Art education in malaysia

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Temple University
Doctoral Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Board
Title ofDissertation: VISUAL ART EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
(Pleasetype)
Author:
(Pleasetype)
Khatijah Sanusi
Date ofDefense:
(Pleasetype)
4 /0 3 /2 0 0 0
Dissertation Examining Committee:(pieasetype)
Dolores Silva
Dissertation AdvisoryCommitteeChairperson
Milton Paleologos
Colden Garland_________________
Matt Bruce_____________________
ReadandApproved By: (Signatures)
James R. Powell
ExaminingCommineeChairperson
Date Submitted to Graduate Board:
on Examining
4-i4-oo
Acceptedbythe GraduateBoardofTempleUniversjrij/in partial
degreeofDoctojrofEducation. /y ^
Date if/S 6 /0 0
tentoftherequirementsforthe
(Dean ofthe Graduate School)

VISUAL ART EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
A Dissertation
Submitted to
the Temple University Graduate Board
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
by
Khatijah Sanusi
May, 2000

UMI Number 9969941
Copyright 2000 by
Sanusi, Khatijah
All rights reserved.
UMI
UMI Microform 9969941
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by
Khatijah Sanusi
2000
All Rights Reserved

i v
ABSTRACT
Title: Visual Art Education in Malaysia
Candidate's Name: Khatijah Sanusi
Degree: Doctor of Education
Temple University, 2000
Doctoral Advisory Committee Chair: Professor Dolores Silva
The purpose of this study was to describe the
propositions of John Dewey toward developing a basis for
linking traditional and contemporary Malaysian art. The aim
of this study was to derive implications for program
development in the visual arts in higher education in
Malaysia.
The impact on art during the colonial period was to
shift the focus of art from the traditional to that of
modern Western art. Decolonization has raised the questions
of shifting the focus back to traditional art forms without
relinquishing a modern perspective on the past.
Six works of visual art were described in application
of criteria derived from John Dewey. The works are by
current noted Malaysian artists. The artists and their
works are Habibah Zikri's Kain Sonqket: Sulaiman Esa's
Garden Mystery Series painting; Fatimah Chik's Nusantara
Series-Gununaan 3 : Mad Anuar Ismail's Beduk: Harun Coombes
Abdullah's Surah An-Nur: Abu Bakar Sabran's Moon-kite
Necklace.
These six works were submitted to description by
application of criteria derived from Dewey:
symbol-shifting, space-time continuum, practical-theoretic

adjustments, and social worth. It was determined that the
criteria provide a way of linking traditional and
contemporary Malaysian art and therefore are appropriate as
a basis for program development in the visual arts in higher
education in Malaysia. One implication of this study is
that additional works of art, traditional and contemporary,
should be submitted to application of the criteria derived
from Dewey to discern the breadth of appropriateness of
application of the criteria as a basis for program
development.

v i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT................................................ iv
LIST OF PLATES.......................................... ix
CHAPTER
1. THE PROBLEM........................................... 1
Statement of the Problem............................ 1
Delimitations........................... 1
Definitions........................ 7
Need for the Study.................................. 8
Stages of Research................................. 13
2. MALAYSIA IN TRANSITION............................... 15
Malaysia in Perspective............................ 15
The Coming of Islam to the Malay World and Its
Impact on the Malay Culture................... 16
The Qur'an and the Hadith as Artistic Determinants
of Traditional Malay Art...................... 18
Islamic Art in Traditional Society................. 20
The Qur'anic Root of Traditional Malay Art......... 21
Man as the Servant of God..................... 21
Man as Vicegerent of God...................... 23
Nature........................................ 23
Ca11igraphy........................................ 24
Awan Larat......................................... 25
The Concept of Beauty in Traditional Malay Art...... 25
British Colonization and Its Impact on
Traditional Art............................... 27
The Birth of Modern Malaysian Art.................. 30
Art Education in Higher Institutions............... 32
Post-Independent Period and the Recovery of
Islamic Identity.............................. 34
The Impact of the Linkage Problem: Traditional
Art and Contemporary Malaysian Art............ 35
3. DEWEY'S PROPOSITIONS: ART AS EXPERIENCE.............. 37
Formative Influences: Dewey and Pragmatism......... 39
Dewey's Propositions on Aesthetics................. 43
Aesthetic Experience.......................... 44
Process of Artistic Expression................ 51

v i i
Page
Art in Social Context.............................. 53
Art for Social Integration................... 53
Art for Utilitarian Purposes................. 56
Toward Application of Dewey's Propositions......... 60
Criterial Statements Derived from Dewey's
Propositions.................................. 60
Space-Time Continuum.......................... 60
Social Worth ............................. 61
Symbol-Shifting............................... 61
Practical and Theoretical Adjustments......... 61
4. APPLICATION OF DEWEY'S PROPOSITIONS TO SELECTED '
WORKS OF MALAYSIAN ART............................. 62
The Selected Art Products......................... 67
Kain Songket (1989) by Habibah Zikri............... 68
Social Worth.................................. 71
Symbol-Shifting............................... 72
Garden Mystery Series (1992) by Sulaiman Esa....... 75
Social Worth.................................. 79
Symbol-Shifting............................... 81
Nusantara Series-Gunungan 3 (1992) by Fatimah Chik.. 85
Social Worth.................................. 89
Symbol-Shifting............................... 90
Beduk (1993) by Mad Anuar Ismail................... 93
Social Worth.................................. 96
Symbol-Shifting............................... 98

v i i i
Page
Surah An-Nur (1993) by Harun Coombes Abdullah..... 101
Space-Time Continuum......................... 103
Social Worth................................. 104
Symbol-Shifting.............................. 105
Practical and Theoretical Adjustments........ 106
Moon-kite Necklace (1994) by Abu Bakar Sabran..... 109
Space-Time Continuum......................... 110
Social Worth................................. ill
Symbol-Shifting.............................. 112
Practical and Theoretical Adjustments........ 113
Applicability of Criteria......................... 113
5. IMPLICATIONS FOR PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT................ 121
REFERENCES CITED....................................... 127

ix
LIST OF PLATES
Page
PLATE
1. Kain Sonqket (1989), weaving by HabibahZikri........ 115
2. Garden Mystery Series (1992), painting by
Sulaiman Esa...................................... 116
3. Nusantara Series-Gununqan 3 (1992), batik painting
by Fatimah Chik................................... 117
4. Beduk (1993), wooden sculpture by MadAnuarIsmail... 118
5. Surah An-Nur (1993), stained glass calligraphic
work by Harun Coombes Abdullah.................... 119
6. Moon-kite Necklace (1994), handcrafted jewelry
by Abu Bakar Sabran............................... 120

1
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM
Statement, of the Problem
The purpose of this study is to describe the
propositions of Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) as a
basis for proposing a link between traditional and
contemporary Malaysian art- The aim of this study is to
derive implications for program development in the visual
arts in higher education in Malaysia.
Delimitations
The primary purpose of this study is to identify and
describe the propositions of Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958,
1934/1980) as regards visual arts. It is an attempt to
identify a theoretical basis for Malaysian art education,
providing a viable context within which to pursue continuity
between traditional art forms and contemporary art, and thus
to ground the identification of accurate subject matter for
art programs in higher education in Malaysia today.
In order to derive implications for program development
in the visual arts in higher education in Malaysia,
theoretical propositions which could delimit the area of
study must be identified and described. According to Silva
(1994), in program development, the theoretical impacts on
the practical and the practical monitors the theoretical.
The worthiness of any proposition lies in its potential to

remain constantly tenable and applicable. Theoretical
propositions can only become significant for the
identification of the content of art education when they
possess the potential for being translated consistently into
the practical. Accordingly, Dewey's (1916/1966, 1929/1958,
1934/1980) propositions concerning art as instrumental to
life are tenable and applicable. Dewey has been selected as
a scholar of choice for three main reasons.
First, Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) was
regarded as the most influential American thinker,
philosopher, and educator of his time. His writings and
teachings profoundly affected not only philosophy but also
educational theory and practice, both at home and abroad.
Second, Dewey's (1934/1980) writing on Art as
Experience laid the foundation for an aesthetic theory
applied to the visual arts in America after 1934. Dewey's
emphasis on the importance of process in creating an art
product also became a major emphasis in the Bauhaus art
education program, whose influence has now been adopted by
art schools worldwide.
Third, Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) believed
art and life to be interpenetrated. He rejected modern
artists' view that art is a separate entity, only available
to those whom the artist regards as being of superior
cultural status. The object that the artist produces may be
considered as a work of art, but the actual work of art,

