Aspect Of Social Media Use In The WorkplaceAisha GarrisStr.docx

Aspect Of Social Media Use In The Workplace
Aisha Garris
Strayer University
Professional Communications
May 13, 2018
Introduction
There are various ways in which social media can help
employees in a firm. In most instances they are all geared at
steering the company to greater heights. As much as these
social medias are vital for the company, there is need for the
company to regulate how they are used.
It is true that banning the use of social media at work might be
hard, therefore the company, should make appropriate channels
for use of social media that benefits the firm as well as the
employees. Thus, below are aspects of social media:
Social Media Platforms that can be beneficial at Work
Allows Employees to Take a Mental Break
At work, taking an occasional break shouldn’t be discouraged
rather, and this can be possible through allowing employees to
use their social medias as these simplifies these breaks.
Thus, they can take their breaks without having to go to news
rooms to read the news paper or having to interrupt other
employees so that they can talk together.
Social media can provide the shortest breaks that they need and

when used responsibly, they acquire incites that are beneficial
for their advancement in their areas of specialty.
Enables employees to make and support professional connection
Social media aspects can allow employees to mingle with
employees from a different but within the same area of
specialty. It results to professional relationships strengthened
and hence creation of opportunities that otherwise wouldn’t
have been available.
More and better connections can result to sales leads, business
opportunities, interest in employment and new ideas.
Employees can ask questions and solve a work problem
Social media can be one way that can help employees resolve
work related issues. This can be achieved through posing the
question on social media as this can be a simple and quick way
to have several possible solutions.
At times an outside perspective is vital and social media is the
perfect place to get such, easily, quickly and free of charge.
Strengthen and Builds Personal Relationships with Coworkers
Coworkers can use social media to communicate among
themselves and interact, this will create a better relationship
(Majchrzak et al., 2013). In a firm where the employees are
relating well, there is a tendency of them working better hence
producing excellent results for the company.
Social media is an easy ay to encourage communication among
employees and help in idea sharing and increased engagement
both while at work or not.
Strengthen and Builds Personal Relationships with Coworkers-
Image

Enhance Information delivery and discovery
Social media is a platform where employees can deliver and
deliver job-related information which are intended to boost the
company’s produce.
It is an avenue for workers to acquire news and information that
is relevant to their work specialty and discover new aspects that
are applicable to their job.
It is also a channel in which employees can spread information
about the company and this comes along way in brand
awareness and opening up business opportunities and new
recruiting.
Boosts Employee Recognition and Retention
Through social media, the company can use the platform to
recognize and identify employee accomplishments both
externally and internally (Majchrzak et al., 2013). Through,
social media, the company can identify outstanding performance
of workers, new hires, work anniversaries and etc.
This recognition can pave way for team members to interact
and this helps in the building of a team cohesiveness. Through
social media employees can congratulate one another,
communicate with other colleagues from the company if it has
diversified its location and finally keep up the firm’s current
events.
Boost Organization Productivity
Social media can help employees tap into the new productivity
measures and hence boost the company’s productivity.
Research shows that the use of social media could help steer the
employees productivity from 20-25 percent.
Every business aim is to be more productive, therefore, social

media is the best to implement and most inexpensive method
that can positively impact the company’s productivity.
Conclusion
Social media has spread rapidly and undergone massive
dynamics over the years. Currently, social media at work is
almost inevitable.
Instead of policing your employees on the use of social media,
encourage them to use it productively for the benefit of the
company.
References
Majchrzak, A., Faraj, S., Kane, G. C., & Azad, B. (2013). The
contradictory influence of social media affordances on online
communal knowledge sharing. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 19(1), 38-55.
Preparing Women for Baptist Church
Leadership: Mentoring Impact on Beliefs
and Practices of Female Ministers
DESEREE NEWKIRK
Mariners’ Temple Baptist Church, New York, New York and
Beth Israel Medical Center, New York, New York
BRUCE S. COOPER
Fordham University Graduate School of Education, New York,

New York
Effective leadership is important in all organizations, and the
Baptist church is no exception. Strong spiritual leaders can
make
a difference in the life of the institution and its members.
Today,
a growing number of African American women are answering
the call to the Baptist church ministry; but the preparation,
training,
and mentoring are often insufficient. Ten African American
women were interviewed to learn about their backgrounds, edu-
cation, support, and roles as Baptist ministers in the church to
discover perceptions of themselves as teachers, preachers,
counse-
lors, and leaders in the church and how they were trained and
prepared to assume their leadership roles. Feminist and
‘‘servant
leadership’’ theory provided the underpinning of this study.
Research questions for study were: (1) In what ways did being
men-
tored, or not, affect African American women ministers’
perceptions
of their effectiveness in ministry? (2) What relationship=role, if
any,
do mentors have in preparing these ministers to advance to a
senior
position of leadership within the Baptist Church? Major
findings
were that few ministers were willing to serve as mentors,
although
mentoring is vital for the growth in the position. Instead,
women
ministers were found to be self-motivated and personally
inspired.
Results also included role analysis of women ministers as

teachers,
preachers, counselors, and as mentors themselves. Sadly, the
study
found that in some cases women were not supporting other
women
Address correspondence to Deseree Newkirk, 1305 East 49th
Street, Brooklyn, NY 11234,
USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Journal of Research on Christian Education, 22:323–343, 2013
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC and Andrews
University
ISSN: 1065-6219 print=1934-4945 online
DOI: 10.1080/10656219.2013.845120
323
in the Baptist church. Thus, being a woman in ministry is
extremely
challenging and this process is complicated even more when the
minister is an African American woman.
INTRODUCTION—PRELUDE TO THE PROBLEM
The 21st century will be the century for Black women in
ministry. In
ever-increasing numbers they are announcing their calls to the
gospel
ministry and making haste to establish themselves in viable
ministries
throughout this country. Their presence in all levels of ordained
Christian
service—including preaching and pastoral ministries—promises
to

reshape our understanding of traditional clergy leadership roles,
tilt us
even more toward a neo-Pentecostal fervor in the way we have
church,
and provide us with new and creative ways of addressing
problems
within the community. (LaRue, 2005, p. 1)
As identified in this quote above, Black women are increasingly
answering
the call to ministry. Within the urban context, ministers and
pastors are more
than just spiritual leaders. They are also teachers, preachers,
and counselors.
To serve in a ministerial or pastoral position successfully, one
must have
good role models to be adequately trained and prepared.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In every organization and on every level, effective leaders are
needed.
Although many people possess the innate qualities needed as
leaders, we
should constantly remember that leadership is intentional and
learned. Medi-
cal students, for example, are not allowed to receive their
degrees and
licenses as physicians, without training to become effective
practitioners.
This task is accomplished through mentoring as residents in
hospital settings.
Knowledgeable attorneys mentor law students through their
courtroom
experiences. Churches are organizations that need effective
leaders. Thus,

women to be effective leaders need good, caring mentors.
In recent years, the number of women entering the ministry has
grown, calling for greater attention to preparation, support, and
mentoring,
not only of leader’s spiritual lives but also their jobs and
careers. Today,
however, the ministry remains a male-dominated profession.
Thus, women
who choose to embark in this profession face challenges and
struggles,
which their male counterparts often do not experience.
Unfortunately, in
many areas of the secular world, leaders who are willing to be
mentors
for our future leaders are often rare. Many have reported how
leadership
education is often attained primarily through observation. To
assist the
future leaders of tomorrow, a more strategic approach to
mentoring needs
to be used.
324 D. Newkirk & B. S. Cooper
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Thus, according to Stoddard (2003), the need for mentoring has
never been
greater. Constant changes within our society have spawned a
certain sense of
uncertainty.
And this constant uncertainty creates a yearning to connect with

some-
one who can provide comfort as well as answers. In a chaotic
world—
whether it’s in the workplace, the home, or the community—it
helps to
find a person who has already been at the stage of life where
you are
and has learned through the trails of life, as well as its
triumphs. (p. 22)
As Talley (2008), explains:
Mentoring thus is an essential process in cultivating effective
new leaders,
as it joins scholarship and academic excellence with practice
and leader-
ship skills. An environment that is supportive enhances and
facilitates
conceptual and practical learning. This process cannot be
ignored
because it compels new leaders to ‘‘do their best’’ and work to
their full
potential. (p. 331)
Mentoring makes it possible for leaders to develop a high
quality exchange
of information while promoting partnerships that may not be
possible
without effective mentors. Thus, the purpose of this study is to
understand
how being mentored, or not, affects African American women
ministers’
perceptions of their effectiveness in their ministry.
FOCUS OF THE STUDY

This study examines African American women ministers within
the Baptist
church, exploring how they are prepared to assume their
leadership roles,
and using comparative data on those women who were mentored
with those
who were not. To what extent do women who were mentored
have
increased satisfaction in their ministerial role? This study
provides empirical
evidence depicting how African American Baptist women
ministers who
are mentored and trained are more effective in their leadership
roles. We also
looked at their perceived level of satisfaction in ministry. It is
presumed that
those who perceive themselves to be effective are more likely to
continue in
ministry for a longer period of time than those who are not
mentored.
BAPTIST PASTORS
According to Cohall and Cooper (2010), the role of the Baptist
pastor has
evolved far beyond the traditional view. Baptist pastors do more
than preach
Preparing Women for Baptist Church Leadership 325
and counsel. They are also seen as political strategists, social
activists,
economic advisors, and educators. These roles are not just
expected of male

