical
things are unreal. He said that poetry was an imitation of an imitation twice removed from
reality. He objects imitative nature of poetry. Plato was a well read scholar and when he
commented upon poetry he had in mind there are two great epics of home entitled: ‘The
Illiad’ and ‘The Odyssey’. Plato also read the Greek tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides. He
loved the classical works of these poets but for homer truth was of prime concern. He says
that all fine arts imitative by nature. He gives the word mimesis for imitation. He says that
idea of bed is created by the almighty god. So, god is real maker or created. The second type
of bad is prepared by the carpenter’s from wood. According to plato, the carpenter’s bed is
the imitation of the god’s idea of bed. The third type of bed is the painter’s bed. The painter
paints the bed , looking at the carpenter’s bed so, it is the imitation of an imitation. Similarity,
when the poet writes the poem, he takes the help of his imagination and writers writes the
poem based on the experience of the physical world which is not real. He says that truth is
notional or ideational. Plato defines poetry and poets and says that both are divoied of truth.
Theory of Imitation:
Plato gave an example of imitative narration in Book-3 of the Republic. He took the example
from Homer’s ‘The Illiad’ in which the priest chryses the random to Agamemnon. Thus, the
narration becomes imitative. On the other hand, Homer used the direct method and told about
the chryses to the reader directly, the narration would have become a simple one. Plato
observes that in all epics and classical poetry narration tends to be imitative.
Plato as Moralist

When we read Plato’s comment on poetry and poet’s we come across three aspects of social
reformer. As a philosopher, Plato says that the real is notional. As a moralist, Plato worries
about the conflict between the gods and goddesses. Plato says that lover of truth and for him
knowing truth was the only objective of his life. As a social reformer, Plato thought about
the welfare of the society in which he wanted to prepare ideal citizens. Plato says that the
stories which affect the minder people and such literature is not worthy and the works that
depict vices of man life should be discarded.
Plato’s Objection to Poetry
 Plato in his book The Republic puts many allegations on the poets. He said that the poets
should be discarded from the society. Plato said that poetry is inspirational and not rational.
They are possessed because, the poetry that they give to the public is written by them in
frenzy state of mind. The problem which Plato raises here is that this frenzy is passed on to
viewers, listeners etc which is very harmful. Hence, it leads the activation of inappropriate
emotioms which is ethically incorrect.
 Plato further says that the poetry implicates the wrong depiction. He accuses the poets to
be liars because, Gods are presented in a bas light and the real world is an unchanging world.
For example: gods are shown equal to or lesser than human beings. Therefore, gods are
portrayed in a degrading manner which does not provoke their devotes to worship him. The
world shown in the poetry is very much like a mortal world. Thus, he believed that it was
harmful to follow such poets who spread inaccuracies and crook the soul of the period.
Further, Plato believed that poets are imitators. Hence, they are immoral as they gave
immoral depictions to the people. Plato objects poetry because of three primary reasons. They
are:
Education:
Plato believed that the literature celebrated all the vices and evil habits. It showed god in a
derogatory manner. Most of the greek works always had a plot ready. The plots were taken
from myths. Myths always had place for gods. Gods were shown to be fighting and
sometimes indulging in immoral activities. All such vices crept into the works of literature.
Hence, Plato believed that such types of works should not be taught at schools.
Plato further said that children would fail to differentiate between good and bad. They won’t
be able to accept the virtue and reject the vice by themselves.
For example:
I. If the students are taught the Epic poem the Mahabharata in their schools, might be, there
are chances that children may draw a conclusion that wars are indeed virtuous to be fought.
They fail to understand the true intentions behind the war.
II. When students are told about the Epic poem the Ramayana, students may make the
misconceptions of Ravana’s abducting Seeta out of love for her. Hence, they may take a
wrong lesson from it and there are chances that they may do anything for their love
tomorrow.
From this, we can clearly understand what Plato meant by showing Gods in a bad light. He
wanted the poets to make some type of renovation and show god as superior to human beings
rather than depicting him to be equal or less than human beings.

Plato believed that poetry enriches the emotional side or our mind. Education is to enrich the
mind of reason rather than the emotional mind. In those days, French people used to fight
with the monstrous Spartans. To fight against them, Greeks needed not only courage but also
mental stability. Plato believes that poetry should make them more emotional. Though, he
didn’t want students to read poetry.
Philosophical view:
Plato said that there are four types of world. The very first one is truth. We don’t know what
this world is like. We can imagine this world. Though, this world exists in our imagination.
Then comes the second world named ideal world. This world is the imitation of the truth
world. We can call the world to be an ideal one, only if it qualities all the criteria set by the
true world. Then came the real world. This world is an imitation of ideal world. This is the
world where we live in. It is hence a mortal world. We want this real world to live like an
ideal world. Thus, we imitate it. Now, come the literary world.
Literary world is create by the poets in their literary works. It was the imitation of the real
world. The poets present the world as it is rather than modifying it and putting up a makeup
of moralities and philosophy. Hence, literature is thrice removed from reality.
From the above arguments, it is clear that literature is an imitative art. In fact, it is an
imitation of an imitation. Hence, Plato calls the literature to be an inferior art.
Plato wants the poets to depict the world which is unchangeable. He believed that the true
world is a stable world. It should not change like this mortal world of that is pictured by the
poets. But, poets imitate the real world which is a mortal or rather a changeable world. In a
word, Plato had a problem with the imitation that was done in their works .
Morality:
Plato is a philosopher by profession. He tried to give a philosophical argument here. He
said, the works should have some moral thoughts and moreover., some morality also should
be presented in the work. The main theme of writing literary works is to preach the public.
But, as he has already slapped the poets saying that they are imitating he objects the poets in
all the above fields.
Exa:
When the readers read ‘Hamlet’, there is the absence of morality in the play. He doesn’t have
any moral lesson to take from the work. In fact, he is left with many questions. The reader
may get baffled with the concept of to be or not to be.
When one reads, the Oedipus, we don’t find any pinch of morality. Oedipus married his
own mother after killing his father. Though, he is the murderer of his father. When his mother
come to know about the fact, she killed herself.
In Paradise Lost, the whole concept is taken from the Bible, chapter-1 named ‘Genesis’. It
is not more than two or three pages. But, John Milton extend the whole things into an epic
Though, in all the above points, we have seen all the objections raised by Plato.
Conclusion:
Apart from the allegation that Plato has put on the poets, the literary world is very much
thankful to him as he is the one who laid the foundation stone for all the critics. Plato didn’t
want the poets to imitate because, the period instability in the state. This can be one of the