according to Dewey, is to be understood by the extent to
which it affects human experience and the actual processes
of living. He thus rejected the idea of art-for-art's-sake.
In response to the aesthetic propositions advanced by Dewey,
artistic works that were socially and culturally oriented
became dominant among prominent artists such as Mark Tobey,
Barnet Newman, Diego Rivera, Pablo Picasso, Joyce Kozloff,
Isamu Naguchi, and many others all over the world, up to the
post-modern period.
In this ever-changing world, Dewey (1916/1966,
1929/1958, 1934/1980) maintained that the artist, the
critic, and the aesthetician must face the fact that change
is permanent. Human beings are continually subjected to
change, operating within a structure of laws. This
structure itself is always subject to change. Art,
therefore, must reflect such change. It brings forward
aesthetic experience and reveals the life and development of
a civilization. It reveals the customs, the rituals, the
communal activities that unite the practical, the social,
and schooling into a single aesthetic unity. The artist can
thus create a physical and moral environment that will shape
desires and purposes, that will determine the direction of
vision of a particular community or country. Artistic
experience, says Dewey, can and should shape the future.
It is for these reasons that Dewey's (1916/1966,
1929/1958, 1934/1980) formulation of the aesthetic

experience can be viewed as a potential basis for proposing
a linkage between traditional and contemporary Malaysian
art, with implications for program development in the visual
arts in higher education in Malaysia. This study will be
limited to consideration of Art as Experience (Dewey,
1934/1980) and Experience and Nature (Dewey, 1929/1958). It
is in these texts that Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958,
1934/1980) presents and discusses his focus on inquiry and
critical analysis applied to works of art.
Major traditional Malay art comprises the crafts in the
form of woodcarving, textile art (hand-woven songket, batik
printing), fiber crafts (screw-pine and bamboo weaving),
metalwork, and pottery. Whether in court arts or folk arts,
these forms prevail. They are created not only as objects
of everyday use to fulfill the practical needs of the
people, but they also reflect the Malays' value system.
One of the central features of traditional Malay art is
the presence of motifs derived from the rich tropical
forest, such as bamboo shoots, creepers, vines, tendrils,
flowers, and fruits. These motifs, which had been stylized
and abstracted to avoid realistic rendition of living
figures or animals, conforming to Islamic teaching, are
embodied in architectural and ornamental features as well as
everyday utensils. "Thou shall make no graven images," a
Judaic commandment on the prohibition against idolatry, is
also applicable to Islamic faith. The producers of both

human and animal figures, on the Day of Judgment, cure to
bring to life those they have created or be doomed forever.
The swirling variations of abstract motifs or protracted
clouds, avan larat, are the Malays' version of
arabesque— their interpretations and expressions of Islamic
doctrine into an aesthetic language of forms and patterns.
These seemingly decorative ornamentations are, in actuality,
the embodiment of the philosophical and symbolical
dimensions of the Malays' religious beliefs, contrary to
Western opinion that these ornamentations are merely
decorative and devoid of any meaning. Faruqhi (Faruqhi &
Lamnya, 1986), in expressing the unique function of
ornamentation in Islamic aesthetic, maintains: "Instead of
being unessential components added superficially to a work
of art after its completion, ornamentation is at the core of
the spiritualizing enhancement of the Islamic artistic
creation and of the Muslim environment" (p. 380).
Similarly, Michon (1982), in highlighting the functionality
of traditional Islamic art, avers: "The arts of Islam, as
indeed all traditional arts, are always 'functional', [sic]
that is useful, whether their usefulness be directly of
spiritual order . . . or whether they confer upon the
objects used in everyday life a distinctly qualitative
character" (p. 51).
In sum, the concept of pure art or art-for-art's-sake
and its corollary notion of fine art is irrelevant in

traditional Malay society. Besides being spiritually
revitalizing and utilitarian in nature, the traditional art
is also socially integrative. By using a collective and
shared vocabulary of patterns, forms, and symbols, a
traditional artist is able to generate interconnectedness
which contributes positively to social integration.
The global Islamic resurgence in the 1970s and the
National Cultural Congress, as cited in Esa (1992), have
resulted in a number of modern Malay artists, in their
search for identity, investing their art with Islamic
identity. While a few turned to Middle-Eastern countries,
the majority drew their inspirations from traditional Malay
crafts. Various forms and motifs of Malay woodcarving,
woven and printed textiles, plaited mats, calligraphic
motifs, and elements of Malay myths and legends became
sources of inspiration.
For this study, the traditional arts and crafts that
will be described are: (a) woodcarving, (b) textile art
(woven songket and batik printing), (c) fiber art
(screw-pine leaves and bamboo plaiting), (d) calligraphy,
and (e) metalwork.
A selection of six contemporary art works which mirror
the traditional aesthetic forms and motifs have been chosen
for application of this study. Besides being utilitarian in
nature, as exemplified by Habibah zikri's woven songket

cloths worn for ceremonial functions, they manifest
identifiable cultural values through symbolic icons.
The principal criteria for the selection of the art
works were the acclamation they have received both at home
and abroad, making them readily accessible to study, and the
diversity of form represented in the selection,
demonstrating the breadth and prevalence of the traditional
in the contemporary. These six works are: (a) a stained
glass calligraphic work, Surah An-Nur. by Harun Coombes
Abdullah in 1993; (b) Kain Songket. weaving by Habibah Zikri
in 1989; (c) the painting, Garden Mvsterv Series, by
Sulaiman Esa in 1992; (d) the batik painting, Nusantara
Series-Gununcran 3. by Fatimah Chik in 1992; (e) a wooden
sculpture, Beduk, by Mad Anuar Ismail in 1993; and
(f) Moon-kite Necklace, handcrafted jewelry, 1994, by Abu
Bakar Sabran.
Definitions
The following definitions are used in this study:
Program Development: The generation and application of
criteria for selecting and organizing content for schooling
(Silva, 1976a).
Theoretical Propositions: The "at least" statements
which characterize necessary but not necessarily sufficient
constraints for the visual sorts (Silva, 1976b).

8
Practical Propositions: The description and
explanation of propositions that impact on theoretical
hypotheses (Silva, 1976b).
Education in the Visual Arts: For the purpose of this
study, the terms "visual art education" and "education in
the visual arts" will be synonymously used since no
distinction is noted in the literature.
Need for the Study
Any justification for art programs in schooling
must be based in the discreteness of their
content. It is proposed that art education find
its source in art theory. It is proposed that
consistent theoretical bases for art education
have not been described. (Kerschner, 1982, p. 6)
Kerschner (1982) calls for the identification and
examination of theoretical propositions for their
plausibility and consistency before adoption as grounding
for the content of art programs. Unlike the schools, whose
art program accords to the art curriculum of Malaysian
educational policy, art education in Malaysia's higher
education institutions adopts a Western view of art
education. The absence of consistent theoretic bases in art
programs is one of the major factors contributing to the
lack of continuity and consistency in art education either
within public schools or colleges or between them. The
issue of identifying theoretical propositions as bases for
consistency in art programs, as posited by Kerschner, is
applicable in the Malaysian context.

As shown by history, art education in Malaysia has
adopted a Western art education perspective— the Bauhaus
system of art education. Essentially, the fundamental
philosophy and rationale underlying art education according
to this system is rationalism, scientism, and humanism. The
main objective is to cater to the development of
intellectual and creative artistic talent of the individual,
nurturing the concept of art-for-art1s-sake. The notion of
spirituality, subjectivity, and cultural representation (as
in traditional Malay art) does not have relevance in Bauhaus
art.
While the Bauhaus approach accords well with Western
tradition and aspirations, serious problems arise when it is
transplanted into a non-Western environment such as
Malaysia, whose ethos is rooted in Malay traditional values.
Malay art students who are instilled with traditional Malay
values, find Bauhaus art education problematic. The secular
approach to art education gives rise to conflicts. Such is
the predicament facing the art school which is locally known
as Kajian Senllukis dan Senlreka (KSSR), whose students are
mostly Malays.
The Fine Arts department of KSSR is illustrative of the
need for this study. It adopts the perspective of art
education in the West, where subjects like painting,
sculpture, drawing, printmaking, art history, and so forth
are offered. Since the stress is on the importance of