Baptist pastors. These qualities are also now for women Baptist
pastors. As
Cohall and Cooper explained, ‘‘Formal schooling and practical
preparation
for nontraditional leadership roles of clergy in seminaries have
not kept up
with the changing roles of parish ministers’’ (p. 28). African
American Baptist
women in ministry have to deal not only with more than these
issues, but
also with the struggle of moving out of a tradition of the clergy
being a
male-dominated profession.
Defining Servant Leadership
Northouse (2007) asserts, ‘‘A servant leader focuses on the
needs of followers
and helps them to become more knowledgeable, more free, more
auton-
omous, and more like servants themselves. They enrich others
by their pres-
ence’’ (p. 349). Also Greenleaf (1998) identified 10
characteristics of the
servant leader, which is said to be critical and central to their
development.
A brief definition of these characteristics follows:
. Listening: Leaders have traditionally been valued for their
communication
and decision-making skills. Although these are also important
skills for the
servant-leader, they need to be reinforced by a deep
commitment to listen-
ing intently to others. The servant-leader seeks to identify the
will of a

group and helps clarify that will. (p. 5)
. Empathy: The servant-leader strives to understand and
empathize with
others. People need to be accepted and recognized for their
special and
unique spirits. One assumes the good intentions of co-workers
and does
not reject them as people, even when one is forced to refuse to
accept their
behavior or performance. (p. 5)
. Healing: The healing of relationships is a powerful force for
transformation
and integration. One of the great strengths of servant-leadership
is the
potential for healing one’s self and one’s relationship to others.
(p. 5)
. Awareness: General awareness, and especially self-awareness,
strengthens
the servant-leader. (p. 6)
. Persuasion: Another characteristic of servant-leaders is a
reliance on per-
suasion, rather than on one’s positional authority, in making
decisions
within an organization. The servant-leader seeks to convince
others, rather
than coerce compliance. (p. 6)
. Conceptualization: Servant-leaders seek to nurture their
abilities to ‘‘dream
great dreams.’’ The ability to look at a problem (or an
organization) from a
conceptualizing perspective means that one must think beyond

day-to-day
realities. (p. 6)
. Foresight: Closely related to conceptualization, the ability to
foresee the
likely outcome of a situation is hard to define, but easy to
identify. One
knows it when one sees it. Foresight is a characteristic that
enables the
servant-leader to understand the lessons from the past, the
realities of
the present, and the likely consequence of a decision for the
future. (p. 7)
. Stewardship: Servant-leadership, like stewardship, assumes
first and fore-
most a commitment to serving the needs of others. It also
emphasizes
the use of openness and persuasion, rather than control. (p. 7)
. Commitment to the growth of people: Servant-leaders believe
that people
have an intrinsic value beyond their tangible contributions as
workers.
As such, the servant-leader is deeply committed to the growth
of each
and every individual within his or her institution. The servant-
leader recog-
nizes the tremendous responsibility to do everything within his
or her
power to nurture the personal, professional, and spiritual growth

of
employees. (p. 7)
. Building community: The servant-leader senses that much has
been lost in
recent human history as a result of the shift from local
communities to
large institutions as the primary sharper of human lives. This
awareness
causes the servant-leader to seek to identify some means for
building com-
munity among those who work within a given institution. (p. 8)
Jesus presented us with the greatest example of who a leader
should be. In
Matthew 20:27–28, he said, ‘‘And whoever wants to be first
must be your
slave—28 just as the Son of Man did not come to be served, but
to serve,
and to give his life as a ransom for many’’ (New Believers
Bible, 1996,
pp. 862–863). Leadership encompasses providing service to
others.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study is significant because the numbers of African
American women
ministers are increasing. As a result of the difficulties that
African American
women are facing within certain denominations, however, many
talented
and educated women are moving out of the church environment:
According to the latest figures from The Fact Book on
Theological Edu-

cation 2003–2004, Black men outnumber Black women in
enrollment
in accredited institutions by a mere 350 students (Black men
number
4,186 while Black women number 3,834). Yet doors continue to
be
closed to them. (LaRue, 2005, p. 7)
Black women face struggles that deal with cultural and clerical
issues. Histori-
cally Black women have been at the bottom of the ladder
socioeconomically.
Many Black women are seeking equal leadership positions,
which were tra-
ditionally held by men only. The Episcopalian and Baptist
denominations
have recently ordained women as ministers. Unfortunately,
when a woman
in ministry attempts to attain a pastorate or move up
hierarchically, one is
often stifled by the strained glass ceiling (Lehman, 1985).
BAPTIST VIEWS CONCERNING WOMEN
During early church years leaders ‘‘did not see the necessity of
including
women in ordained ministry, preferring to encourage their
involvement as
informal prayer band leaders, deaconesses, stewardesses, and so
on, who
worked under the authority of men’’ (Pinn & Pinn, 2002, p. 36).

Today,
Baptists in general believe that women as well as men have
been called to
become active participants within ordained ministry life.
Unfortunately, a
‘‘long hesitancy to allow women to speak in church services and
the general
cultural factors pertaining to roles of men and women militated
against their
serving in this capacity’’ (Maring & Hudson, 1991, p. 129).
Also, ‘‘Although
Black male theologians and church leaders have progressive and
often rev-
olutionary ideas regarding the equality of Blacks in American
society, they
do not have similar ideas regarding the equality of women in the
Black
community’’ (Cone, 1984, p. 122).
According to Maring and Hudson (1991), it is essential that one
remember,
Women were leaders in at least some of the New Testament
churches,
and women today experience the call of God to the ordained
ministry
as men do. It is a mistake to allow our prejudices to deny them
access
to the pastoral office. (p. 114)
During the latter portion of the 20th century many ‘‘Baptist
groups were
compelled to revisit the question of ministerial ordination, in
part due to
the growing number of Baptist women seeking pastoral
ministry’’ (Leonard,

2003, p. 416). Leonard also asserts that,
The ordination of women remains a matter of debate among
many
African American Baptists. Yet by the end of the twentieth
century, many
African American women sought ordination in Baptist churches,
often to
great controversy. In a survey conducted in the late 1900s,
Lincoln and
Mamiya found only limited enthusiasm among Black Baptist
clergy for
the ordination of women. In a study of Progressive National
Baptists,
42.7 percent approved of women’s ordination, while 57.3
percent
disapproved. Members of the National Baptist Convention,
U.S.A., Inc.,
disapproved of women’s ordination by 73.6 percent to 26.4
percent.
The ordination of women occurs most often among Progressive
National
Baptists or in the American Baptist Churches USA. (p. 280)
Lincoln and Mamiya (1990) inform us that, ‘‘The official
restrictions against
ordaining women clergy in some of the major Black
denominations
combined with sexist attitudes have often prompted many Black
women to
start their own independent holiness or Pentecostal churches’’

(p. 288).
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study is to investigate the experiences of
African
American women ministers in the Baptist Church and the
challenges that
they encounter as leaders in religious institutions traditionally
governed by
men. This section presents the design and methodology of the
study, includ-
ing characteristics of African American women in ministry,
servant leadership
theory, and feminism theory. This study uses two standard
qualitative meth-
ods: interviews and observations. The interviews were
conducted over a
90-minute interval. The observations in the study were limited
to one hour
in which the sample ministers were viewed in their roles as a
preachers
and=or teacher, providing the researchers with a sense of their
public role
within ministry. We specifically attempted to understand how
being men-
tored, or not, influenced African American women ministers’
perceptions
of their effectiveness in their ministry.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions guided the study:
. How does being mentored or not being mentored affect
African American

women ministers’ perception of their effectiveness in ministry?
. What relationship=role, if any, do mentors have in preparing
African
American woman ministers to advance to a senior position of
leadership
and ministry within the Baptist Church?
. At what point do new ministers become effective as mentee’s
and leaders?
. What has propelled these women to seek leadership roles in
the Baptist
church?
. What obstacles, if any, have impeded African American
Baptist women in
ministry successes within their career and how did they
overcome them?
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
This study examines and compares the experiences,
accomplishments, and
challenges female ministers’ encounter within the Baptist
church. According
to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), ‘‘Whether stated or not, all
research is guided
by some theoretical orientation’’ (p. 33). The authors add that
theory guides
studies by providing a foundation and framework, facilitating
data collection
for the study (Table 1).

This study explores the journey of female African American
ministers
within the Baptist Church, considering their backgrounds,
educational
experience, initiation into the ministry, preparation and
mentoring received
or not received within the process. A total of 10 African
American women
in ministry were interviewed, varying in age and background.
Of the 10 part-
icipants, 4 (40%) were formally mentored. Prior to determining
their current
roles within the church it was important to understand their
history and
where they have come from.
Within this process many additional questions were considered.
For
example, to what extent were these women brought up in a
religious atmos-
phere as children or did they become religious after they
became adults?
Were they brought up in the Baptist Church or have they
transitioned from
another denomination? Do they minister within the city and
neighborhoods,
in which they were brought up? Has their mobility within the
ministry been
hampered or propelled as a result of the community in which
they are serv-
ing? These questions assisted us by showing how much
transition is actually
needed for women ministers to excel in leadership.