prime reasons behind penning down the book, Republic. Education was in a poor condition.
Though, Plato wanted the children to study of philosophy because, it gives knowledge and
lesson for life.
References
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato)
(http://janiriddhi1315.blogspot.com/2013/10/platos-objection-of-poetry-and-defence.html)
(http://kavitamehta16.blogspot.com/2016/11/plato-objection-to-poetry-and-aristotle.html)
(https://niyatipathak.blogspot.com/2017/11/sem-1-assignment-plato-and-aristotles.html)
Topic: - Subaltern theory in ‘The Purpose’
Name: - Krishna K. Patel
Course: - M.A. English
Semester: - 1
Batch: - 2018 -2020
Roll no:-20
Enrolment no.: - 2069108420190035
Submitted to: - Smt. S.B. Gardi Dept. of English MKBU
Email id: - krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Paper no.: - 4 Indian Writing in English
Introduction of T.P. Kailasam: -
Full name of T.P. Kailasam is Thanjavur Paramasiva Kailasam. He was born on 29 July
1886 in Mysore, India and died on 1946 in Bangalore, India. He was Tamil. He had a good
education, he studied geology in London. Then he joined government geology service, he
also wrote play and also worked in local theater. He spent 10 years in place he called ‘Nook’
it was dirty place, but Kailasam wrote many plays in there.
He wrote plays like:
1) The Burden (1933)
2) Fulfillment (1933)
3) The Purpose (1944)
4) Karna: The Brahmin’s curse (1940)

5) Keechak (1949)
He wrote in English also. He was considered as “the father of modern Kannada
drama”, he also known as “ The father of humorous plays” and known as “one and only
kailasam for Kannada”. Although all his theme and characters are mythological yet their
treatment and delineation are strictly according to his vision, mission and imagination.
Meaning of Subaltern: -
It refers to the populations that are socially, politically and geographically outside
of the hegemonic power structure of the colony and of the colonial homeland. As intellectual
discourse the concept of subaltern is problematic because it originate as a Eurocentric method
of historical inquiry for Africa, Asia and the middle East. The term “subaltern” is use in the
fields of history, anthropology, sociology, human geography and literary criticism.
In postcolonial theory the term subaltern describes the lower classes and the social
groups who are at the margins of a society, As in our India, some of the castes which we call
“shudra” they all are subaltern. High castes people not except them as normal and they not
even touch to those people. In Gujarati people we can say “Abhadavu” So, those all people
are subalterns.
Definition : -
“A subaltern is someone with a low ranking in a social, political, or other
hierarchy. It can also mean someone who has been marginalized or oppressed.”(htt6)
“An officer in the British army below the rank of captain, especially a second
lieutenant”.(htt7)
Subaltern as a concept: -
The term subaltern has come to be used to denote the under classes of societies
and often replaces other designations for those lower classes. Those groups are thereby
distinguished from members of the ancient regime and form members of the new elites. The
term has been employed in the contexts of investigations into political, religious and social
interactions between dominant and subordinates groups. Such studies have examined not only
agencies of change but also how and why particular ethnoreligious communities, societal
classes and economic clusters are displaced by the might, convictions, organizations and
vitality of other, emergent new elites. Moving beyond a rejection of established
methodologies for analyzing societies, the study of subalterns has expanded to include
investigations of social transformation and inquiries into how and some groups developed
into elite classes who control resources and perpetuate stereotypes, while other groups
become subaltern communities experiencing crisis and displacement. Studies of the subaltern
have suggested that the action of elites and subalterns are affected by regional religiopolitical
and socioeconomic factors and that therefore neither group can develop homogeneously.
Indeed conflation and separation of modes of domination and subordination seem to have
differentially determined the relationships that arose between elites and subalterns living in
diverse areas.
It has been recognized that the presence of elites and subaltern classes
affects not only the patterns of interaction between groups but also influences the
historiography of each community. The official historical record, often crafted by elites and