10
individualism, creative expressions, and naturalism, little
emphasis is given to transmission or appreciation of
traditional sort. Instead, the students axe instilled with
the idea that the fine artist is a "revered" being, superior
to others. Inevitably, highly individualistic and
aggressive artists have begun to emerge. Their works, such
as painting and sculpture, are supposedly "modern," and
become reminiscent of those of De Kooning, Pollock, Matisse,
Picasso, Diebenkom, Hockney, and other Western artists.
The Malaysian public find these abstract renditions of
Western art incomprehensible, both socially and
artistically. Contextually, such art works are not only
"alien" to their culture, but also irrelevant, and
consequently receive poor public reception whenever there is
a modern art exhibition.
In underscoring the current predicament that faces
KSSR, Salleh (1980), an eminent Malaysian educator, believes
that the blind adoption of Western art education values has
caused artistic and spiritual alienation. He observes:
There is one aspect concerning the cultural
development in Malaysia that deserves our
attention; namely the existence of two dichotomous
worlds. First there is the traditional world that
is underdeveloped and gradually diminishing;
second, there is the modem world that is Western
and alien. There seems to be no compatibility
between the two. . . . In the after-effect of
gaining Independence, we do not seem to have in
actual sense the ability or sustenance to think of
an educational philosophy that is truly ours.
(p. 2)

11
Zain (cited in Deraman, 1978), the Director of Culture,
lamenting the absence of a sound philosophical base for
Malaysian art education writes: "art education in Malaysia
lacks continuity between the formal education and its social
milieu . . . most disturbingly the art program in higher
education never questions the philosophy, the rationale that
Western-oriented art programs adopted" (p. 7).
Arnheim (1989), a world-known philosopher and art
educator, also shares in the idea of philosophy as the point
of departure in art program development. He avers:
The history of art shows that successful art has
never been devoid of significant content. Often
this was supplied by the religion or the
philosophy of the times. . . . A principal
mission of art education is to counteract this
cultural drought, a task that depends largely on
the spirit that guides the work in the art room
itself. (p. 51)
Discerning the socially alienating spirit of modern
Malaysian art, Zain (1989) could not but comment on
Malaysian modern art as not in correspondence to the
political, social, or aesthetic needs at the national level.
He maintains:
As a result, the dichotomous existence of
Modernism in an environment which is not entirely
in equanimity with its canons of the West has not
only proven to be problematic, but, in extreme
cases, also leads to cultural delusions. . . .
Thus the Malaysian experience shows that in the
absence of a sound philosophic base entrenched
within a system that operates on a national level
and the consequential epistemology arising
therefrom, the pervasive attitude is to value the
more prosaic and explicit aspects of Modernism.
(p. 23)

What: would be ‘the appropriate content for an art
curriculum that would suit a country like Malaysia whose
artistic, traditional, and spiritual values are rooted in
its population? Three factors could provide a point of
reference in determining the direction, the philosophical
basis, and the justification for content in art education.
First is the two recommendations of the National Cultural
Congress, as cited in Esa (1992): (a) to restore the role
and status of Malay indigenous and traditional art forms and
elements as vital components in the formation of Malaysian
culture, and (b) to recognize Islam as a crucial element in
Malaysian cultural development. Second is the national
educational policy which emphasizes the implementation of a
common curriculum which includes local content such as the
history, art, and culture of Malaysia with the aim of
preserving and transmitting the cultural heritage of
Malaysia*s multi-ethnic society in an attempt to maintain
national identity (Wan Teh, 1983).
From this point of view, Dewey's (1934/1980) assertions
that the environment denotes the specific continuity of our
surroundings and adaptation to that environment should guide
our activities, even as our activities adapt to the
environment, seem compatible with the direction suggested
above for visual art schooling in Malaysia. In consonance
with the idea that art begins with the social roots of its
own culture, Sutopo (1989) writes: "Art has its roots in

13
social life. What it is and what it bears depends on the
nature of its soil, on such cultivation as given by custom
and tradition, and on the favoring trend of taste” (p. 11).
For McFee (1966), art should help students see the function
of art in culture. She maintains: ”The social foundation
of art transmits values and attitudes, and identifies
cultural meaning and leads to respect and understanding of
culture" (p. 123). Zain (cited in Deraman, 1978) asserts
that Malaysia should begin its art education with the basic
understanding of the value of indigenous art, in order to
achieve a linkage between modernization and cultural
tradition. If art is an experience integral to and a vital
part of life, and if art is the visual manifestation of the
collective tradition and values of a community, then Dewey's
(1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) propositions may provide a
basis for deriving implications for program development in
visual art in higher education in Malaysia.
Stages of Research
Chapter 2: Malaysian Art Education in Transition: In
this chapter, the problem of linkage between the traditional
world and the contemporary world, and the impact of the
linkage problem on a special case of schooling— program
development in visual art in higher education— are
described.
Chapter 3: If, according to Dewey (1934/1980), "a work
of art is the subject matter of experience, heightened and

14
intensified" (p. 294), and if the visual arts cure a way of
presenting a view of social context, then Dewey*s
propositions may provide a basis for linking traditional and
contemporary Malaysian art toward a prevision of a future
Malaysian visual art in higher education. Dewey’s
propositions relative to art as experience are identified
and described and criteria are derived in this chapter.
Chapter 4: The criteria derived from Dewey's
(1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) propositions are applied
to selected works of art. Examination of the applicability
of the criteria is the central focus of this chapter toward
proposing a linkage between traditional and contemporary
works of Malaysian art.
Chapter 5: Implications for program development in
visual art in higher education in Malaysia are derived.

15
CHAPTER 2
MALAYSIA IN TRANSITION
The focus of this chapter is to describe the problem of
linkage between traditional Malay art and the contemporary
world, and the impact of the linkage problem on a special
case of schooling— program development in the visual arts in
Malaysian higher education. Malaysian art underwent
transition when the country experienced major social and
political transformations, from the pre-colonial era
(Islamic period) beginning in the 13th century, to the
colonial period in the 19th century, and into the
post-independent period— the present time. The purpose is
to elucidate the Islamic root of the philosophy of
traditional Malay art in an attempt to show the linkage
problem between the values of traditional Malay art and
contemporary Malaysian art. The impact of this linkage
problem in program development in visual arts in
Malaysia’s higher education institution will also be
described.
Malaysia in Perspective
Malaysia, formerly known as Federation of Malaya before
amalgamation with the coastal states of Sabah and Sarawak of
the northwestern part of Borneo island in 1963, is made up
of two distinct regions: (a) the Malay peninsula, extending
from the southern border of Thailand to the Straits of

16
Johore (also called West Malaysia)? and (b) the two
northwestern coastal states of Borneo known as East
Malaysia. The South China Sea separates the two regions by
about 400 miles.
The Malay peninsula's strategic location at the
crossroads of the sea routes between East and West, situated
halfway between India and China, contributed to its
commercial importance as early as the first century. This
location transformed Malaysia into an important port of call
for traders not only from China, but also from the West
(Ryan, 1962).
The Coming of Islam to the Malay World and Its
Impact on the Malay Culture
When Islam came to the Malay peninsula in the 13th
century, it brought the Hindu-Buddhist era in the region to
an end. The Muslim traders coming from as far as Persia,
Arabia, India, and China flocked to the port of Malacca, a
prosperous trading center in the Malay peninsula. These
traders not only brought their trade, but also their
religion. The new faith became a strong attraction to the
Malay rulers cue to the subtleties of the new faith in
integrating earlier Hindu beliefs and practices with the
mystical and spiritual dimensions of Islam. Similar to
Hinduism, Islam, too, placed a high premium on art as visual
manifestations of religious beliefs (Maxwell, 1990).

17
That: Islam became a dominant factor in Malaysian art
and a major "civilizing force" of the Malay culture cure the
opinions shared by many scholars. Al-Attas (1976), one of
those scholars, maintained:
The process of Islamization of the Malay
Archipelago which culminated in the 13th-16th
century brought about the greatest known cultural
revolution in the region. It was the momentous
event that transformed both the body and soul of
the Malays. (p. 15)
What is it that Islam brought to the Malay world that
is artistically and civilizationally determining? According
to Faruqhi (1984), Islam brought the Holy Qur'an, the
scripture of Islam, which provided a concrete model for
artistic form and content. It also brought the Hadith (the
teaching of Prophet Mohammad) literature. From these core
materials came the transformation of the whole culture and
civilization of the Muslim Malays.
The vital role played by the royal courts in the spread
of Islam can hardly be overemphasized. It has been often
mentioned that Islam was disseminated to the general
populace via the royal courts, as asserted by Osman (1984):
The spread of Islam in the Archipelago has been
linked with the princely courts since Islamic
scholarship and Muslim prestige were associated
with the royal courts. Not only Muslim traders
and scholars from the West flocked to these
centers, but the princely courts provided a base
for proselytisation by Muslims in the area.
(p. 265)
Al-Attas (1969), in his book, Preliminary Statement of
a General Theory of the Islamization of the Malav-Indonesian

18
Archipelago. posited that the period from the 15th to the
17th century witnessed the birth of an intellectual
tradition among the Malay-Muslims as a result of the efforts
of Sufi poets and writers who undertook missionary and
intellectual works to spread Islam. As a consequence of
their untiring efforts, their spiritual view and knowledge
began to penetrate the royal courts and the general Malay
populace.
The Qur'an and the Hadith as Artistic Determinants
of Traditional Malay Art
The transformation effected by Islam in cultural and
artistic expression was just as decisive in other aspects of
Malay life. The coming of Islam brought a new vision of
reality. As a monotheistic religion, Islam defines God as a
unique transcendent Being which is inexpressible. This
concept of god-head is directly in contrast with the
pre-Islamic Hindu religion which is rooted in polytheism.
This belief is expressed through the depiction of various
Hindu deities as evidenced in religious monuments and
architectures. As opposed to the iconographical nature of
Hindu art, Islamic art is essentially aniconic
(non-imaginary) in nature. Since in Islam the rendition of
naturalistic or representational images is prohibited
(hadith), Muslim artists, therefore, resort to the process
of stylization and denaturalization in their art.