Essential to understanding these women in ministry, one must
analyze
their call to Christ and the Church, and the effects on their
lives? Why did they
choose to enter the ministry? What was their reason for
choosing the Baptist
Church? We explored their prior educational experiences
beginning with
college and how they have prepared themselves for the roles
they are
currently working within? We also discussed what participants
reveal to be
the most essential elements needed for leadership within the
church
and community and who has influenced them the most within
their
preparation—from the classroom into the pulpit.
TABLE 1 Research Variables
Background Preparation Sense of Efficacy
Age How did you learn to serve? Satisfaction in
ministerial role
Background: Growing
up within church
Has your race or sex impacted
the training you have received?
Feeling of being effective
in ministerial position
Religious Affiliation How were you taught to preach
and teach?

Desire to recommend
this profession to
other women
College degree In what manner has help been
provided when needed
in counseling others?
Vocational longevity and
desire to continue in
their ministerial position
— How have you been taught proper
procedures and protocols
of the Baptist Church?
—
— How have you been able to deal
with arising situations
encountered in ministry?
—
Serving and leading within the church are commonalities that
all
these women have. Comparing their commonalities and
differences, it was
interesting to note: When these women first assumed leadership
positions
within the church? What are some of the roles they previously

assumed that
has helped to guide them within their roles today? Were they
drawn to a
particular type of service within the ministry or was one chosen
for them?
What role does mentoring play within the process and how does
it impact
them within their leadership position? These questions were
essential
because they provide the blueprint from this generation into the
future.
We also explored their future goals as leaders, the next chapter
of their lives
in ministry, and the future growth of the Baptist Church and
community at
large. The study, as illustrated in Table 1, examined satisfaction
in ministerial
role feeling of effectiveness, desire for other women to join the
ministry,
and vocational longevity. Variables such as age, background
within church,
religious affiliation, college degree, seminary training and
length of time
within ministry were also taken into consideration.
During a time when churches are seeking exceptional leaders to
head churches and ministries, African American women are
often being
rejected. The preparation women receive directly affects
satisfaction
within their role, effectiveness within position, a desire to
mentor other
women having them join this profession, and vocational
longevity. Thus,
it was essential to find out: how they learned to serve; how
being an

African American woman has affected their perception of the
training they
received; how have they been taught to preach, teach, and stand
before
the congregation?
When counseling is needed, do they receive the support needed
to
adequately perform their duties; How have these women been
taught the
proper procedures and protocols of the Baptist church; and how
have these
African American women in ministry dealt with arising
situations often
encountered within the ministry? Servant leadership style was
discussed as
churches, ministers, and pastors have been called to serve their
parishioners
and communities at large.
FINDINGS—THE WOMAN I HAVE BECOME
This study investigated 10 African American women ministers
within the
Baptist Church, reviewing how they were prepared to assume
their leader-
ship positions. We also reviewed how they were mentored and
how it affec-
ted them within their roles. The women ministers were studied
through a
repertoire of systemic interviewing and direct observations. To
protect their
anonymity pseudonyms were used. The observations and
interviews, which
are presented as a historical case study, have led to the findings
in this study.

The methodology presents the case studies in a holistic manner
from a
historical perspective. According to Merriam (2009), historical
research and
case studies often merge.
THE MENTORED AND THE NON-MENTORED
Everyone in life is mentored and taught how to do things by
someone. Many
attribute their most prominent mentor as their mother. Within
this study we
refer to ministers who have been mentored and ministers who
are not men-
tored. The mentoring was done in a formal setting for a
minimum of a 1-year
period of time. In many instances, during a student’s last few
years of sem-
inary a pastor or person of leadership within the ministry
mentors the stu-
dent. In most situations the mentoring is done outside of one’s
local
church in an impartial setting, allowing them to work together
in developing
a relationship. During this mentoring process, the mentee is
taught many
things: e.g., to invest their time in another; and to take risks by
providing
the mentee with opportunities to learn and grow in the ministry.
The mentee observed the mentor and in many instances, as they

mod-
eled their leadership styles. Thus, the mentee learned how to
preach, teach,
council and assume her place in ministry. These sessions often
extend
beyond the pulpit setting; and in many situations mentors
become sources
of reference that a person can value throughout their lifetime.
The mentors
impart wisdom, speaking about their lived experiences and this
increases
the knowledge of both the mentee and mentor. Tables 2 and 3
provide more
information.
Tables 2 and 3 show data on participants who were formally
mentored
and those who were not. The term non-mentored participants
refers to those
who were trained and equipped to move up in ministry but the
mentoring
was not done in a formal setting. In many instances these
participants did
not go to seminary. Many of them were prepared to assume their
leadership
roles by mere observation.
Reverends Diamond, Rose, and Joy all had a similar formal
mentoring
process lasting for two years outside of their local churches.
These Reverends
remained in the church in which she was trained. And when her
mentor
moved into a different position, she assumed the pastoral role at
the church
where she was mentored. Minister Dove was formally mentored

for a
TABLE 2 African American Women Ministers: Mentored versus
Non-Mentored Participants by Age Group (N ¼ 10)
Group Age � 49 Years Age � 50 Years Total
Mentored 1 3 4
Non-Mentored 2 4 6
Total 3 7 10
one-year period of time. Unlike any of the other participants,
she was able to
obtain special permission to be mentored by her pastor.
Reverends Love, Caring, and Elder Emerald are similar because
male
pastors mentored them. The male pastor who mentored Elder
Emerald was
her husband. Ironically, he did not believe in women being
pastors or min-
isters. Elder Gold attributes all of the mentoring she received to
her mother.
Similar to Elder Gold Reverend Ruby attributes her
grandmother and mother
as her greatest mentors. According to her, these two women had
the most
influence on her because they did more than talk about
Christianity. They
tried to live their lives daily by following the examples Jesus
left for us. Pastor
Queen attributes her mentoring process to three people: her

father who was
an elder, her godmother who was a pastor, and her pastor. Both
mentored
and non-mentored women thus identified that they are effective
in their min-
isterial position. All of the participants have a desire to
recommend ministry
as a profession to other women and a desire to continue in their
ministerial
positions.
Individual Participants
. Reverend Diamond is a 65-year-old former teacher, full-time
pastor who
was born in New York but raised in North Carolina. She holds a
Master
of Divinity Degree, a Masters Degree in Education, and a
Doctorate in
Ministry. At age 32 years, while separated from her husband
and raising
her son alone, she began her educational journey. Now she is
the proud
grandmother of two.
. Reverend Joy is a 68-year-old full-time pastor and musician
born in
Augusta, Georgia. Her move to New York occurred while
pursing her
passion as a psalmist and songwriter. This year her second DVD
entered
the music industry. Reverend Joy has completed a master’s
degree from
a Community Bible Institute and a master’s of divinity degree.
Reverend

TABLE 3 Individual African American Women Ministers:
Mentored
Versus Non-Mentored Participants (N ¼ 10)
Participant Age Mentored Status
1. Reverend Diamond 65 Mentored
2. Reverend Joy 68 Mentored
3. Minister Dove 44 Mentored
4. Reverend Rose 68 Mentored
5. Reverend Ruby 60 Non-Mentored
6. Pastor Queen 47 Non-Mentored
7. Elder Emerald 60 Non-Mentored
8. Reverend Caring 58 Non-Mentored
9. Reverend Love 63 Non-Mentored
10. Elder Gold 39 Non-Mentored
Joy was divorced and has recently remarried. She is the mother
of one and
a grandmother.
. Minister Dove is a 44-year-old associate minister, an editor for
children’s
books, and a seminary professor who was born in Brooklyn,
New York.
She holds a master’s of divinity degree and is currently single.
. Reverend Rose is a 68-year-old associate minister, formally an
assistant
pastor, and a retired administrator from a New York College.
She has a
master’s of divinity degree and doctorate in ministry. Reverend

Rose is
divorced, a mother of two and a grandmother of one.
. Reverend Ruby is a 60-year-old associate reverend and the
supervisor in a
cytology laboratory who was born in Columbus, Mississippi.
She holds a
master’s of theology from a theological institute. Reverend
Ruby is a
divorced mother of one and grandmother of two.
. Pastor Queen is a 47-year-old pastor, author, and playwright
born in New
York City. She has a high school diploma but has been given
credit for life
experience. She has begun a master’s of divinity program.
Currently Pastor
Queen is a married woman, mother of one and grandmother of
one.
. Elder Emerald is a 60-year-old associate minister, and
assistant teacher of
autistic and special education children in New York. She was
born in
Durham, North Carolina. Elder Emerald holds a high school
diploma
and has taken some courses in a Community Bible Institute. A
former
pastor’s wife, a widower, mother of two and grandmother of
two.
. Reverend Caring is a 58-year-old assistant pastor in New
York, and a
payroll manager in Connecticut. Born in New York but raised in
the South,
she holds a Bachelors Degree and a Masters Degree in Business