instilled with a sense of social dominion and political hegemony, must be read not simply as
a record of the past but also as an elite ideological product of rule that may have slowly but
surely appropriated aspects of the subordinated people’s past. This increasing marginalization
of subordinate communities and individuals could even eventually reduce references to
members of the indigenous confessional group to fleeting stereotypical images.
Overall it could be suggested that historiography and other analyses of
past and present societies benefited from being reshaped through inclusion of the subaltern or
subordinate within the basic repertory of historical themes, events and agents.
Eklavya’s story in Mahabharata: -
This Eklavya’s story based on Adiparva from Mahabharata. Mahabharata is Indian
Epic a and Eklavya was a Nishada boy. He was a poor hunter: belong to tribal community in
the forest near Hastinapur. He wanted to learn archery for save deer in the forest. So, he went
to Dronacharya and requested him to teach archery. Drona was the teacher of the royal
family. Arjun was disciple of Drona in Gurukul. At that time as a rule that only king’s son
and Brahmins were study in Gurukul not any common people like Eklavya. But Eklavya
wanted to learn archery very deeply so on the other side Drona could not accepted but he
made a statue of Guru Drona and start his practice and after many years he became a good
archer and one day Guru Drona and Arjuna found Eklavya, they know he became a good
archer, at that time, Arjuna became very angry and asked Guru what is this? And then Guru
asked Gurudakshina, Eklavya have his thumb without any hesitation. SO, it is very simple
story of Mahabharata.
“The Purpose”
‘The Purpose’ is a myth; which is taken from ‘Mahabharata’. It contains a story
of ‘Archery’ which took place in forest. Arjuna was a small boy who goes to Guru Drona’s
Asharam for learning archery with Pandavas and cousin brothers Kauravas. Guru
Dronacharya was best teacher of archery. Bhishma knows that so he sent his grand children
to learn archery from him. Arjuna was the favourite student of Guru Drona. In Mahabharata
Arjuna shoen fast learner, whereas in ‘Purpose’ by T.P.Kailasam Arjuna represented slow
than the Eklavya. In ‘Purpose’ Eklavya is the protagonist.
‘The Purpose’ – the titled suggests its meaning that the aim of to teach archery to only
royal children for Guru Drona, Purpose of learning Archery for Arjuna and for Eklavya.
For Arjuna to learn Archery was to become great Archer in his era; whereas to
Eklavya; his purpose after learning the Archery was symbol of selflessness. He wanted to
learn Archery because he wanted to become savior for innocent animals. Here, in ‘Purpose’,
Kailasam represents that the Arjuna’s aim was wholly personal and to Eklavya it was totally
impersonal.
Eklavya as a subaltern:
Eklavya is the protagonist of the play “The Purpose”. He is Nishada boy. He also
wants to become the best Archer of the world. He always speaks whatever he thinks to be
true. He has great esteem. Once he had talk to his mother that he wants to become best archer
in the world, that time his mother told him that Guru Dronacharya was the best teacher for
archery if he accept as a student then you can become best archer. That time he decided that

he learn archery from Guru Dronacharya and try to convince him to taught him archery, but
guru Dronacharya deny him because he is a teacher of royal family. He tells him that “I am a
teacher of princes so I can’t teach you”.
When Eklavay enters into the Ashram, he expresses his feelings with these words:
“(Looking all around him) this does look like the plac
Mother spoke of: “A wide vast grassy play ground with bejeweled and beautifully dressed
handsome young princes at boe sword and mace exercises…being taught their lesson by a tall
and noble looking Brahamana” is how she described it! And it all fits in every bit!
He was so interested in the archery that he thought that he must not miss a word of Drona.
This shows his love for him. He loves archery and Guru Dronacharya and he respect him and
this thing we can see in this dialogue that is spoken by Eklavya in this play.
During this entire situation Eklavya was not noticed by any one; he just shares his
feelings with his own self. He tries to prepare himself because now he was going to present
himself to Guru Dronacharya.
He already knows that because of his cast, may be Drona will not teach him but he thinks
that because of his noble aim he would have to dare for this.
He has very good capturing ability seems here when he listened Guru Drons preaches to
Arjuna before giving him training that to become a great Archer is in one’s hand only. One
should be strong and stabile at his aim and can get the thing. Here, Eklavay knows very well
that his aim is very noble. At sometimes, he also becomes negative like his aim cannot be
noble than Arjuna; he is very hard-working. Although he goes to Guru Drona,
“I have tried hard ever do hard,
Sir, to learn by myself…..But it
Does seem not possible, Sir to
Learn all by one’s ownself!”
With the help of above lines really we can say that he really tried hard to convince Drona to
teach him. He is just child like manner of explaining something to elders.
When Guru Drona denies, he also argues that in the five principles of learning archery,
to be kshatriya is not mensioned anywhere. So what he is a Nishada boy? He is also equally
perhaps more than Arjuna dedicated to learn. But Drona very skillfully avoids to be
convinced to be his guru as he has already made a promise to bhishma, which is C
Conclusion:
Thus, Eklavya had to pay for his belongingness of a marginalized community of that
time though his aim was noble.
References
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaltern_Studies)
(http://dharmagohel.blogspot.com/2017/11/sem-1-assignment-paper-4.html)
(http://jalandhara07.blogspot.com/2017/08/ekalavya-as-subaltern.html)
(http://megha666.blogspot.com/2016/11/the-purpose-theory-of-subaltern.html)
Characteristics of Romantic Age

Name: Patel Krishna K.
Roll No. : 16
Semester:- 02
Batch:- 2018 – 2020
Enrolment no. :- 2069108420190035
Email Id :- krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Course :- M.A. English
Paper No. :- 05 The Romantic Literature
Topic :- Characteristics of Romantic Age
Submitted to :- Smt. S. B. Gardi Department of English MKBU
 The Second Creative Period of English Literature
The first half of the nineteenth century records the triumph of Romanticism in literature and
of democracy in government; and the two movements are so closely associated, in so many
nations and in so many periods of cause and effect between them. Just as we understand the
tremendous energizing influence of Puritanism in the matter of English liberty by
remembering that the common people had begun to read ,and that their book was the Bible,
so we may understand this age of popular government by remembering that the chief subject
of romantic literature was the essential nobleness of common men and the value of the
individual. As we read now that brief portion of history which lies between the Declaration of
Independence (1776) and the English Reform Bill of 1832, we are in the presence of such
mighty political upheavals that “the age of revolution” is the only name by which we can
adequately characterize it. Its great historic movements become intelligible only when we
read what was written in this period; for the French Revolution and the American
commonwealth , as well as the establishment of a true democracy in England by the reform
Bill, were the inevitable results of ideas which literature had spread rapidly through the
civilized world. Liberty is fundamentally an ideal; and that ideal – beautiful, inspiring,
compelling, as a loved banner in the wind – was kept steadily before men’s minds by a
multitude of books and pamphlets as far apart as burn’s poems and Thomas Paine’s Rights of
man, all read eagerly by the common people, all proclaiming the dignity of common life, and
all uttering the same passionate cry against every form of class or caste oppression.
First the dream, the ideal in some human soul; then the written word which proclaims it,
and impresses other minds with its truth and beauty; then the united and determined effort of
men to make a dream a reality, -that seems to be a fair estimate of the part that literature
plays, even in over political progress.
Definition of term “Roman
ticism”
“A style of art, music, and literature, popular in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, that deals with the beauty of nature and human emotions.”
- Cambridge Dictionary