The sufi ulama (guru) and saints were responsible for
determining the fora and direction of Islamic traditional
Malay sort. This was made possible through their
metaphysical interpretations of the Qur'anic concepts of
unity, cosmology, and psychology that proved essential in
the shaping of the Malay world-view pertaining to the
iconographical aspects of Malay art. The dissemination of
the teaching of the Qur'an was not only central to the adult
populace but also to their children during the dissemination
and transformation into what became the Islamic period.
It even overrode the priority of studying the
mother-tongue— the Malay language itself. It was only
after the children had learned the teachings of the Qur'an
that they would be permitted to study the Malay language
(Salleh, 1974).
For the school-age children, religious education took
place in traditional sekolah Pondok— "hut-like" schools— and
the madrasah (smaller mosques). Teachers employed were
generally the local guru, trained by sufi masters who were
themselves trained in the Middle East. Apart from studying
the Qur'an, the children were also taught to master Islamic
calligraphy and silat, the art of self-defense which would
be applicable in the later part of their life (Deraman,
1978).

20
Islamic Art in Traditional Society
The term "tradition" needs clarification as it is used
in this context, since it is one of the main factors in
consideration of Malaysian art. It is derived from the
Latin "traditio" indicating a transmission, a handing down
of something received (Keeble, 1967). In Islam, the words
and deeds of Mohammad were handed down orally until recorded
in the sunnah. So, too, in the arts, knowledge and
techniques are handed down from one generation of artists to
the next. In the general population, beliefs and customs
take on the force of law after generations of transmission
to successive descendants. In terms of content, tradition
implies a vertical axis of descent pertaining to its
transhuman (Divine) and integrative principle. T. S.
Elliot's (cited in Sabapathy, 1989) notion of tradition is
something that cannot be inherited, but has to be obtained
by great labor. Elliot further claims that this is a
necessary attribute of creativity and a criterion for
judging a work that is good. For him, tradition is a force
that is active and in a state of flux.
To Nasr (1981), tradition is to be considered as the
truth, or principles of supra-individual or divine origin
revealed or unveiled by mankind through the various figures
envisaged as messengers, prophets, or saints. For man,
living in tradition, according to Masr, means he lives in
the cosmos that is meaningful— meaningful because it

21
reflects divine principles. Accordingly, symbolism became
the most influential force in the art of traditional
Malaysian society, since it is mutually integrated with
life. Not only art has the power of relating to ontology
and cosmology, but also aesthetics and morality. As such,
the principles underlying the sacred and traditional arts
are conveyed by the artist/craftsman; in a traditional
society which places no distinction between the sacred and
the profcine, the artist plays a crucial role.
Thus, Nasr (1981) is cited as claiming that there is no
elucidation of the complex Buddhist metaphysical teachings
of spiritual enlightenment that is more eloquent them the
sacred Borobodur; or the Islamic aoctrine of "Divine Unity"
them the mosque in Qaraouiyyin; or the Taoist concept of
"void" them the landscape painting by Mi Fei (Ardalan &
Bakhtiar, 1973).
The Our1anic Root of Traditional Malay Art
Since traditional Malay art is deeply rooted in the
Qur'an, a brief description of the iconographical,
morphological, and philosophical dimensions of the Qur'anic
vision of reality is required, especially concerning the
tripartite relationship between God, man, and nature.
Man as the Servant of God
According to the Qur'an, man was created "in the most
beautiful nature (95:4), and as "the image of God" (hadith),

together with the gift of language and faculty of expression
by means of artistic forms and intuitions as perceived by
his inner senses (Michon, 1982). Mein is created by God only
that "he should adore Me" (Qur'an, 51:57), and that there is
nothing better for man them the remembrance of God. It is
only through submission to the Creator, that man's happiness
in this world and Hereafter will be attained. Submission to
God is conveyed through the act of zikr, remembrance and
contemplation of Divine names and attributes such as Divine
Unity, Infinity, Transcendence, and Beatitude.
The main mission of Islamic art is thus the art of
submission. This is manifested through an aesthetic
expression of tauhid, the Unity of Allah as in the
proclamation of the Shahadah— there is no god but Allah.
But how could a painting, a craft object, or a building
reinforce the concept of tauhid? To answer this we need to
understand the message of tauhid within monotheism. Allah
is other-than His creation. He is inexpressible. "No
vision can grasp Him" (Qur'an, 6:103). In order to create
within the realm that is permissible (since the Muslim
artist realizes the futility of visually depicting God and
the prohibition of figural or realistic scenes from nature)
the artist needs yet another means of directing man's
thought to the idea of transcendence. Therefore, in order
to express feeling and conviction to Allah, Muslim artists
avoid realistic portrayal of man or nature through the

23
process of stylization and denaturalization. Since "No
vision can grasp Him" (Qur'an, 6:103), Muslim artists allude
to the idea of infinity, transcendence, and imminence of
Allah in an abstract manner so as to produce
"other-than-nature" artistic renditions which result in an
ornamental-like art form. This abstract form is not a
response to the subjective or irrational or subconscious
mind of the artist as presented in secular modem art.
Rather, the abstract manner is the projection of an
objective and calculative mind embedded with Malay ethos and
religious beliefs (Mohammad, 1980).
Man as Vicegerent of God
Man was the chosen one among the creations of God to
represent Him on earth. In his capacity as the khalifah,
vicegerent, every man is entrusted with the duty to "enjoin
the good and forbid the evil" (Chandra, 1995, p. 16), thus
strengthening the virtuous life among the Muslim ummah,
community. To speak out against cruelties, social
injustices, and corruption, and to encourage moral, ethical
value and virtuous deeds are vital obligations to the Muslim
faith and religious piety.
Nature
Nature, to Muslims, is essentially a theophany— a
mirror that reflects God's divine name and attributes
(Corbin, 1969). It is a kitab, an open book regarded as

24
sacred. In underscoring this, Mohammad (1980) cited the
following Malay perception of nature:
Baik-baik membelah buluh
Dalam buluh ada ulat
Baik-baik mengkaji tubuh
Dalam tubuh ada sifat
Be careful when splitting the bamboo
For it contains the maggots
Be careful when studying the human body
For it contains Divine attributes
Baik-baik membuang ulat
Dalam ulat ada sengat
Baik-bedJc mengkaji sifat
Dalam sifat ada zat
Be careful in discarding these maggots
For they have stings
Be careful when studying Divine attributes
For they reveal Divine Essence. (p. 17)
According to Mohammad (1980), the Muslim's idea of
cosmology is embodied in the various forms of traditional
Malay art, including calligraphy— the highest in the
hierarchy of Islamic art since it is the Word of God made
visible— arabesque as discerned in woodcarving (for mosques
and traditional houses), woven textiles, metalwork, and
pottery.
Calligraphy
The driving force behind the rapid dynamic growth of
seni khat, Islamic calligraphy, is an expression of the
desire to attain the state of ihsan, spiritual beauty and
nobility, through constant remembrance and contemplation of
His sacred Words as embodied in the Qur'an. It is this
force that underlies the ubiquitousness of calligraphic

25
arabesque on the forms and objects used in everyday life
which provide the ambience for the ummah to remember Allah
consistently. As argued by Nasr (1987), the Qur'anic verses
which generally constitute the content of the calligraphic
art are "powerful presences" infused deeply with barakah,
the Divine blessings that are spiritually purifying and
uplifting.
Awan Larat
Awan larat is another technique in the manifestationof
ornamental motifs, similar in structure to arabesque. The
underlying philosophy of awan larat as an expression of
transcendentality of Divine essence in a contemplative
manner contributes to its pervading daily presence. In
almost all forms of traditional art and crafts, including
woven textiles, batik printing, mat-weaving, and metalwork,
this ornamentation reminds the ummah of the infinity,
transcendence, and imminence of Allah.
The Concept of Beauty in Traditional Malay Art
According to Braginsky (1979), the concept of beauty as
presented in Malay philosophy is clearly discernible in the
various following attributes: (a) lembut (gentle, pliable,
reflexible); (b) halus (refined, subtle); (c) seimbang
(balanced, harmonious); (d) teratur (order, decorum); and
(e) berguna (functional, beneficial). These attributes,
which reflect an ideal Islamic value-orientation in Malay