Adminis-
tration. Reverend Caring is a married mother of three.
. Reverend Love is a 63-year-old associate reverend in New
York, and a tea-
cher. Born in New York she has a Bachelors Degree and
graduated from a
Pastoral Counseling Course. She is a married mother of two and
a grand-
mother.
. Elder Gold is a 39-year-old associate elder who was born and
now serves
in Brooklyn, New York. With only a high school degree, she has
success-
fully survived 20 years in ministry. She is a divorced mother
with two
children.
Participants’ Educational Accomplishments
Table 4 presents data on the educational accomplishments of the
10 parti-
cipants, four of whom were mentored and six who were not
mentored. As
can be seen, all 4 of the mentored ministers hold a master of
divinity degree.
In addition, Reverend Diamond and Reverend Rose earned
doctorate
degrees in ministry. Reverend Diamond was previously an
elementary school
teacher for 17 years; now Reverend Joy and her are now full
time pastors.
Reverend Rose is retired and currently assists several ministries
in leadership

capacities. Minister Dove, the youngest in the mentored group
at 37, works
full time as an editor for children’s books. Within her church
she serves as the
minister of the Christian Education Department and a Bible
school teacher. In
addition to this Minister Dove is an adjunct professor at a
seminary where she
is teaching Hebrew.
Table 4 informs us about the ministers who are non-mentored
and how
they differ in their educational achievements from those who
are mentored.
Two of the ministers, Pastor Queen and Elder Gold, only hold
high school
diplomas. At this time Elder Gold has had no seminary training
and is not
interested in going back to school. Elder Gold is the youngest
participant
in this study, and this year she has served as a minister
successfully for 20
years. She says, once both of her children finish high school,
she would like
to go back to school to obtain a bachelors degree in business
administration.
Pastor Queen is unique, compared to the other participants. She
only
has a high school diploma; and in the educational arena one
would need
to obtain a bachelors degree prior to obtaining a masters degree.

Her excep-
tional work within ministry and the community have given her
favor and life
experience. For the past year she has been permitted to take
seminary
courses towards obtaining a master’s of divinity degree.
Reverends Ruby and Emerald, Elder Caring, and Reverend Love
are
similar because all of them have gone to a Bible Institute. In
this setting
the focus is strictly on the Bible with no particular type of
mentoring set
up. Thus, one mainly learns by observation. These four
participants work full
time in the ministry while holding on to secular jobs. Reverend
Ruby is the
supervisor of a pathology laboratory in a hospital setting.
Reverend Love
and Elder Emerald are both teachers. Elder Emerald teaches
children with
special needs. Elder Caring, contrary to the others, is the only
non-mentored
TABLE 4 Educational Accomplishments of Individual African
American Women Ministers:
Mentored Versus Non-Mentored Participants
Participant
High
School
Associate
Degree BA
Bible

Institute MA
MA
Divinity DMin
Honorary
Degree
Mentored Ministers
Reverend
Diamond
X X X X
Reverend Joy X X X X X X
Min. Dove X X X
Reverend Rose X X X X
Non-Mentored Ministers
Reverend Ruby X X X
Pastor Queen X X
Elder Emerald X X
Reverend Caring X X X X
Reverend Love X X X
Elder Gold X X
minister who has a master’s degree. In addition to working full
time in the
ministry, she is a payroll supervisor in her job.
Obstacles within Ministry

Reverend Love said that sexism in the ministry was one of the
issues she had
to deal with, when she recounted:
There were many times when I had been called upon to minister
at a
church, but once I got there I was not welcome to stand in their
pulpit.
In many churches women are not welcome to hold the same
positions as
men. They are often asked to preach from the floor while the
men are
permitted to preach from the pulpit.
When asked how Reverend Diamond was prepared for her role
as a pastor,
she responded:
No one really prepared me for the job. Yes, I went to seminary
and I
received a doctorate degree in ministry but theological
education alone
is often inadequate to deal with all of the issues a pastor will
have to
encounter. At times one is blessed to have a mentor or a friend
who
has experienced the situation you are in and can advise you of
how
you can best deal with the issues at hand. In many instances you
pray that
you are doing and saying the right things.
Reverend Joy wanted to be accepted as a woman who was equal
with men
in ministry. Ironically she said that for her, becoming a woman
in ministry

was difficult because of other women in general. Reverend Joy
recalled:
For me the challenge has never been the men it has been other
women. I
wanted a sisterhood circle. A place where I could go to and find
accept-
ance as I worked within the ministry but this is not what I have
found. I
have found women eager for positions that are often willing to
do any-
thing to move up in ministry. I have found a lot of jealously and
contempt
rather than togetherness.
Overcoming Obstacles
Reverend Love said:
I had to overcome the feelings I had within. Regardless of my
own
limitations I had to remind myself that I am a minister of the
Gospel. This
caused me to release my fears and go forth in victory. In the end
my male
counterparts had to admit that although I am a woman I am
called to
preach.
In preparation for becoming an effective pastor Reverend
Diamond recounts:

I study the Bible intensely and attempt to lead my people in the
ways of
Jesus. Of course all of us make mistakes but we have to use
them as les-
sons, which provide us with more wisdom.
In overcoming the acceptance obstacle, Reverend Joy informs
us:
I have had to give up the perceptions of others in order to
pursue min-
istry. As a result of what I have given up I have become more
comfortable
with who I am and who God has called me to be. This has
enabled me to
move up in ministry as a pastor, preacher, and musician.
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS
Mentored Versus Non-Mentored
Mentoring is vital for growth of women in ministry but it is not
essential that
mentoring be conducted in a formal setting. Some of the
participants were
mentored formally while in seminary while others received no
formal men-
toring at all. In some instances the mentoring occurred on a
one-to-one situ-
ation whereas in other cases a team or group style of mentoring
took place.
Some of the mentees were mentored by relatives specifically
their mothers
and in one instance a husband. A man or a woman may become
a mentor;
but just like leadership, mentoring must be intentional.

People willing to serve as mentors come few and far between.
Everyone
should have someone to go to who can impart wisdom,
knowledge and
understanding in their life and into their situations. One of the
primary roles
of mentors is to assist their mentees in reaching their highest
potential. Becom-
ing a mentor is a risky business. One cannot effectively mentor
without first
establishing a relationship that is built upon trust, respect and
understanding.
In many instances mentoring allowed the mentee to see things
within
themselves that they would not ordinarily be able to visualize.
Some mentees
needed to be made aware of a positive attribute and skill that
should be
affirmed within. Others may have a negative limitation or
obstacle, which
will need to be changed, modified or removed. Regardless of the
situation,
mentoring is essential to one’s growth and development.
Preparation for Leadership
Some of the participants interviewed were prepared to assume
their roles as
preachers, teachers, counselors, and mentors while doing their
internships or
while in seminary. Some of the participants learned how to
assume their
roles by merely growing up in church while others can identify
with on-the-

job training. The methods of training received, as well as the
inclusiveness of
all the elements needed to succeed, greatly vary. Mentoring and
preparing
someone who is beginning to assume their leadership roles are
essential for
their growth, effectiveness and sustainability in ministry.
Effective Mentees and Leaders
Effectiveness in ministry is not usually determined by the size
of the church.
Effectiveness can be seen by the realization that ministers have
done some-
thing or said something, which has positively affected the life
of others. This
is often seen when one begins to hear someone speaking about a
minister or
even imitating them. To be effective as a mentor and leader, one
must have a
determination to be who God has called us to be. It is important
to remember
that His validation on your lives is what really matters.
Coming Into the Baptist Church
The Baptist Church denomination is not the only church many
of the parti-
cipants have ever experienced. Some were influenced by
Pentecostal and
African Methodist Episcopal denominations. Many who have

identified with
joining the Baptist Church come for specific reasons. Some are
attracted to
the structure and congregational style of leading. Others find
the worship
experience and commitment to serving their members appealing
as well as
the community at large. Regardless of the denomination
individuals become
a part of, as ministers, we are patterning our lives after Jesus.
Thus, our ulti-
mate goal is to become a servant.
Obstacles and Overcoming Them
African American women who are answering the call to ministry
today are
still faced with an uphill battle. In most seminary classes,
women outnumber
the men. Yet the opportunities for women are still limited. For
women to fill
the same positions held by male counterparts, women have to be
more edu-
cationally equipped, more articulate, more skilled in their craft,
and more
prepared to assume their roles and responsibilities.
Many churches today still do not believe that God has called
women.
Women are still confined in many circles to preaching from the
floor
while men are allowed to mount the pulpit. Ironically, in many
instances
women are obstacles to other women. Due to plain old jealousy,
some
women impede the opportunities for other women to advance in

the
church. Women must learn to work together. There is no reason
to compro-
mise being who we have been called to be, to move ahead.
When our male
counterparts see us behaving negatively to one another, they
quickly move
to the assumption that we are not ready yet—which limits our
opportunities
even more.
Obstacles are overcome through persistence, consistency, and
prayer.
When we began to understand that God is the one in control, we
learn that
every obstacle in life has been orchestrated to move us from one
position to
another. Obstacles often turn out to be learning opportunities
that propel us
to go higher and further.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
This study has investigated the preparation and mentoring
received—and not
received—by African American women in ministry, using a
historical case
study methodology. The experiences of 10 African American
women in min-
istry, the preparation they received, obstacles and limitations
they had to
overcome were also discussed to present a holistic description