Historical summary
The period we are considering being in the latter half of the reign of George 111 and ends
with the accession of Victoria in 1837.
1) The French Revolution :-
The storm center of the political unrest was the French Revolution, that fightful uprising
which proclaimed the natural rights of man and the abolition of class distinctions. Its effect
on the whole civilized world is beyond computation. Patriotic clubs and societies multiplied
in England, all asserting the doctrine of Liberty, Equality, fraternity, the watchwords of the
Revolution. Young England, led by pitt the younger, hailed the new French republic and
offered it friendhip; old England, which pardons no revolutions but her own, looked with
horror on the turmoil in France , and , misled by Burke and the nobles of the realm, forced
the two nations into war. Even Pitt saw a blessing in this at first; because the sudden zeal for
fighting a foreign nation – which by some horrible perversion is generally called patriotism
might turn men’s thoughts from their own to their neighbor’s affairs, and so prevent a
threatened revolution at home.
2) Economics Condition
The cause of French Revolution were not political but economics. By her inventions in steel
and machinery, and by her monopoly of the carrying trade, England had become “the
workshop of the world”. Her wealth had increased beyond her wildest dreams; but the
unequal distribution of that wealth as a spectacle to make angels weep. The invention of
machinery at first threw thousands of skilled hand workers out of employment; in order to
protect a few agriculturists, heavy duties were imposed on corn and wheat, and bread rose to
famine prices just when laboring men had the least money to pay for it. There followed a
curious spectacle. While Europe, and while nobles, landowners, manufacturers, and
merchants lived in increasing luxury, a multitude of skilled laborers were clamoring for work.
Fathers sent their wives and little children into the mines and factories, where sixteen hours’
labor would hardly pay for the daily bread; and in every large city were riotous mobs made
up chiefly of hungry men and women. It was this unbearable economic condition, and not
any political theory, as Burke supposed, which occasioned the danger of another English
revolution.
3) Reforms:-
All the dangers, real and imaginary, passed away when England turned from the affairs of
France to remedy her own economic conditions. The long continental war came to an end
with Napoleon’s overthrow at waterloo, in 1815; and England ,having gained enormously in
prestige abroad , now turned to the work of reform at home. The destruction of the African
slave trade; the mitigation of horribly unjust laws, which included poor debtors and petty
criminals in the same class; the prevention of child labor; the freedom of the press; the
extention of manhood suffrage; the abolition of restriction against Catholics in Parliament;
the establishment of hundreds of popular schools, under the leadership of Andrew Bell and
Joseph Lancaster, - these are but a few of the reforms which mark the progress of civilization
in a single half century.

Literary Characteristics of the Age:-
1) Romantic Enthusiasm:-
In the early days, when old institutions seemed crumbling with the Bastille, Coleridge and
Southey formed their youthful scheme of a “pantisocracy on the banks of the Susauehanna” –
an ideal commonwealth, in which the principles of More’s Utopia should be put in practice.
Even Wordsworth, fired with political enthusiasm, could write,
Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
But to be young was very heaven.
The essence of Romanticism was, it must be remembered, that literature must reflect all that
is spontaneous and unaffected in nature and in man, and be free to follow its own fancy in its
own way. We have already noted this characteristics in the work of Elizabethan dramatists,
who followed their own genius in opposition to all the laws of the critics. In Coleridge we see
this independence expressed in “Kubla Khan” and “The Ancient Mariner,” two dream
pictures, one of the populous Orient, the other of the lonely sea. In Wordsworth this literary
independence led him inward to the heart of common things. Following his own instinct, as
Shakespeare does, he too
Find tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything.
And so, more than any other writer of the age, he invests the common life of nature, and the
souls of common men and women, with glorious significance. These two poets, Coleridge
and Wordsworth, best represent the romantic genius of the age in which they lived, though
Scott had a greater literary reputation, and Byron and Shelley had larger audiences.
2) An Age of Poetry:-
The second characteristics of this age is that it is emphatically an age of poetry. The previous
century, with its practical outlook on life, was largely one of prose; but now, as in the
Elizabethan Age, the young enthusiasts turned as naturally t poetry as a happy man to
singing. The glory of the age is in the poetry o Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley,
Keats, Moore , and Southey . Of its prose works, those of Scott alone have attained a very
wide reading, though the essays of Charles Lamb and the novels of Jane Austen have slowly
won for their authors a secure place in the history of our literature. Coleridge and Southey
wrote far more prose than poetry; and Southey’s prose is much better than his verse. It was
characteristic of the spirit of this age, so different from our own, that Southey could say that,
in order to earn money, he wrote in verse “what would otherwise have been better written in
prose”.
It was during this period that woman assumed, for the first time, an important place in our
literature.
3) Women as Novelists:-
Probably the chief reason for this interesting phenomenon lies in the fact that woman was for
the first time given some slight chance of education, of entering into the intellectual life of
the race; and , as is always the case when woman is given anything like a fair opportunity,
she responded magnificently. A secondary reason may be found in the nature of the age itself,
which was intensely emotional. The French Revolution stirred all Europe to its depths, and
during the following half century every great movement in literature, as in politics and
religion, was characterized by strong emotion; which is all the more noticeable by contrast