26
society, are considered as adab, decorum. It is this adab
that constitutes the essence of Malay identity and
personality, mirrored in various forms of artistic
expression. An example of this representation of the Malay
Islamic philosophy in composing the motif of woodcarving is
described by Deraman (1986) through the statement:
Tumbuh berpunca
Punca penuh rahsia
Tajam tidak menikam lawan
Tegak tidak memaut kawan
Tapi berlegar penuh mesra
Behind all creations there lies the Creator
God who is the mystery of all the mysteries
Achievement and progress should be acquired
without tension nor conflict
But warmth and harmony pervades all. (p. 15)
The first two lines describe the universe or cosmos,
including man, as owing its origin to the Supreme Creation
(hence, tumbuh berpunca)- However, at the level of Divine
Essence, God is transcendent, unknowable, inexpressible— a
mystery of all mysteries— and thus, punca penuh rahsia. The
last three lines allude to the Divine qualities and
attributes which man should emulate in the moral and ethical
values expressed in life. Hence, tidak menikan lawan means
in man*s attempt to strive for success, he should use the
proper adab, decorum, so as not to create unnecessary
tension. Instead, one ought to stay in harmony towards
achieving one's dreams, hence, tapi berlegar dengan mesra.
Accordingly, in the process of creating a design,
whether in woodcarving or in any other traditional craft,

27
the Malay Muslim artist will invariably adhere to the
principles which provide the ethico-spiritual model which
all Malay Muslims aspire to, and upon which the concept of
adab resides. In commenting on the Malay craftsmen's
skillfulness and ingenuity in the execution of designs, Roth
(1993) says:
The freedom of the design and the boldness of the
work, the absence of simple repetition and the
presence of variegated repetition, led me to the
conclusion that the Malay workman (who was at the
same time, the designer) must have used neither
pattern nor models. On enquiry, I found this to
be the case. . . . [He] no doubt mentally recalls
certain forms, but only to clothe them in a new
dress. (pp. 4-5)
During the time when royal patronage actively promoted
the traditional art, from the 13th century until early 19th
century, the craftsmen lived in the precincts of the royal
palace, with all their needs supplied. Secure in their
livelihood, the craftsmen were free to devise vessels and
ornamentations, exquisitely, and out of their own free will,
as in the words of Sheppard (1986): "Their products were as
beautiful in form, as delicate in workmanship as anything of
a similar kind to be found in the East" (p. 150), where time
and expense were not the overriding consideration.
British Colonization and Its Impact
on Traditional Art
Traditional Malay art flourished from the coming of
Islam to the Malay peninsula in the 13th century and
remained deeply ingrained in the fabric of Malay life and

culture until the 19th century, when it fell victim to
Western colonization. By the time the Malay peninsula was
colonized by the British, the Islamic root of its
traditional art had been entrenched deeply in the culture
and life of the Malays for more than six centuries. The
impact of British colonialism in the 19th century, however,
essentially destroyed Malay culture and identity, as has
been observed by many scholars, including Maxwell (1990),
who argued that: "Through colonial conquest and war,
Europeans are directly responsible for the destruction of
certain traditional centres of royal authority and the
aristocratic court cultures associated with them" (p. 361).
In their attempt to "civilize" and organize the Malay
society which they deemed to be "inferior" and primitive,
British-based laws and regulations were introduced. This
resulted in the dismantling and outlawing of many aspects of
traditional Malay Muslim life and culture.
The Pangkor Treaty in 1874 marked the beginning of the
British attempt to completely alter the Malay community.
The division of the Malay peninsula into different political
states: the straits settlement states, the Federated and
Unfederated Malay states, further weakened the Malay rulers*
hegemony in the states that were reorganized. The royal
patronage to the already well-established traditional art
gradually declined as the controlling power of the rulers in
each state was taken over by the British. Thus began yet

29
smother historical turning point in the history of the Malay
peninsula— the Westernization of the Malay world. As argued
by Mutalib (1990): "The colonial masters had systematically
attempted to separate Muslims from their religion . . . and
whittle away the domination of Islam in Malay society"
(p. 21).
For the first time, in British-founded schools in the
Malay peninsula, the teaching of formal art from a Western
view, especially in drawing and painting, was introduced and
adopted (Carline, 1968). Indigenous art was not given any
place in the schooling during the British Colonial period.
Even though the craft culture of the Malays had flourished
and attained a very high level of beauty and sophistication
in interpretation, the teaching of these crafts in schools
was ignored. Craft works, as perceived from the Western
perspective, lacked intellectual value, as claimed by one of
the British administrators, who argued: "You will find, I
fear, no art of any value in this territory and it is not
worth trying to teach it" (Carline, p. 114).
It was for this reason that Malayan schools under the
British colonization followed the same art education program
as prevailed in Britain. The earliest school founded by the
British was the Penang Free School in 1816 (Carline, 1968).
Its art program included drawing on slabs of slate with a
slate pencil, or with chalk on a black board. A decade
later, the school children were being instructed in

Western-oriented craft work including carpentering,
silver-smithing, tailoring, and bookbinding, in addition to
the usual elementary school subjects. The primary and
secondary school examinations on art were formulated in
conjunction with the Senior and Junior certificate of
examinations conducted in England- Not only were the Malay
students required to work using Western techniques, namely,
water-color and oil painting technique, but they were also
burdened with the unfamiliar subject-matter for art as in
still-life drawing and imaginative compositions. These were
a few of the decisive steps taken by the British in their
attempt to Westernize the overseas students while pursuing
artistic endeavors. The effect was to hasten the rapid
decline of the traditional arts, much to the regret of Sir
Thomas Monroe, the Governor of Madras (Carline). The
aptitude for the rich patterns and harmonious colors and
fine workmanship that prevailed in traditional textiles and
crafts gradually receded from Malay life under the control
of the British view of art in schooling.
The Birth of Modern Malaysian Art
British colonialism and the overwhelming influence of
Westernization gradually eroded the significance of
traditional art in the lives of much of Malay society.
Colonization in the 19th century not only caused a major
shift in the political and socio-cultural aspects of Malay
life, but also brought about the birth of modern art. The

introduction of Western formal approaches to art education
in Malayan colony schools led to the birth of what can be
called modern Malaysian art in the 1930s (Sabapathy &
Piyadasa, 1983). This form of modern art subscribes to its
own self-defining history and was a new phenomenon in
Malaysia. The forms and theoretic basis of this art
conflict with the norms and traditions of the Malay Muslim
culture. Its emergence in Malay society became a serious
threat and a great challenge to the expectations and values
of traditional Malay Muslim art practices and bases.
Modern art subscribes to the thinking of modem Western
man, who places a high premium on man's reasoning power. As
an embodiment of the post-Renaissance period, modern art
deifies science, knowledge, and a focus on human
interpretation of human affairs. Traditional Malay Muslim
art is spiritually based. Modem art, produced by modern
Western man, functions as a vehicle for the individual
expressions of the artist. In the words of Descartes (cited
in Arguelles, 1975), modem man "is essentially an entity
reduced to body and mind only, devoid of any soul" (p. 211) .
Modem art of Malaysia, despite its still nascent state,
moves abreast of the various art movements in the West,
producing carbon copies of art works in imitation of such
styles as abstract expressionism, constructivism, and
conceptual art. As a result of applying formalist and
aesthetic Western theories, Malaysian art assumes the status

32
of an independent: and autonomous entity. The concept of
art-for-art1s-sake, which is the rationale of Western modern
art, further exacerbates the alienation between art,
society, and Islamic tradition in Malaysia.
Despite the reductive effects of modern art on the
tradition of Islamic Malay art, many Malaysian artists still
succumb to the influence of modern art. According to Wong
(1989) and Zain (1989), many artists submit to modern art
because of two main reasons: (a) first, the error of
equating "modernization" with "progress" and "development;"
and (b) second, a reflection of the colonized mentality of
Malaysian artists in acceptance of the supposedly "superior
culture" of the Western white man.
Art Education in Higher Institutions
The rise of modern Malaysian art in the 1960s led to
the incorporation of art education in higher education
institutions in Malaysia, which is a recent development.
Founded in 1967, the School of Art and Design of MARA
Institute of Technology (ITM), Shah Alam, was the first art
school ever established by the Malaysian government, and it
adopted a Western art program. It was mainly to fulfill
three basic objectives— to uplift the economic, educational,
and spiritual values through the inculcation of Islam for
indigenous Malays. Its rationale was primarily to redress
the economic shortcoming of the Malay Muslims who have been
neglected in comparison to other Malaysian ethnic groups as