of how they
have been prepared to assume their leadership positions. This
study has sev-
eral implications for leadership within the church at large.
While implications
can be applied to many different aspects of this study, three
implications are
discussed here.
The first implication drawn from this study is being a woman in
ministry
is extremely challenging; and this process is complicated even
more when
the woman is African American. While all of the participants
believe that
God has called and commissioned them to go into the world and
share
the Good News, they have not arrived in their positions in
ministry easily.
Each participant within this study had to overcome many
challenges and lim-
itations. In some instances, women struggled with men or with
women about
their role. Others wrestled within the church and outside of the
church, while
some with their families.
For some the struggle was personal from within. Our
environments and
experiences with sexism, racism, financial struggles and
oppression directly
affect our perceptions of leadership. To reshape our churches
and communi-
ties, leaders will have to become better equipped and educated
to deal with
spiritual, social, political, and economic issues that are

encountered in our
churches today.
The second implication of this study is that mentoring is an
essential pro-
cess in cultivating African American women in ministry
leadership, regardless
of their educational experiences and backgrounds. Some African
American
women in ministry find it necessary to obtain seminary degrees
while others
do not. Graduating from seminary does not mean, necessarily,
that one is
equipped to complete their ministerial roles or assume positions
of leadership.
Mentoring is not always linked to instructional leadership but
can be
aligned to one’s personal development. In either case women
may one
day find themselves in senior positions of church leadership. It
is essential
that they are prepared and competent to deal with rising
ministry issues.
Having a mentor can provide a voice of wisdom in what may
prove to be
a challenging situation.
Mentoring relationships within ministry teach more than simple
ele-
ments of preaching and teaching. These relationships allow
good leadership

skills and practices to develop. Mentors help women in ministry
to identify
with the struggles and issues of oppression. Mentoring bridges
the gap
between academia and the church. Through the experiences of
the mentor,
the mentee is encouraged to become successful in navigating the
challenges
and obstacles in ministry.
The third implication reveals that African American women in
ministry
within the Baptist Church are expected to assume the same roles
and respon-
sibilities as their male counterparts, sometimes without
adequate mentoring
and preparation. Seminaries in most instances offer internship
programs,
prior to one’s graduating; but the mentoring and preparation
received are
not unified and in many instances are inadequate.
Of the 10 participants in this study, 6 did not go to seminary
and none of
them identified any specific training or on the job preparation
received from
the church in which they are currently serving in. The
participants within this
study did not belong to the same types of Baptist churches. The
participants
who belonged to the American Baptist Churches identified
biannual meet-
ings where mentoring and leadership were discussed. However,
at this time,
no formal mentoring program are established for women in
ministry. All of

the participants, even the senior pastors, would benefit from
receiving
updated denominational information that addresses the concerns
of leaders
within the church today.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The results of this study, and the existing literature on this
subject—
combined with the growing influx of women entering into the
ministry—
should motivate more extensive research in the future. It would
be beneficial
to define parameters for successful leadership for women
throughout the
United States in various denominations.
. A qualitative study can be conducted using African American
men as the
participants. This type of research would provide in-depth
knowledge as
to how men are prepared to assume their roles as leaders within
church. It
may be conducted as this research study was focusing on
specifically the
Baptist Church or it may be done focusing on another church
denomination.
. A comparative study may also be conducted using African
American men
compared to African American women in ministry. This study
can
compare the preparation of African American men verses that
received
by African American women.

. A quantitative survey study, which explores the achievement
of women in
different denominations, may be conducted. This study can
explore and
compare, personal and community levels achievement to
determine how
varying denominations overcome obstacles to succeed in
ministry. This
study may provide insight into the lives of future women in
ministry.
According to Babbie (1995), survey research is probably the
best method
available to the social scientist interested in collecting original
data for
describing a population too large to observe directly.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
. Improve the ministry preparation by extending, unifying and
focusing the
training in seminary. Establishing a program, which could be
implemen-
ted for usage in all seminaries, can be an essential element,
which will
train and prepare women to assume their leadership roles within
the
church.
. Provide women in ministry with more opportunities for
learning experi-

ences. Churches expect for women to be just as prepared as
their male
counterparts to assume their positions of leadership. Often what
are miss-
ing are more opportunities adequately to prepare. Workshops
and retreats
may provide an opportunity to share insightful information.
. Support women ministers in their quest for promotion within
the ministry.
Preparation and support should be provided educationally,
financially and
spiritually. The support may include instructional material such
as how
ministers can improve their teaching or preaching. It can
incorporate
denominational expectations and skills needed to improve
themselves.
. Expand the opportunities for women as leaders in the Baptist
Church to
network. Connecting with other women and men in ministry
may provide
opportunities to forge partnerships and alliances. Networking
settings
can do more than just enhance your ministry; they can enhance
your
community as well.
. Involve women ministers in the mentoring of other new church
leaders.
Women in ministry often find it difficult to obtain mentors who
are genu-
inely concerned about them. Within ministry the role of a
mentor extends
beyond studying, teaching, preaching and learning elements of

corporate
worship. Mentors are those with whom one can establish a
meaningful life
long relationship.
. Review and assess the needs of women coming into the
ministry, to help
them adjust and do an even better job. The women in ministry
today are
still carrying suitcases full of burdens. The loads, which they
are carrying,
can be released if a review of what is needed and expected of
them can be
outlined for them prior to their accepting their call to go into
ministry.
These outlined elements can strategically assist women in
planning their
educational experiences, and determine the church
denominations they
would like to serve in. Ultimately it will help them adjust to
their positions
of leadership easier to do a more effective job.
. Interview male ministers on how they personally relate to
women in
ministry. Some men still feel that women should not become
senior pastors
or leaders within churches. Thus, how they may relate to women
in ministry
may prove to be detrimental to the woman. Thus, it will be
essential for

women in ministry have a positive relationship with a male
minister who
would like to see women and men succeed.
. Create opportunities for women in ministry to learn basic
management
skills and principles. Often women in ministry who assume the
role of
the pastor or senior leader find that they have not been
adequately pre-
pared to operate the business aspects of the church. In many
instances it
would be beneficial to understand basic administrative and
business skills.
This should include how to balance a budget as well as
incorporating
management techniques and principles.
. Critically evaluate the role of the servant leader within the
church. While
many churches remember that Jesus, the person whom we have
been
called to emulate, others have forgotten. Jesus, the ultimate
leader, remains
the greatest servant leader who ever existed. Ultimately, women
and men
in ministry have come to fulfill the role of a servant.
. Establish unified financial rewards for women in ministry.
Many women
within ministry have to fulfill multiple roles. In many instances,
they are
mothers, wives, pastors, preachers, teachers and students, just
to name a
few. In an attempt to be the best they can be, they need to be
compensated

for the work they do, just as their male counterparts are
rewarded. God is call-
ing for women who are willing to lead the church into the next
generation.
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Babbie, E. R. (1995). Practice of social research. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth
Publishers.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for
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Greenleaf, R. K. (1998). The power of servant leadership. San
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of Black women in
ministry. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.
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barriers. Somerset,
NJ: Transaction Publishers.

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PA: Judson Press.
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76(5), 331–334.
Reverend Deseree Newkirk is an Associate Minister at
Mariners’ Temple
Baptist Church, New York, NY. In addition, she is a nurse at
Beth Israel
Medical Center. She holds a doctorate from Fordham University
Graduate
School of Education, Church Leadership Program New York,
NY.
Bruce S. Cooper is a Professor at Fordham University Graduate
School of
Education, New York, NY, who has an interest in private and
religious
education.
Copyright of Journal of Research on Christian Education is the
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copyright holder's express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.
Christian Higher Education, 7:388–404
Copyright C© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1536-3759 print / 1539-4107 online
DOI: 10.1080/15363750802171081

GENDERED REALITIES AND WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP
DEVELOPMENT: PARTICIPANT VOICES FROM
FAITH-BASED HIGHER EDUCATION
SHAWNA L. LAFRENIERE and KAREN A. LONGMAN
Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, California, USA
Women who seek high-level administrative leadership positions
in various sectors
of higher education continue to meet a variety of barriers (Eagly
& Carli, 2007).
These challenges are especially evident among the 105-member
Council for Chris-
tian Colleges & Universities (CCCU), an association of faith-
based liberal arts
institutions. Seeking to identify, equip, and encourage more
women to enter high-
level positions of leadership, in 1998 the CCCU launched a
series of year-long
leadership programs, each of which began with a five-day
Women’s Leadership
Development Institute (WLDI). During four institutes held
between 1998 and
2004, the WLDI involved 71 “emerging leaders” in a
multifaceted leadership
development program specifically intended for women. Survey
responses from
53 of the 71 participants were used to assess which experiences
in the one-year
WLDI project had been most significant in encouraging and
preparing partic-
ipants for higher-level administrative leadership. Multiple
regression analyses
indicated that the experiences perceived as most beneficial by

the participants
were the shadowing/mentoring experience on another campus,
the WLDI par-
ticipation restriction to women, and the informal conversations
and networking
with other women. The shadowing/mentoring experience had the
greatest influ-
ence on increasing the participants’ confidence in themselves as
academic leaders
and changing their thinking about their own leadership
potential. Participation
in a leadership program that was limited to women was
frequently cited as a
source of encouragement for these participants to remain in
Christian higher ed-
ucation. More than half of the survey respondents moved into
broader leadership
responsibilities within one year of participating in the WLDI.
“After years of analyzing what makes leaders most effective and
fig-
uring out who’s got the Right Stuff, management gurus now
know
how to boost the odds of getting a great executive: Hire a
female”
(Sharpe, 2000, p. 74). Despite Sharpe’s conclusion, men still
hold
the majority of high-level leadership positions in American
corpo-
rations as well as in higher education. Although women
continue
Address correspondence to Shawna L. Lafreniere, Noel
Academy for Strengths-
Based Leadership and Education, Azusa Pacific University, 701
East Foothill Boulevard,