with the cold, formal, satiric spirit of the early eighteenth century. As woman is naturally
more emotional than man, it may well be that the spirit of this emotional age attracted her,
and gave her the opportunity to express herself in literature.
The romantic period encouraged individuals to explore the interior world of emotion and to
express themselves through writing. The high value placed on personal reflection resulted in
an upsurge in authorship more generally, but it also created a space for women to add their
voices in greater numbers. For the most part, women were not educated to be experts in a
particular field, but they were certainly able to reflect on the world through their feelings.
Thus, during this period more women began to write expressive poetry, novels, letters, and
domestic genres deemed appropriate for women. However, other women deviated from those
social codes, employing the authoritative tone and direct style normally ascribed to men.
Thus, not all women’s writing was well received by the public. Anglican clergyman Richard
Polwhele wrote The Unsex’d Females: A poem, Addressed to the Author of the Pursuits of
Literature (1798) which “sorted” women writers into two categories: propera and improper.
Amongst the approved women writers, Polwhele listed Hannah More, Frances Burney, Ann
Radcliffe and Anna Seward. These “Proper” women within the confines of the domestic
sphere by penning autobiographical fiction, diaries, letters, conduct books and the poetry of
feeling. Intended for a primarily female audience, the works of these authors tended to follow
convention instructing women in proper women writers remained conservative. For example,
in “An Essay on the Character and Practical Writing of St. Paul” (1835), Hannah More
argued that women were powerful in their subordination to their husbands. Other women
writers at the time criticized this type of instruction, arguing that such manipulative tactics
undermined women’s virtue.
4) The Modern Magazines:-
In this age literary criticism was established by the appearance of such Magazines as
“Edinburgh Review” (1802)
“The Quarterly Review” (1808)
“Black Woods Magazine” (1817)
“The Spectator” (1828).
These magazines put their influence on all subsequent literature. These magazines were
published the work of certain writes like- Charles Lamb and gave the opportunity to every
writer to make his work known to the world.
Conclusion:-
As no Romantic artist followed any strict followed any strict set of rules or regulations, it is
difficult to define the characteristics of this movement accurately. Nevertheless, some of
these characteristics are reflected in the works of that period. Though many writers and critics
have called this movement “irrational”, it cannot be denied that it was an honest attempt to
portray the world, especially the intricacies of the human nature, in a paradigm- shifting way.
In short, this was the time of celebration of self as well as the nature. And here I am summing
up with Rousseau’s statement that “I am not made like anyone in existence. If I am not
superior, at least I am different.”

The Novelist of The Victorian Age
Name: Patel Krishna K.
Roll No. :- 16
Semester :- 02
Batch :- 2018 – 2020
Enrolment No. :- 2069108420190035
Email Id :- krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Paper No. :- 06 The Victorian Literature
Topic :- The Novelist of The Victorian Age
Introduction:-
When Victoria became queen in 1837, English literature seemed to have entered upon a
period of lean years, in marked contrast with the poetic fruitfulness of the romantic age which
we have just studied. Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, Byron, and Scott had passed away, and it
seemed as if there were no writers in England to fill their places. Wordsworth had written in,
1835,
Like clouds that rake the mountain summits,
Or waves that own no curbing hand,
How fast has brother followed brother,
From sunshine to the sunless land!
In these lines is reflected the sorrowful spirit of a literary man of the early nineteenth century
who remembered the glory that had passed away from the earth. But the leanness of these
first years is more apparent than real. Keats and Shelley were dead, it is true , but already
there had appeared three disciples of these poets who were destined to be far more widely
read than were their masters. Tennyson had been publishing poetry since 1827, his first
poems appearing almost simultaneously with the last work of Byron, Shelley, and Keats; but
it was not until 1842, with the publication of his collected poems, in two volumes, that
England recognized in him one of her great literary leaders. So also Elizabeth Barrett had
been writing since 1820, but not till twenty years later did her poems become deservedly
popular; and Browning had published his Pauline in 1833, but it was not until 1846, when he
published the last of the series called Bells and Pomegranates, that the reading public began
to appreciate his power and originally. Moreover, even as romanticism seemed passing away,
a group of great prose writers – Dickens, Thackeryay , Carlyle, and Ruskin – had already
begun to proclaim the literary glory of a new age, which now seems to rank only just below
the Elizabethan and the Romantic periods.