33
a result of unfavorable policies adopted by the British
during their 75-year colonial rule in Malaysia (Mahamood,
1993).
After almost three decades, the ITM School of Art and
Design has successfully achieved two out of three of its
main objectives. The inculcation of spiritual values in its
99% Muslim student population proved to be problematic. The
problem stems from the adoption by the Fine Art department
of Kajian Senilukis dan Senireka (KSSR) of a Western basis
for art education which is essentially secularistic and
humanist, directly in conflict with the religio-spiritual
values and ethos of the majority of Malay Muslim students.
A number of criticisms from Malaysian scholars,
including Salleh (1977) and Zain (1978), argue the need for
KSSR's Fine Art department to review its Western-oriented
art curriculum for its applicability in a Malaysian context,
founded on the values and spirit of the Malay Muslim
tradition. During the decade of the 1980s, KSSR entered
into a period of re-questioning, reevaluating the basic view
being maintained toward art. The challenge of identity and
focus became urgent. As Masahiro (1989) succinctly stated:
"The time has come for us to examine ourselves in the light
of what we have become as opposed to what we ought to be"
(p. 2).

34
Post-Independent: Period and -the
Recovery of Islamic Identity
The Independence of Malaysia from colonial status, for
Malay artists, consists of two significant factors. First,
socially and politically, it signifies the liberation of the
Malay "body.” Second, socially and culturally, it denotes
the liberation of the Malay "mind and spirit'1 from Western
domination. As citizens of the post-colonial period, the
burden of having to reconcile Islamic identity with
nationalism and modernism in art constantly challenges the
Malay Muslim artists.
It was within this context of soul-searching that the
convening of the National Cultural Congress in 1971,
concurrent with a global Islamic resurgence, became the most
significant recent event in the lives of Malay artists. The
Congress and the emerging importance of Islam in the world
provided a frame of reference for questioning the direction,
basis, and justification for artistic activities. The
principle concerns are: (a) socio-cultural art within
the social reality, (b) artistic-creative appropriation
of the traditional Malay-Islamic heritage, and
(c) philosophical-spiritual aspects in art.
The search for identity, the need to rediscover a
national ethos, and the need to overcome the effects of
colonization became the source of dysfunction among art
educators at KSSR. In addition, KSSR, being under the
umbrella of the Education Ministry, also must necessarily

35
defer to the Ministry's educational policy. All of these
considerations impact on the attempt to determine a
theoretical basis from which to identify and formulate a
linkage between the values of traditional Islamic Malaysian
art and its contemporary expression.
The Impact of the Linkage Problem: Traditional
Art and Contemporary Malaysian Art
In the KSSR's effort to forge a link between the values
of traditional Islamic Malaysian Art and contemporary
expression as a basis for program development in visual
arts, many factors are at stake. The danger lies in
accommodating pressures rather than engaging in
investigation of potential sources for an applicable basis
for program development.
The centrality of the spiritual emphasis of Islam which
pervades traditional Malaysian Art must, as Losche (1992)
suggests, be acknowledged. Program development in the
visual arts cannot take place in isolation from the society.
The impact of modem art on Malaysia through recent and
current exchanges with Western and Asian worlds cannot
merely be ignored. The distinction between art as an object
of veneration and art as a functional aspect of life must be
considered in view of the importance of the traditional
perspective of the umraah, the society at large. The
requirement of identifying a potential source that would
neither violate nor impose any one perspective leads to

36
investigation of the propositions of Dewey (1934/1980) in
Chapter 3.

37
CHAPTER 3
DEWEY'S PROPOSITIONS: ART AS EXPERIENCE
"Art is the living and concrete proof that man is
capable of restoring, consciously, the union of sense, need,
impulse and characteristic of the live creature" (Dewey,
1934/1980, p. 25).
As evidenced in Art as Experience. Dewey (1934/1980)
established himself as a 20th century philosopher who places
art as a central feature of his method of inquiry. This is
principally due to his belief that science and art are
indissolubly related. According to Dewey (1934/1980),
science becomes art because it exhibits aesthetic
satisfaction in its logic, and art becomes science due to
the manifestation of structural principles and logical modes
of inquiry. Dewey (1934/1980) says, "Science states
meanings; art expresses them" (p. 84). Dewey (1934/1980)
presents an analysis of aesthetic experience within the
context of ordinary life experience. Aesthetic experience,
for him, is an immediately enjoyed possession. Our daily
life is filled with aesthetic or potentially aesthetic
experiences, and one does not have to interact with the fine
arts for such experiences to occur (Zeltner, 1975).
Today, more than 60 years after Art as Experience
(Dewey, 1934/1980) was first published, Dewey's aesthetic
philosophy still exerts a major influence on the thoughts of

38
a number of contemporary philosophers and scholars. For
example, Shusterman (1992), a philosopher, writes:
Dewey's pragmatist aesthetics concerns with the
empirical spirit and down-to-earth sense.
Pragmatism is very well placed to help us to
direct and reinvigorate contemporary philosophy of
art. This view of pragmatism acts as a more
promising middle way and mediator between the
analytic and continental traditions. . . . (p. 4)
Jensen (1995) also notes:
Faith in the social powers of the arts allows
American intellectuals to maintain a loyalty to
democracy in the abstract while deploring people's
concrete cultural practices. This perspective is
analyzed and critiqued, and Dewey's beliefs in
"art as experience" offered as an alternative that
can refigure, and thereby benefit, American social
thought. (p. 365)
Dewey's (1934/1980) main focus in writing Art as
Experience was to propose the continuity of aesthetic
experience with the normal processes of living. His
integral philosophy, that is, the oneness of art and
everyday experience in life, appears to accord with the
world-view of traditional Malay art. Essentially, the
traditional Malay aesthetic subscribes to the integration of
art and life, so that art plays a central role in embodying
the traditional ethos and world-view. Thus, the rationale
of this chapter is to describe Dewey's (1929/1958,
1934/1980) propositions about art as experience and the
interrelationship of art and life. Such a study is
necessary to determine whether Dewey's (1929/1958,
1934/1980) propositions provide a basis toward proposing a
link between Malaysia's contemporary and traditional art.

39
To achieve the above-mentioned aim, this chapter will
be presented in three main sections. First, the formative
influences that shaped Dewey's (1929/1958, 1934/1980)
philosophy of art are presented. Second, Dewey's views on
art and aesthetic experience are described, and third,
Dewey's propositions concerning the significant roles of art
in society will be presented. These descriptions are toward
deriving criteria for possible application to art objects.
Formative Influences: Dewev and Pragmatism
Dewey (cited in Sleeper, 1986) was born in Burlington,
Vermont, in 1859 to Archibald Sprague Dewey, a grocer, and
Lucina Rich Dewey, his wife. In 1879, Dewey graduated from
the University of Vermont and spent the next three years as
a school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania. Dewey pursued
graduate study in philosophy with Charles Sanders Peirce at
the Johns Hopkins University in 1882. His five years at
Johns Hopkins gave him the opportunity to study with
psychologist Stanley Hall, and G. S. Morris (Sleeper).
Dewey (cited in Sleeper, 1986) earned his Ph.D. in 1884
with a dissertation on Kant's psychology and later began
teaching philosophy at the University of Michigan where he
remained for a decade. His first book, Psychology. was
published in 1887. In Dewey's view, psychological and
philosophical theories needed to be tested and practiced in
life. Accordingly, when Dewey became the Chairman of the
Department of Philosophy and Psychology and Education at the

University of Chicago, in 1894, he established his famous
laboratory school. In this school, learning was focused
through the practice of problem solving pertaining to
activities of everyday life experiences in school in such
subjects as housekeeping, woodworking, house building, and
other activities that cure appropriate to a social setting.
For Dewey, schooling is the microcosm of a society. He
wrote a number of books on schooling and society, including
Mv Pedagogic Creed (1897), School and Society (1900), and
the Child and the Curriculum (1902), which explained the
underlying theory of Dewey's laboratory school:
practical-theoretical adjustment. Dewey left the University
of Chicago in 1904 to go to Columbia University as professor
of philosophy and psychology. It was here that Dewey's
career became most noteworthy. His 34 years at Columbia
witnessed an unprecedented outpouring of philosophical
scholarship: Reconstruction in Philosophy (1921),
Experience and Nature (1929), How We Think (1933), Art as
Experience (1934), and Experience and Education (1938).
Dewey was very active in socio-political matters and wrote
many articles for general popular magazines and newspapers,
as well as scholarly periodicals. His scholarly writings
continued until his death in New York in 1952.
The pragmatist movement emerged out of the cross
currents of the 19th century: developments in science, the
evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, and industrialized