Azusa, CA 91702. E-mail: [email protected]
388
Gendered Realities and Women’s Leadership Development 389
to gain increased access to supervisory or middle-management
po-
sitions, their presence is still rare in executive leadership
positions
(Eagly & Karau, 2002).
Because male leadership roles have been the norm for so
many years, leadership tends to be perceived as a masculine do-
main. As such, traditionally masculine qualities such as confi-
dence and dominance are equated with leadership, giving men
a clear advantage over women to obtain leadership roles (Eagly
& Carli, 2007). Eagly and Carli have summarized several
decades
of leadership literature and offer three metaphors to explain
how
the landscape of barriers to, and perceptions about, women’s
lead-
ership have changed: the concrete wall, the glass ceiling, and
the
labyrinth.
The concrete wall metaphor represents an impenetrable bar-
rier that is overt, absolute, and completely blocks the pathway
for
women to advance into leadership positions. According to Eagly
and Carli (2007), clear barriers to women’s leadership existed
un-
til the middle of the twentieth century and consisted of
exclusion-

ary rules and clear-cut norms.
In the 1970s, realities behind the concrete wall metaphor be-
gan to shift in ways that no longer excluded women from all po-
sitions of authority, only from the highest levels of leadership.
Women’s limited access to top leadership positions was subse-
quently referred to as “the glass ceiling,” a metaphor for
discrimi-
nation that puts women at a disadvantage when being
considered
for advancement into organizational leadership positions (Carli
&
Eagly, 2001).
Eagly and Carli (2007) posit that the glass ceiling metaphor
of a rigid, impenetrable barrier is no longer a definitive reality
for women in the 21st century. They see barriers to women’s ad-
vancement as being more permeable, with women gaining new
and greater access to a wide range of leadership roles. The por-
trayal of the inflexible limits of the glass ceiling has lingered
too
long. These authors now suggest a new metaphor, the labyrinth,
for better capturing the current challenges that women face as
they navigate their way into leadership positions.
Indeed, for many 21st century women, the glass ceiling has
been broken. Obstacles that previous generations faced in pur-
suing high-level leadership roles are no longer viewed as prob-
lematic. As former executive Carly Fiorina stated upon
becoming
390 S. L. Lafreniere and K. A. Longman
Hewlett-Packard’s CEO in 1999, “I hope that we are at a point

that
everyone has figured out that there is not a glass ceiling”
(Markoff
as cited in Eagly & Carli, 2007, p. 6). Even when pathways to
cer-
tain high-level leadership positions can be difficult to find, such
routes do exist, and women who now serve as role models have
found them.
Women’s Leadership in Higher Education
While many have attributed the paucity of women in high-level
leadership to “pipeline” limitations, others have challenged this
assumption based on the data (Chliwniak, 1997; Eagly & Carli,
2007; Heilman, 2001). During the 21st century, the number of
women in the labor force has grown while the number of men
in the labor force has decreased (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Because
women have greatly advanced in their educational pursuits,
many
more women are now prepared to step into positions at the ex-
ecutive level. Women earn 57% of the bachelor’s degrees being
awarded, 59% of master’s degrees, and 48% of PhDs (Federal
Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995). For every 100 men in all lev-
els of higher education, 139 women are enrolled. Thus, women
are no longer restricted in their ability to obtain an education
and their increased educational attainment allows them to gain
the preparation typically required for workplace advancement.
Yet, even when women are educated with advanced degrees and
equipped to take leadership roles, they are less likely to be pro-
moted to top leadership positions (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
In higher education, while women continue to be underrep-
resented in upper-level leadership, several trends are encourag-
ing. According to data from the American Council on Education
(2007), the percentage of women serving as university
presidents

more than doubled from 9.5% in 1986 to 23% in 2006. In re-
cent years, women have been selected to lead prestigious uni-
versities such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Princeton
University, Harvard University, the University of Michigan, and
the University of Pennsylvania. Harvard University’s decision
to
name Drew Gilpin Faust as president in 2007 represented a sig-
nificant and symbolic step forward for women in academe.
Susan
Scrimshaw, president of Simmons College, noted, “I think of it
as the last really big glass ceiling in higher education. A woman
becoming president of Harvard is breaking the last barrier”
(Wil-
son, 2007, p. A1).
The Evangelical Christian Higher Education Leadership
Landscape
Within the 105 member institutions of the CCCU,
approximately
60% of the students are female (IPEDS, 2006). This association
represents a cross-section of evangelical Protestant liberal arts
in-
stitutions, drawing members from 28 denominational
affiliations.
The organization, founded in 1976 and based in Washington,
D.C., describes its members as “intentionally Christ-centered
col-
leges and universities” (CCCU, 2007). In 2007, only 4 of the
105

presidents (3.8%) were female.
Data submitted by the CCCU member institutions through
the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS,
2006) reflect that women represent 36% of the full-time faculty
on those campuses compared to 41% of full-time female faculty
represented at other institutions in the United States. Related to
the gender imbalances on these campuses, female faculty tend
to be overextended in roles as advisors and committee members.
They serve as mentors and role models to students and junior
col-
leagues, while often being the primary caregiver at home
(CCCU,
2004; Schreiner, 2002).
Women who seek leadership positions in CCCU institutions
continue to meet more barriers than men. Some of these chal-
lenges include a lack of role models; theological conservatism
that limits access to top leadership positions; embracing a col-
laborative leadership style that can be misunderstood or disre-
spected; and feeling “out of sync” with the command-and-
control
leadership style of some male-dominated administrative
cabinets
(Schreiner, 2002). As one faculty member at a CCCU institution
commented in a Chronicle of Higher Education article, “[A]t
con-
servative religious institutions, women face a stained-glass
ceiling,
with the Bible and church tradition routinely used to justify
gen-
der discrimination” (Mock, 2005, p. B24). The author
continued,
“While I am at times troubled by the alienation I feel, I remain
far
more concerned about the lack of female role models for

students
at Christian colleges and universities” (p. B24).
If emerging female leaders are to make significant contri-
butions as leaders in CCCU colleges and universities, these con-
cerns and issues need to be addressed. Over the past decade, the
Women’s Leadership Development Institute (WLDI) has sought
to address this need by equipping women to serve in current and
future administrative leadership roles.
Background, Purposes, and Desired Outcomes of the WLDI
In 1998, the catalyst for launching the WLDI was a concern
among
CCCU leaders for creating programmatic initiatives that would
support the identification and equipping of more women for
higher education leadership across CCCU member institutions.
Selection criteria for WLDI participators have included: (a)
recog-
nition at an institutional level as someone with demonstrated
lead-
ership skills, (b) possession of a doctorate or nearing
completion
of a doctorate, and (c) evidence of increasing levels of
leadership
responsibility within and/or beyond higher education.
The core of the WLDI experience is a five-day institute held
every other year (1998–2006) at a retreat center located near
Bellingham, Washington. In addition to the institute itself, the
broader year-long WLDI program includes: (a) a series of read-
ings before, during, and after the on-site institute, (b) the

guided
design of a one-year Professional Development Plan, and (c) a
follow-up “shadowing” experience for two or three days with a
senior-level mentor on another campus.
Resource leaders at the institute offer a variety of presen-
tations and panel discussions along with ample time for group
interaction. Topics covered include leadership, higher educa-
tion, and gender issues. Sessions typically have also included an
introduction to board governance, external constituency re-
lations, internal politics, conflict resolution, strengths-based
leadership, finding balance in competing demands, gender roles,
strategic planning, team building, and balancing multiple
respon-
sibilities.
Since its inception, the desired outcomes of the WLDI pro-
gram have included: (a) the identification of emerging female
leaders in Christian higher education; (b) equipping, motivating,
and challenging these emerging leaders through training at the
institute; (c) the provision of opportunities for participants to
explore senior administrative positions through mentoring rela-
tionships with senior leaders on other campuses; (d) the creation
of deep and lasting friendships/networks with other women in
the institute; and (e) the provision of structured opportunities
for participants to identify tangible professional goals by
writing
Professional Development Plans.
This study was conducted in order to understand the im-
pact of the WLDI on women who have participated and whether