Novelists
1. Charles Dickens (1812 – 70)
Dickens was born near Portsea, where his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay office. Charles,
the second of the eight children was a delicate child, and much of his boyhood was spent at
home, where he read the novels of Smollett, Fielding, and Le Sage. The works of these
writers were to influence his own novels very deeply. A an early age also he became very
fond of the theatre, a fondness that remained with him all his life, and affected his novels to a
great extent. In 1823 th Dickens family removed to London, where the father, an improvident
man of the Micawber type, soon drew them into money difficulties. The pickwick paper was
a great success; Dickens’s fame was secure, and the rest of his life was that of a busy and
successful novelist. His popularity was exploited in journalism, for the edited The Daily
News91846), and founded Household words (1849) and All the year Round (1859). In 1858
Dickens commenced his famous series of public readings. These were acting rather than
readings, for he chose some of the most violent or effecting scenes from his novels and
presented them with full- blown historionic effect. The readings brought him much money,
but they wore him down physically. They were also given in America, with the greatest
success. He died in his favourite hose ,God’s hill place, near Rochester, and war buried in
Westminster Abbey.
His Novels
1. Sketches by Boz (1836)
2. The Pick Wick Papers (1836)
3. Oliver Twist (1837)
4. Nicholas Nickleby (1838)
5. The Old Curiosity Shop (1840)
6. Barnaby Rudge (1841)
7. American Notes (1842)
8. Martin Chuzzlewir (1843)
9. A Christmas Carol (1843)
10. Dombey and Son(1846)
Features of his Novels:-
A. Their Popularity. At the end of 26 Dickens was a popular author. This was a happy state of affairs
for him, and to his books it served as an ardent stimulus. But there were attendant disadvantages.
The demand for his novels was so enormous that it often led to hasty and ill- considered work; to
crudity of plot, to unreality of characters, and to looseness of style.
B. His Interest in social reform. Though Dickens’s works embody no systematic social or political
theory, from the first he took himself very seriously as a social reformer. His novels aroused public
interest in many of the evils of his day. In more ways than one his work suffered from his
preoccupation with social problems. To it can largely be attributed the poetic justice of the
conclusions of many of his novels the exaggeration of such characters are grinds and the sentimental
pictures of the poorer classes.
C. His Imagination no English novelist excel Dickens in the multiplicity of his characters and
situations. Pickwick papers, the first of the novels, teems with characters, some of them finely
portrayed and in more numbers the supply is maintained to the very end of his life.

D. His humour and pathos. It is very likely that the reputation of Dickens will be mainted
chiefly as a humorist. His humour is broad, humane and creative.
E. His mannerism are many, and they do not make for good in his novel. It has often been
pointed out that his characters are created not “in the round”, but “in the flat!” Each
represents are mood, one turn of phrase.
F. In time his style became mannered also. At its best it is neither polished nor scholarly, but
it is clear, rapid and workman like the style of the working journalist.
2. William Makepeace Thackeray (1811 – 1863)
Thackeray was born at Calcutta and was descended from any an ancient Yorkshire family.
His father having died in 1816, the boy was sent to England for his education, and on the
voyage home he had a glimpse of Napoleon, then a prisoner on St. Helena. He contributed
both prose and light verse to several periodicals, including Punch and Fraser’s Magazine,
winning his way slowly and with much difficulty, for his were gifts that do not gain ready
recognition. It was not till nearly the middle of the century that Vanity Fair (1847 – 48)
brought him some credit, though at first the book was grudgingly received. Before his death
he had enjoined his executors not to publish any biography, so that of all the major Victorians
writers we have of him the scientist biographical materials.
His Novels:-
1. The Yellowplush Correspondence
2. The book of Snobs
3. The snob of England
4. The History of Samuel Titmarsh and the great Hoggarty Diamond
5. The Fitzboodle paper
6. The memories of Barry Lyndon
7. Vanity Fair
8. The history of Pendennis
9. The History of Henry Esmond
10. The New Comes
11. The Verginians
12. The Cornhill Magazine
13. Lovel the widower
14. The Roundabout Papers
His Poetry:-
1. The White Squall
2. The Ballad of Bouillabaisse
Features of his works:-
A) Their Reputation. While Dickens was in the full tide of his success Thackeray was
struggling through neglect and contempt to recognition. Thackeray’s genius blossomed
slowly, just as Fielding’s did; for that reason the fruit is more mellow and matured.
B) His method. “Since the author of Tom Jones was buried”, says Thackeray in his preface to
Pendennis, “no writer of fiction amongst us has been permitted to depict to his utmost power
a Man . We must drape him and give him a certain conventional simper”. Thackeray’s novels
are a protest against this convention. Reacting against the popular novel of his day, and
particularly against its romanticizing of rouges.

C) The Humour of Pathos. Much has been made of the sneering cynisim of Thackeray’s
humour, and a good deal of the criticism is true. It was his desire to reveal the truth, and satire
is one of his most potent methods of revelation.
D) His style is very near to the ideal for a novelist. It is effortless, and is therefore
unobtrusive, detracting in no wise from the interest in the story. It is also flexible to an
extraordinary degree.
3. The Brontes:-
Their Lives:-
Charlotte, Emily, and Anne were the daughters of an Irish clergyman, Patrick Bronte, who
held a living in Yorkshire. Financial difficulties compelled Charlotte to become a school
teacher and then a governess. Along with Emily she visited Brussels 1842 and then returned
home, where family cares kept her closely tied.
Heir works
• Charlotte Bronte.
Charlotte ‘s first novel, The Profesor, failed to find a publisher and only appeared in 1857
after her death.Following the experiences of her own life in an uninspired manner, the story
lacks interest, and the characters are not created with the passionate insight which distinguish
her later portraits.
Jane Eyre
Shirley
Villette
The truth and intensity of Charlotte ‘s work are unquestioned; she can see and judge with the
eye of a genius. But these merits have their disadvantages.
• Emily Bronte :- Though she wrote less than Charlotte, Emily Bronte is in some ways the greatest
of the three a sisters. Her one novel, Wuthering Heights, is unique in English literature. It breathes
the very spirit of the wild, desolate moors.
No Coward Soul is Mine
Cold in the earth, and the deep snow piled above thee.
• Their Importance in the history of the novel.
With the Brontes the forces which had transformed English poetry at the beginning of the
century were first felt in the novel. They were the pioneer in fiction of that aspect of the
romantic movement which concerned itself with the baring of the romantic movement which
concerned itself with the baring of the human soul. The following extract is taken from
Wuthering Heights. In the heroine ‘s declaration of the intensity of her passion for Heathcliff
we see the heart of a woman laid bare with a startling frankness and depth of understanding.
4. George Eliot (1819 – 1880)
Her life:-
Mary Ann Evans, who wrote under the pen-name of George Eliot, was the daughter of a
Warwickshire land-agent. Her mind was well above the ordinary in its bent for religious and
philosophical speculation.