41
democracy. Charles Saunders Peirce (cited in Sleeper, 1986)
and William Jaimes (cited in Sleeper) were the main exponents
of this movement.
Peirce's (cited in Sleeper, 1986) version of pragmatism
focuses on meaning and truth in the context of scientific
inquiry. In arriving at "truth" as unified and systematic
knowledge, a scientific inquiry, Peirce argues, should be
adopted as a methodology whereby the intentional and
creative "life-doubt" are applied to generate rather than
solve a problem. Furthermore, Peirce believes that science
is the exemplar of restoring as well as embodying the method
of human intelligence (Sleeper).
It is through the application of a scientific method of
inquiry, Peirce (cited in Sleeper, 1986) contends, that the
study of the universe becomes possible. With regard to
human nature, he maintains that humans are highly adaptive
organisms which have successively satisfied their survival
needs through the adoption of "belief-doubt" systems. In
fact, Peirce avers that the essence of human inquiry
revolves around the enterprise of resolving doubt and
seeking belief (Sleeper).
In contrast to Peirce (cited in Sleeper, 1986), who
gives priority to scientific inquiry towards knowledge,
James (cited in Sleeper) proposes a humanist version of
pragmatism, stressing the primacy for human beings of their
belief and value systems towards God, moral life, and fellow

42
human beings. Philosophy, to Janes, becomes the determinant
that shapes one's perception of reality. James, as a
psychology-oriented pragmatist, proposes that one's lived
experience takes priority over intellectual speculation or
abstract thinking, as advocated by Peirce. James insists
that it is experience that helps individuals to operate
purposefully, that is, experience becomes the best means and
a teacher that helps one to function effectively in society
(Sleeper).
In this view, meaning, to James (cited in Sleeper,
1986), is determined by usefulness, practicability, and
workability of one's belief in the world, in terms of both
success and failure. Unlike Peirce (cited in Sleeper),
whose views of meaning and knowledge were directed to the
realm of science, James insists that meaning and knowledge
are inextricably tied to one's immediate experience in
responding to the world.
As a student of Peirce (cited in Alexander, 1987) and
James (cited in Alexander), Dewey (cited in Alexander)
developed a form of pragmatism that differs from theirs, but
which can be seen as a synthesis of the two major positions.
Sharing Peirce's and James' views, Dewey maintains that
human beings and mental life are biological and evolutionary
(Alexander). But while Dewey incorporates the two versions
of the pragmatists* value of lived experience, he further
adds his own vision of progressive and democratic society.

43
To some extent, this vision is based on the evolutionary
view which Dewey derived from his close relationship with
Mead (cited in Alexander).
Echoing Peirce's (cited in Sleeper, 1986) influence,
Dewey (cited in Sleeper) maintains that Peirce's scientific
mode of inquiry and its systemization of human experience
was the highest attainment of human evolution. But Dewey
opposes a limiting, purely scientific method of inquiry
purportedly leading to or arriving at "truth." The
intellectual appeal which pragmatism holds for Dewey lies,
fundamentally, in its emphasis on the priority of actual
experience. Experience, for Dewey, is the most significant
source and form of knowledge. Experience is a means to
solutions to problems, both philosophic and social. This
conception provides the cornerstone of human understanding,
perception, and thinking.
Dewev's Propositions on Aesthetics
Dewey (cited in Kadish, 1977) is perhaps the only
philosopher who maintains that it is appropriate to address
art through scientific inquiry. He also believes that one's
understanding of the world, can be grounded through everyday
experience to attain meaning as a basis for action. Dewey's
(1934/1980) interest in biology influenced his description
of everyday living experience and aesthetic experience. He
defines "experience" as a process of fulfilling certain
needs of the organism in an environment. He maintains:

44
. . . We have an experience when the material
experienced runs its course to fulfillment. Then
and then only it is integrated within and
demarcated in the general stream of experience
from other experiences. A piece of work is
finished in a way that is satisfactory; a problem
receives its solution; a game is played through; a
situation, whether that of eating a meal, playing
a game of chess, carrying on a conversation,
writing a book, or taking part in a political
campaign, is so rounded out that its close is a
consummation and not a cessation. Such an
experience is a whole and carries with it its own
individualizing quality and self-sufficiency. It
is an experience. (p. 35)
Experience is, therefore, the result of the interaction
of organism and environment which, when it is carried to the
full, is a transformation of the interaction into
participation and communication.
Aesthetic Experience
According to Dewey's (1934/1980) description, aesthetic
experience occurs when one has "an" experience. Such an
experience is not in terms of end-in-view but simply "an
experience," complete and whole in itself. Experience is
itself a process of doing and undergoing between the living
creature and its environment, where each side is acting and
being acted upon by the other to generate an experience,
that which "is a whole and carries with it its own
individualizing quality and self-sufficiency" (p. 35).
Although most of the experiences that we encounter are
desultory, there are times when we do have an experience
"which stands out" from the rest of our other experiences.
When this happens, things seem to flow freely and naturally

45
without any resistance or sacrifices into what ensues
(Dewey, 1934/1980). Such an experience has some pattern and
structure which become ordered into rhythmic movement and
embodied with meaning. Dewey further claims that aesthetic
experience does not only occur when there is unity which is
incorporated in immediate qualities, but also conveys an
intuition, a grasp of the inspiring quality of the immediate
object.
Dewey (1934/1980) contends:
"Intuition" has been used by philosophers to
designate many things, some of which are
suspicious characters. But the penetrating
quality that runs through all the parts of a work
of art and binds them into an individualized whole
can only be emotionally "intuited." The different
elements and specific qualities of a work of art
blend and fuse in a way which physical things
cannot emulate. (p. 192)
Dewey (1934/1980) further considers that no experience
can be regarded as aesthetic unless our emotions are
involved, unless in some way we empathize by becoming
appreciative and excited and enjoy the experience achieved.
In order to enjoy one's aesthetic experience to the maximum,
Dewey points out the following four human qualities that
contribute to aesthetic experience.
Intelligence. Intelligence constitutes the ability to
unite past experience in influencing future action. Claims
which ignore the role of intelligence in the production of
art are based on the postulate that thinking is restricted
to verbal signs and words only. In this view, to think is

•the manifestation of creating symbols, verbal and
mathematical orientations and their relationship to
qualities of materials, which demand a high level of thought
and calculation. According to Dewey (1934/1980), selection
or manipulation of objects which acquire meaning is only
possible when the self has acquired sufficient knowledge to
become aware of aesthetic powers. Through intelligent
control of the environment, one is able to direct and
consolidate one's artistic capabilities. The production of
genuine art work, according to Dewey, "probably demands more
intelligence them most of the so-called thinking that goes
on among those who pride themselves on being
'intellectuals'" (p. 46).
Object of interest. Interest is the element that binds
early stages of the process to the final outcome. Interest
sparks an immediate realization of intent. It is only with
a strong intention that an interest is able to be carried
forward from its initial stage until the completion of a
task. As the interest grows, experience begins to develop
and deepen. The constant nurturing of interest increases
and expands the range of the object of interest (Dewey,
1934/1980).
Emotion. Emotion is a response to an objective
situation. It attaches itself to an object and brings about
a new fusion by fastening on what is congenial and

47
discarding what is alien. As a corollary, it brings forth
unity that is present in the various parts of aesthetic
experience. Emotions always accompany an experience.
Without emotion, there is no action. Our response to a work
of art is mainly due to the varying emotional states
manifested in the art work (Dewey, 1934/1980).
Imagination. Imagination is a creative conjunction in
the formation of a new idea about a given subject as a
result of past experience. Dewey (1934/1980) insists that
the artist's past life always influences his present
artistic vision. These meanings from actual life become
embodied in the art work in the particular manner in which
he treats his subject matter. It is through imagination
that things that are absent physically are brought back into
an environment. It is creative since it involves a
dissolution of old objects into new ones in a fresh new
medium.
To a high degree, experience is an imaginative
wholeness, which conveys the point that aesthetic experience
is a pure experience. Emphasis upon the subjective
contribution to experience makes it feasible to view Dewey's
(1934/1980) orientation to aesthetic experience as an
activity which not only requires a deep understanding of
artistic ventures, but also personal involvement with the
art in application.