the desired outcomes of the institute are being met. The re-
search question that guided this study asked: “In what ways has
the
Women’s Leadership Development Institute impacted the lives
of
its participants and met the desired outcomes of the WLDI?”
Method
Participants
All 71 women who participated in any of the four WLDIs from
1998 to 2004 were contacted; 53 responded. Demographic
results
reflect that 86% of the respondents were married; 73% had two
or more children. The respondents ranged in age from 30 to over
50; the majority were age 50 or older. Of the total respondents,
94% held doctoral degrees. The respondents were largely Cau-
casian/white (88%). A majority of respondents had worked in
higher education for 11–20 years; 42% had served in
administra-
tive roles for 6–10 years. In total, 38% had been at their current
in-
stitution for 11–20 years; 46% had served for 11–20 years in
Chris-
tian higher education; and 30% had 11–20 years of professional
experience outside of Christian higher education.
Materials and Procedure
A Web-based survey instrument consisting of 44 questions was
cre-
ated by the researchers. Approval of the instrument and permis-
sion to contact the WLDI participants about the research project
were received from the CCCU. The survey questions related to
the desired outcomes for the WLDI program on the lives of the

participants and used a 7-point Likert-type scale, with 1 indicat-
ing “not at all” and 7 indicating “a great degree.” There was
also
one open-ended question to evaluate the single most beneficial
impact of the WLDI. On-line surveys were distributed, with two
weeks allowed for survey completion, to the 71 women who had
participated in the WLDIs in 1998, 2000, 2002, and 2004. The
re-
sponse rate was 75%; three surveys were not completed in their
entirety.
Design
In order to examine the extent to which the program has met its
desired outcomes, participants’ responses were analyzed using
de-
scriptive and inferential statistics. In the inferential analyses,
the
independent variables were those components of the on-site in-
stitute that were perceived as contributing most significantly to
the equipping of participants for leadership roles. Other inde-
pendent variables included the perceived beneficial impact of
the
confidence boost of having being nominated and selected for
par-
ticipation, the creation of a one-year Professional Development
Plan, and participation in a two- or three-day “shadowing expe-
rience” with a senior leader on another campus. The dependent
variable was the impact of the WLDI on the participants.
Descriptive Statistics

One goal of this research was to assess which aspects of the
WLDI
were viewed as contributing most significantly to the
professional
development of the participants. The mean ratings of each com-
ponent by the participants were used to rank order aspects of
the WLDI. As seen in Table 1, informal conversations with
other
women during the five-day institute were rated as most
beneficial,
followed by being in a group limited to other women. Other di-
mensions of the WLDI experience that were perceived as highly
beneficial to participants included the shadowing experience on
another campus and its influence on participants considering fu-
ture leadership positions, the workshop sessions at the WLDI,
and
the increased confidence in participants as academic leaders as
a
result of participating in the year-long WLDI.
Overall, 60% of respondents indicated that they had moved
into new positions that reflected increased leadership responsi-
bilities since participating in the WLDI. Of these, 51.6% had as-
sumed new responsibilities within one year; 29% within two
years;
TABLE 1 Aspects of the WLDI That Contributed to the
Professional
Development of the Participants (N = 53) Rated on a 7-Point
Scale
Characteristic M SD

Informal conversations with other women helpful 6.25 1.11
Beneficial impact of WLDI limited to women 5.60 1.43
Shadowing influenced consideration of future leadership 5.54
2.07
Workshops helpful to professional development 5.32 1.25
Increased confidence in self as leader 5.31 1.37
Resources helpful to professional development 5.21 1.46
Changed thinking about leadership potential 5.10 1.30
Intentionally mentoring other women 5.04 1.78
Being chosen boosted confidence 5.02 1.59
WLDI met expectations for leadership development 4.96 1.45
Considered new position of responsibility 4.94 1.72
Served as encouragement to remain in CHE 4.90 1.62
Extent of PDP as building block 4.25 1.57
Network of WLDI women as source of encouragement 4.15 1.82
WLDI changed how viewed by male colleagues 3.75 1.93
Extent of contact with mentor from shadowing experience 3.12
2.07
Sought increased leadership position and not been selected 2.35
2.13
and 19.4% had assumed broader responsibilities more than three
years after participating. Most of these women reported having
an
affirming experience in their first expanded leadership position
after attending the WLDI. Women who had moved into a new
leadership position were asked to choose one aspect of the
WLDI
that contributed most to their sense of being prepared for their
new position. As can be seen in Table 2, the aspects of the
WLDI
that most contributed to the participants’ sense of being
prepared
TABLE 2 WLDI Aspect That Contributed Most to

New Position (N = 31)
Aspect n
Shadowing/mentoring experience 11
Networking with experienced administrators 8
Informal conversations with other women 6
Content of WLDI sessions 3
Readings/resources provided/recommended 1
None of the above 2
for their new leadership position were the shadowing/mentoring
experience, networking with experienced administrators, and in-
formal conversations with other women.
Multiple Regressions
To analyze which components of the WLDI program explained
the most variation in participants’ ratings of the program’s
effec-
tiveness, six multiple regression analyses were conducted,
enter-
ing all predictor variables simultaneously in one block. Each
anal-
ysis used the same predictor variables: (a) creating a
Professional
Development Plan to serve as a building block to consider
future
academic leadership opportunities; (b) the beneficial impact of
the WLDI experience being limited to other women; (c) the
shad-
owing experience on another campus as an influencer to
consider

future academic leadership positions; (d) the helpfulness of in-
formal conversations with other women during the WLDI; (e)
the
helpfulness of the books, handouts, and other written resources
provided before, during, and after the WLDI; and (f) the
helpful-
ness of the workshop sessions for professional development.
The first regression analysis utilized as its criterion variable
the participants’ rating of the extent to which the WLDI had
met their expectations for leadership development training. The
model explained 74% (R 2 = .743) of the variance in the ratings
of
expectations, with three predictor variables reaching
significance.
The workshop sessions had the greatest influence on whether
par-
ticipants’ expectations for leadership development training had
been met through the WLDI experience (β = .557, p < .001),
fol-
lowed by the helpfulness of books, handouts, and other written
resources (β = .356, p < .001), and the impact of the institute
being limited to other women (β = .183, p < .05). In all cases,
here and in the following sections, the direction of influence of
the predictor variables was positive.
Participants’ increased self-confidence as an academic leader
as a result of participating in the year-long WLDI experience
was the criterion variable in the second regression equation.
The
model explained 50% (R 2 = .499) of the variance in the ratings,
with two predictor variables reaching significance. The
shadowing
experience on another campus as an influencer to consider
future
academic leadership positions accounted for the most variance

in
increasing the participants’ self-confidence as an academic
leader
(β = .423, p < .001), followed by the helpfulness of the written
resources for professional development (β = .321, p < .001).
In the third regression analysis, the criterion variable was the
extent to which involvement in the WLDI changed the way
partici-
pants perceived themselves as being viewed by male colleagues
on
campus. The model explained 43% (R 2 = .430) of the variance
in the ratings, with two predictor variables reaching
significance.
The creation of the Professional Development Plan to organize
participants’ thinking about future academic leadership
strategies
had the greatest predictive ability (β = .360, p < .001), followed
by the beneficial impact of the informal conversations with
other
women during the WLDI (β = .264, p < .05).
The extent to which participants’ thinking about their own
leadership potential changed as a result of involvement in the
WLDI was examined through the fourth regression analysis. The
model explained 42% (R 2 = .424) of the variance in the ratings,
with two predictor variables reaching significance. The
shadowing
experience on another campus as an influencer to consider
future
academic leadership positions had the greatest impact (β = .364,

p < .05), followed by the helpfulness of the workshop sessions
for
professional development (β = .356, p < .001).
The fifth regression analysis examined whether WLDI partic-
ipation had encouraged respondents to consider positions else-
where and/or be willing to move into a new level of
responsibility
on their home campus. The model explained 34% (R 2 = .343)
of the variance in the ratings, with one predictor variable reach-
ing significance. The beneficial impact of informal
conversations
with other women during the WLDI had the greatest influence
on
encouraging participants to consider positions elsewhere and/or
be willing to move into new levels of responsibility (β = .287,
p < .05).
In the final regression analysis, the criterion variable was the
extent to which involvement in the WLDI served as an
encourage-
ment for participants to remain in Christian higher education.
The model explained 32% (R 2 = .317) of the variance in the
rat-
ings, with one predictor variable reaching significance. The
bene-
ficial impact of the WLDI being limited to other women had the
greatest influence as an encouragement for participants to
remain
in Christian higher education (β = .290, p < .05).
The Beneficial Impact of the WLDI

The participants were asked to identify the single most
beneficial
impact of their involvement in the WLDI on their professional
and/or personal lives through open-ended questions. The key
theme responses in order of frequency are summarized below.
The women cited the positive benefits of getting to know
other women through the WLDI. One noted, “The networking
relationships that occurred during the week gave me multiple
op-
portunities to reflect on my goals and strengths within the con-
text of Christian higher education.” Another commented, “I be-
lieve the most important benefit is that of becoming aware of a
women’s leadership network within the CCCU institutions, and
having the opportunity to learn from others within the network.”
For many respondents, the mentoring/shadowing experi-
ence was important. When asked to identify the single most
ben-
eficial impact of involvement in the WLDI, one individual re-
sponded, “Being mentored as a female professional into the ‘big
picture’ of how a university really works.” One participant com-
mented on the importance of learning about how to juggle
multi-
ple responsibilities: “It gave me insight into how other women
in
positions of leadership at institutions of Christian higher educa-
tion balance the responsibilities of being a wife, mother, and
ad-
ministrator.” Another highlight was the opportunity to form
ongo-
ing professional relationships. One woman commented that she
appreciated “having a highly qualified group of peers to encour-
age me in my leadership journey.”