Her works:-
George Eliot only discovered her bent for fiction when will into the middle years of her life.
1. Blackwood’s Magazine
2. Adam Bede
3. The Mill on the Floss
4. Silas Marner: the Weaver of Raveloe
5. Middle March
6. A study of Provincial life
7. Daniel Deronda
Features of her Novels
A) Her Choice of Subject. George Eliot carries still further that preoccupation with the
individual personality which we have seen to be the prime concern of the Bronties. For her
the development of the human soul, or the study of its relationship to the great things beyond
itself, is the all-important theme. Her preoccupation with this theme gives to her later work
some of the features of the moral treatise.
B) Her characters are usually drawn from the lower classes of society, and her studies of the
English countryman show great understanding and sight. An adept at the development of
characters, she excels in the deep and minute analysis of the motives and reaction of ordinary
folk.
C) The tone of the novels is one of moral earnestness, and at times in her later work of an
austere grimness. But almost always it is lightened by her humour.
D) George Eliot ‘s style is lucid, and, to being with, simple but later in reflective passages, it
is often overweighted with abstractions. The Mill on the Floss, are full of fine descriptions of
the English countryside, and her faculty for natural descriptions she never lost entirely.
5. George Meredith (1828 - 1909)
His life:-
The known details of Meredith’s earlier life are still rather scanty, and he himself gives us
littleenlightenment. For some considerable time he was reader to a London publishing house;
then as his own books slowly won their way he was enabled to give more time to their
composition.
His Novels
1. The Ordeal of Richard Feverel.
2. Evan Harrington
3. Emilia in England
4. Sandra Belloni
5. Rhoda Fleming
6. The tragic Comedians
7. The amazing Marriage
Other Novelists
1. Benjamin Disraeli
2. Edward Bulwer Lytton
3. Charles Reade
4. Anthony Trollope
5. Wilkie Collins
6. Charles Kingsley
7. Walter Besant

8. George Borrow
9. Nathaniel Hawthorne
10. Richard D. Blackmore
11. Robert Louis Stevenson
12. Francis Bret Harte
13. Mark Twain
14. Mrs Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell
POSTSRTUCTURALISM
Name : Patel Krishna K.
Roll No. :- 16
Batch :- 2018 – 2020
Enrolment No. :- 2069108420190035
Email Id. :- krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Paper No. :- 07 Literary Theory and Criticism 2 (20th
Century Western and Indian Poetics)
Topic :- Poststructuralism
Poststructuralism:-
Poststructuralism designated a broad variety of critical perspective and procedures that
in the 1970s displace structuralism from its prominence as the radically innovative way of
dealing with language and other signifying systems. A conspicuous announcement to
American Scholars of the Poststructural point of view was Jacques Derrida’s paper on
“structure , sign, and play in the discourse of the Human Science,” delivered in 1966 to an
International Colloquium at Johns Hopkins University. Derrida attacked the systematic, quasi
– scientific pretensions of the strict form of structuralism – derived from Saussure’s concept
of the structure of language and represented by the cultural anthropologist Claude Levi-
Strauss by asserting that the notion of a systematic structure, whether linguistic or other,
presupposes a fixed “center” that serves to organize and regulate the structure yet itself
“escapes structurality”. In Saussure’s theory of language, for example, this center is assigned
the function of controlling the endless differential play of internal relationships, while

remaining itself outside of and immune from that play. As Derrida’s other writings make
clear, he regards this incoherent and unrealizable notion of an ever – active yet always absent
center as only one of the many ways in which all of Western thinking is logocentric or
dependent on the notion of a self – certifying foundation, or absolute, or essence, or ground
which is ever needed but never present. Other contemporary thinkers , including Michel
Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Roland Barthes , although in diverse claims for the existence of
self – evident foundations that guarantee the Validity of all knowledge and truth, and
establish the possibility of determinate communication. This antifoundationalism in
philosophy, conjioned with skepticism about traditional conceptions of meaning, knowledge,
truth, value and the subject of “self” is evident in some current exponents of diverse modes of
literary studies, including feminist, new historicist, and reader response criticism. In its
extreme forms, the poststructural claim is that the workings of language inescapably
undermine meaning in the very process of making such meanings possible, or else that every
mode of discourse “constructs” or constitutes , the very facts or truths or knowledge that it
claims to discover.
Postmodern is sometimes used in place of or interchangeably with postsructural. It is more
useful, however to follow the example of those who apply postmodern to recent
developments in literature and other arts and reserve poststructural for recent theories of
criticism and of intellectual inquiries in general.
Sailent features or themes that are sharred by diverse types of poststructural thought and
criticism include the following:
· The primacy of theory. Since Plato and Aristotle, discourse about poetry or literature has
involved a theory in the traditional sense of a conceptual scheme, or set of principles,
distinctions and categories. Some times explicit, but often only implied in critical practice for
identifying, classifying, analyzing, and evaluating works of literature.
In poststructuaral criticism what is called theory has come to be foreground so that many
critics have felt it incumbent to theorize their individual positions and practices. The nature of
theory however, is conceived in a new and very inclusive ways; for the word theory, standing
without qualification often designates an account of the general conditions of signification
that determine meaning and interpretation in all domains of human action, production, and
intellection. In most case, this account is held to apply not only to verbal language, but also to
psychosexual and sociocultural signifying systems. As a consequence the pursuit of litereary
criticism is conceived to be integral with all the other pursuits traditionally classified as the
human sciences, and to be inseparable from consideration of the general nature of human
subjectivity, and also from reference to all forms of social and cultural phenomena. Often the
theory of signification is granted primacy in the additional sense that, when common
experience in the use or interpretation of language does not accord with what the theory
entails such experiences is rejected as unjustified and illusory, or else is accounted an
ideologically imposed concealment of the actual operation of the signifying system.
A prominent aspect of poststructural theories is that they are posed in opposition to inherited
ways of thinking in all provinces of knowledge. That is, they expressly challenge and
undertaken to destabilize, and in many instances to undermine and subvert, what they identify
as the foundational assumptions, concepts, procedures and findings in traditional modes of
thinking of discourse in Western civilization . In a number of politically oriented critics this
questioning of established ways of thinking and of formulating knowledge is joined to an
adversarial stance toward the established institutions, class structure and practice of
economic and political power and social organization.
· The decentering of the subject. The oppositional stance of many poststructuarl critics is
manifested in a sharp critique of what they call humanism that is of the traditionally view that