Many women expressed appreciation for the opportunity
to interact with others who shared similar commitments. One
woman commented, “So often we (women administrators) are
the
only one or one of a few on our campus, so it was good to
connect
with other women to hear their realities and see that we have
sim-
ilar experiences.”
Some participants found encouragement to press on in spite
of resistance to women in leadership in Christian higher educa-
tion. One respondent identified the single most beneficial im-
pact for her as “networking with other women of similar calling
and drive and finding support in their similar struggles.”
Partici-
pants appreciated understanding and dialoging about the issues
that women in leadership face. “Knowing there are others like
me
who understand the unique nature of being a women leader on a
Christian campus.”
Another important aspect of the WLDI was acknowledging
the value of women in leadership in Christian higher education.
“It delivered me from the myth that women must operate like
men
in the administrative world, or that there is one prescription for
leadership that one must follow. I learned to appreciate
different
forms of leadership as well as different expressions of
Christianity

and saw that the struggles within my own institution were
common
to many institutions.”
Some experienced a renewed confidence in their personal
leadership abilities. One woman commented that the WLDI
“built
my confidence by placing me in a supportive community of
like-
minded women. I found I was neither too old, nor too shy, to
move
ahead in Christian higher education. Two women from WLDI
re-
main my best friends and mentors.” Another stated, “After
partic-
ipating in WLDI, I realized I had the skills and talents to take
on
a senior leadership role. WLDI gave me the confidence to do the
work.”
For some participants, having time to focus, reflect, and clar-
ify their personal sense of calling to the academic profession
and/or to leadership was of primary importance. One respondent
said that she appreciated “the time set aside to learn and assess
my
capabilities. We live at such a hectic pace that we rarely have
time
to constructively think about ourselves, our dreams, and how to
realize those dreams.”
Discussion
This study was designed to determine the ways in which the
five-day Institute and the year-long WLDI had impacted the
lives
of participants and the extent to which the desired outcomes of

this initiative had been achieved. Overall, the data reflect that
nearly all of the desired outcomes were met for most
participants
through the five-day institute program.
Motivating and equipping women through the institute pre-
pared more women for increased levels of leadership.
Participant
ratings of the workshop sessions and of having access to books,
handouts, and other written resources, were very positive. The
value of women’s leadership in Christian higher education was
acknowledged and celebrated, and a sense of collaboration
around ideas and experiences was evident.
The women participants reported that they had created deep
and lasting friendships/networks with other women in the insti-
tute. They also reported appreciating the opportunity to learn
from one another about their experiences in higher education
and having the opportunity to build ongoing professional rela-
tionships with one another. Hearing about the professional jour-
neys of the resource leaders served as an encouragement to
other
participants who often came to the WLDI feeling alone in their
professional world.
The importance of being nominated as an emerging leader
in Christian higher education was noted by several participants.
Some reported that this nomination process led senior admin-
istrators to articulate, for the first time, their confidence of the
leadership potential in these women. This expressed confidence
from a high-level leader, especially a male leader, prompted

some
of the female participants to consider the possibility of
leadership
advancement.
At the same time, participation in the WLDI did not change
the way some participants perceived themselves as being viewed
by
male colleagues on their home campuses. Some women
described
the “old boys’ club” at their institution and wondered whether
there really was a place for them in senior leadership. As Eagly
(2007) pointed out, a legacy of discrimination and exclusion has
shaped a world in which women’s experiences and behaviors are
often unlike those of men. Although prejudice and discrimina-
tion still make it harder for women to advance to positions of
leadership, many have broken through the barriers to their ad-
vancement. Still, questions remain as to why the barriers, both
perceived and real, seem great.
Recent scholarly contributions by Eagly (2007) concluded,
“In the United States, women are increasingly praised for hav-
ing excellent skills for leadership and, in fact, women, more
than men, manifest leadership styles associated with effective
per-
formance as leaders” (p. 1). Despite such affirmation, Eagly’s
research suggests that in organizational life, employees typi-
cally prefer male supervisors rather than female supervisors.
As a result, women face greater difficulty in obtaining leader-
ship positions and succeeding in male-dominated organizational
structures. These realities are equally present in higher educa-

tion, where the norms, structures, and systems sometimes
exclude
women from high-level leadership positions, leading some
women
to feel marginalized as members of the academy.
Eagly’s (1987) social role theory maintains that male and fe-
male leaders who occupy the same role do not display the same
be-
haviors. Because people internalize their gender role to some
ex-
tent, women and men tend to differ in their expectations for
their
own behavior in an organizational setting (Eagly, Johannesen-
Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003). It is these behavioral
expectations
and differences that need to be openly discussed and addressed
if more doors are to be opened for women to step into high-
level
leadership roles.
One of the important contributions of the WLDI experience
has been to remind participants that the journey into administra-
tive leadership has not been easy for most women. The eras of
the “concrete wall” and the “glass ceiling” that blocked
women’s
progress into leadership are now history for most of American
cul-
ture and in much of higher education. However, in some sectors
of the academy, helping women who are gifted with leadership
abilities to “navigate the labyrinth” toward high-level
leadership
remains a challenge. This labyrinthine journey requires persis-
tence, self-evaluation, and reflection on the many twists and
turns
it takes to reach the desired destination. While safe arrival is

possi-
ble, the journey is more uncertain and inefficient than following
a straight path (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Implications and Recommendations for Practice
Since the early 1990s, leadership literature and theory has
shifted
from a focus on hierarchical, individualistic, and command-and-
control approaches to models of leadership that reflect mean-
ingful relationships and mutual collaboration between leaders
and followers (Eagly & Karau, 1991; Kezar, Carducci,
Contreras-
McGavin, 2006; Northouse, 2007; Rost, 1991). Many modern-
day
leadership theorists commend leadership approaches that value
strong relational skills, bring out the best in followers, and em-
phasize collegiality, empowerment, and consensus-building
(Ben-
nis, 1991; Buckingham, 2005; Collins, 2001; Eagly &
Johannesen-
Schmidt, 2001). This shift from power over followers to power
with
followers allows for mutual influence in the leadership/follower
relationship. Given this paradigm shift in leadership theory, the
collaborative and empowering leadership style typical of many
women prepares them well to lead effectively in modern-day
organizations. Including women’s leadership styles in organiza-
tions can help create collegial and process-oriented
environments
that offer empowerment to organizational members (Helgeson,

1990).
Presidents and other cabinet-level administrators have a re-
sponsibility to encourage and support emerging leaders on their
campus, particularly women and ethnic minorities that are cur-
rently underrepresented in leadership. Though relatively modest
numbers of women can be served through the WLDI, other prac-
tices such as public recognition for institutional contributions
and
a commitment to advance women can indicate to women that
their gifts and potential are valued. In addition, both institution-
ally and collectively, it is important to create strategies and pro-
grams for encouraging the development of young women at the
undergraduate and graduate levels who have the potential for
fu-
ture administrative and faculty leadership roles.
After reviewing decades of literature about what contributes
to effective leadership, Eagly and Carli (2007) conclude, “There
is
no defensible argument that men are naturally, inherently, or ac-
tually better suited to leadership than women are” (p. 189). The
intentionally Christ-centered member institutions of the CCCU
believe that every individual has been uniquely created by God
with an array of gifts to make significant contributions to their
spheres of influence. Those currently serving on boards and in
administrative leadership face the stewardship responsibility of
af-
firming and empowering the use of women’s gifts for
leadership,
opening avenues for greater service to their institution and the
world around them.
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A Qualitative Study of Faculty Members’ Views
of Women Chairs
Carol Isaac, Ph.D., P.T.,
1,2,* Lindsay Griffin, B.S.
1,* and Molly Carnes, M.D., M.S.
1,2,3
Abstract
Background: Concurrent with the evolving role of the
department chair in academic medicine is the entry of
women physicians into chair positions. Because implicit biases
that stereotypically masculine behaviors are re-
quired for effective leadership remain strong, examining faculty
members’ perceptions of their chair’s leadership
in medical school departments with women chairs can provide
insight into the views of women leaders in
academic medicine and the complex ways in which gender may
impact these chairs’ leadership style and actions.
Methods: We conducted semistructured interviews with 13 male
and 15 female faculty members representing all
faculty tracks in three clinical departments chaired by women.
Inductive, qualitative analysis of the subsequent
text allowed themes to emerge across interviews.
Results: Four themes emerged regarding departmental
leadership. One dealt with the leadership of the previous
chair. The other three described the current chair’s
characteristics (tough, direct, and transparent), her use of

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