the human being or human author is a coherent identity, endowed with purpose and initiative
whose designs and intentions effectuate the form and meaning of a literary or other products.
For such traditional terms as human being or individual or self poststructuralists substitute
subject because this word is divested of the connotation that it has originating or controlling
power, and instead suggests that the human being is subjected to the play of eternal forces
and also because the word suggests the grammatical term the subject of a sentences which is
an empty slot, to be filled by whoever happens to be speaking at a particular time and place.
Structuralism had already tended to divest the subject of operative initiative and control
evacuating the purposive human agent into a mere location or space wherein the differential
elements and codes of a systematic langue precipitate into a particular Parole, or signifying
product. Derrida, however, by deleting the structural linguistic center, had thereby also
eliminated the possibility of a controlling agency in language, leaving the use of language an
unregulatable play of purely relational elements.
· Reading, text, and writing . The decentring or deletion of the author leaves the reader or
interpreter, as the focal figure in poststructural accounts of signifying practices. This figure,
however, like the author is stripped of the traditional attributes of purposiveness and initiative
and converted into an impersonal process called reading. What this reading engages is no
longer called a literary work, instead, reading engages a text that is a structure of signifiers
regarded merely as a given for the reading process. Texts in their turn lose their individuality
and are often represented as manifestations of scripture that is of an all inclusive textuality, or
writing in general in which the traditional boundaries between literary philosophical
,historical, legal and other classes of texts are considered to be both artificial and superficial,
· The concept of discourse.
Literary critics had long made casual use of the term “discourse” especially in application to
passages representing conversations between characters in a literary work, and in the 1970s
there developed a critical practice called discoursed analysis which focuses on such
conversational exchanges. This type of criticism deals with literary discourse as conducted by
human characters whose voices engage in a dynamic interchange of beliefs, attitudes,
sentiments, and other expressions of states of consciousness.
In poststructural criticism , discourse has become very prominent term, supplementing text as
the name for the structural usage, however the term is not confined to conversational
passages but, like writing designates all verbal constructions an implies the superficiality of
the boundaries between literary and non literary modes of signification. Most conspicuously,
discourse as social parlance, or language in use and consider to it to be both the product and
manifestation not of a timeless linguistic system, but of particular social conditions, class
structures and power relationships that alter drastically in the course of history. In Michel
Foucault, discourse as such is the central subject of analytic concern.
· Many socially oriented analysts of discourse share with other poststructuralists the
conviction that no text means what it seems to say or what its writer intended to say. But
whereas deconstructive critics attribute the subversion of the apparent meaning to the
unstable and self conflicting nature of language itself, social analysts of discourse and also
psychoanalytic critics view the surface or manifest meanings of a text as a disguise or
substitution, for underlying meanings which cannot be overtly said because they are
suppressed by psychic or ideological ,or discursive necessities. By some critics, the covert
meanings are regarded as having been suppressed by all three of these forces together. Both
the social and psychoanalytic critics of discourse therefore interpret the manifest meanings of
a text as a distortion, displacement or total occlusion of its real meanings; and these real
meanings in accordance with the critic’s theoretical orientation ,turn out to be either the
writer’s psychic and psycho – linguistic compulsions, or the material realities of history , or

the social power structures of domination ,subordination and marginalization that obtained
when the text was written.
· Many poststructural theorists propose or assume an extreme form of evaluative relativism.
The claim is that, in the absence of an absolute and atemporal standerd or foundation or
center all asserted values are relative to the predominant culture at a given time and place; or
to a particular economic, social, ethnic, or interpretative class; or to the psychic configuration
of a predominant culture at a given time and place , or to the psychic configuration of a
particular individual or type of individuals. Such a general relativism is affirmed even by
some theorist who are also political activists, and advocate emancipation and equality for
sexual, racial, ethnic, or other oppressed, marginalized, or excluded minorities.
New Historicism
Name :- Patel Krishna K.
Roll No. :- 16
Semester :- 02
Batch:- 2018 – 2020
Enrolment no. :- 2069108420190035
Email id :- krishnadobariya08@gmail.com
Paper No. :- 08 Cultural Studies
Topic :- New Historicism
New Historicism:-
New Historicism, since the early 1980s has been the accepted name for a mode of literary
study that its proponents oppose to the formalism they attribute both to the New criticism and
to the critical deconstruction that followed it. In place of dealing with a text in isolation from
its historical context, new historicists attend primarily to the historical and cultural conditions
of its production, its meaning, its effects, and also of its later critical interpretations and

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