48
For Dewey (1934/1980), aesthetic experience occurs when
the several factors simultaneously combine:
1. Tensions and resistance are converted to movement
toward a fulfilling close— the operation of intelligence on
a social context.
2. Dynamic growing forms are lifted high above the
threshold of perception and made manifest for their own
sake, resulting in an enjoyment characteristic of aesthetic
perception— seizure, the operation of interest objectified
in a social contexti
3. There is unity, integratedness, and an emotionally
satisfying situation.
4. Imagination adjusts the new, connecting the new
with its physical past and the viewer's past experience in a
social context.
The aesthetic experience is located in the interaction
between the spectator and the art product and is the
culmination of all the described factors. However, Dewey
(1934/1980) acknowledges that there are enemies to aesthetic
experience. He notes:
The enemies of esthetic experience are neither the
practical nor the intellectual. They are the
humdrum; slackness of loose ends; submission to
the convention in practice and intellectual
procedure. Rigid abstinence, coerced submission,
tightness on one side and dissipation, incoherence
and aimless indulgence on the other, are
deviations in opposite directions from the unity
of an experience. (p. 40)

49
To Dewey (1934/1980), art is not nature; it is nature
organized, simplified, transformed in such a way that it
places the individual and the community in a context of
greater order and unity. Experience is not alien to nature,
but it is nature in one of its myriad forms, an aspect which
involves the interaction of the human organism in the rest
of nature. It is the most direct and complete manifestation
of experience since it represents nature as experienced by
the artist.
Dewey (cited in Zeltner, 1975) rejects the Formalists'
aesthetic theory of "Significant Form" as advocated by Roger
Fry (cited in Zeltner) and Clive Bell (cited in Zeltner).
Fundamentally, this theory emphasizes the purist concept of
art in which art is divorced from any contextual
relationship in its environment. Art is independent of its
social milieu; it is elitist and is dependent only on the
form (art work) and its formal aesthetic.
As maintained by Bell (cited in Langer, 1953):
To appreciate a work of art, we need bring nothing
but a sense of form and color and a knowledge of
three dimensional space. . . . Great art remains
stable and unobscured because the feelings that it
awakens are independent of time and place, because
its kingdom is not from this world. (p. 37)
Dewey (1934/1980) strongly opposes this "pure,"
uncontaminated by life, view of art. To combat such an
artificial separation, he proposes a paradigm of art in
which art and life are not isolated from each other but,
instead, coalesce. In his discussion of the notion of the

50
work of art, Dewey's pragmatist theory underscores the
integratedness between art and life. For him all art is
socially oriented. The inclusiveness of experience
incorporates art and all other human activities. Art is the
product of the interaction process between the living
organism and its environment which involves the
restructuring of energies, actions, and materials.
Unlike the traditionalist view of art as the object
produced by the artist (Zeltner, 1975), to Dewey
(1934/1980), a work of art is not the product, but instead,
it is what the product does in the experience of the
perceiver. Dewey insists on a clear distinction between the
art product and a work of art. The product of art is the
physical entity created by the artist as the statue, the
painting, the sculpture, and so on. But the work of art in
Dewey's words "is what the product does with an experience"
(p. 3).
Dewey (1934/1980) further states:
The product of art— temple, painting, statue,
poem— is not the work of art. The work takes
place when a human being cooperates with the
product so that the outcome is an experience that
is enjoyed because of its liberating and ordered
properties. (p. 214)
What can be inferred from the above is that a work of
art is intended for human consumption and, therefore, it
requires the active involvement and participation of the
viewer to experience and appreciate it. A work of art, for
Dewey (1934/1980), can only exist when there is a

51
collaboration between an art product and the perceiver. As
such, there is a need for the perceiver to possess some
knowledge and language about art, in order to participate
actively and meaningfully in an aesthetic experience. The
perceiver, therefore, upon his apprehension of the artist's
operations embodied in the art product, experiences an
aesthetic emotion of "delightful perceptions" (Dewey,
p. 19). For Dewey's unconventional insight concerning art
to accommodate his philosophy of integration between art and
life, presumes that a work of art is, accordingly,
perpetually new, created by each individual perceiver.
Process of Artistic Expression
The painter, like any other artist, according to Dewey
(1934/1980), perceives the world, initially, just like
everyone else. But every experience the artist undergoes
starts a compulsion, a craving for something desirable to
satisfy a need to establish a definite relation with the
environment. An inner agitation is discharged to be
expressed and carried forward towards completion. The
artist converts lines, paints, and pigments into a means of
expressing an imaginative experience. What is taken as
important is influenced by the artist's past experience,
theories of art, attitudes toward life, and the context in
which he lives with a purpose.
That is, according to Dewey (1934/1980), the act of
creating involves a total integration between subject

(artist) and object (material). It is a continuous process
of reconstruction, readjustment as the artist's feeling is
heightened. Until he reaches satisfaction, he continues to
shape and reshape and eliminate those elements and forms
that do not contribute to the desired organization. The
artist, Dewey continues, is one who does and undergoes more
keenly than others. He organizes, clarifies, and simplifies
his materials to accord with his intuition, vision, and
interest. He has not only superior dexterity (doing) but is
also unusually sensitive (undergoing) to "the qualities of
things" (Dewey, 1934/1980, p. 49).
An artistic endeavor is not an instantaneous emission.
It takes time to transfer ideas and for imagination to
manifest itself (Dewey, 1934/1980). In an artistic
endeavor, there is time for inception, development,
fulfillment, integration of both materials and intuition,
and interaction toward reorganization as a result of past
experience. A period of incubation takes place until what
is conceived is finally completed and brought forth. In the
process of actualizing every stage of his work, that is, in
creating the form that Dewey defines as "the dynamic process
of shaping experience by means of a medium so that it became
expressive" (p. 55), the artist must, at each point, retain
and sum up what has gone before as a whole with reference to
the whole to come. If not, there would not be any
consistency and unity in his successive acts. The

53
undergoings that correspond to a variety of rhythms of
experience not only save the work from being monotonous and
aimless but also yield a heightened enjoyment and
fulfillment. Dewey says:
An object is peculiarly and dominantly esthetic,
yielding the enjoyment characteristic of esthetic
perception, when the factors that determine
anything which can be called an experience are
lifted high above the threshold of perception and
are made manifest for their own sake. (p. 57)
Dewey (1934/1980) holds aesthetic experience, artistic
creation and appreciation to be a paradigm found in the
daily interactional processes of needing and meeting one's
needs.
Art in Social Context
Every art communicates because it expresses. It
enables us to share vividly and deeply in meanings
to which we had been dumb. . . . Communication is
the process of creating participation. . . . The
expressions that constitute art are communication
in its pure and undefiled form. Art breaks
through barriers that divide human beings, which
are impermeable in ordinary association. (Dewey,
1934/1980, p. 244)
Art for Social Integration
A central aspect of art as presented by Dewey
(1934/1980) in Art as Experience is its instrumental role in
transmitting values and attitudes and in identifying
cultural meanings. Art has meaning and order derived from
cultural values. In any society, art functions at two
levels: It serves not only in fulfilling the metaphysical
and spiritual needs of man, but also serves the physical

54
needs of man (Michon, 1982). Art permits and supports
participation in a common understanding of shared values,
beliefs, and aspirations as well as providing for the
practical necessities of a community. To the extent that
art fulfills such roles, it ensures participation and
integration toward perpetuation of common sheared values and
aspirations.
In explaining the unifying role of art, Dewey (cited in
Dennis, 1968) writes:
It is an extension of traditional beliefs and
values which are manifested in the form of
rituals, painting, sculpture, architecture, music,
etc. . . . They are means to perpetuate cultures.
They are signs of civilization and national
status. They are unifying. They have
intellectual and moral worth. They focus on
essentials. (p. 24)
To Dewey (1934/1980), art affords communication and
participation in the values of life through the imaginative
visions of the artists. Through art, artists are able to
translate their emotions and ideas, their insight, which
cannot always be adequately expressed through ordinary
language or gestures. An artist chooses the most expressive
forms, materials, and technique to best express his ideas in
order to elicit attention from his audience. Whether the
art product generates similar responses from the viewers as
those experienced by the artist is another issue. The
artist attempts to communicate, to inspire the viewer's
appreciation and sympathetic understanding, so as to promote
an aesthetic experience.

55
In commenting on the integratedness of aesthetic form
in the communal modes of activities, Dewey (1934/1980)
writes:
They [communal activities] introduced social
values into experience in a way that was most
impressive. They connected things that were
overtly important and overtly done with the
substantial life of the community. . . . These
activities conformed to the needs and conditions
of most intense, most readily grasped and longest
remembered experience. (p. 328)
Dewey (1934/1980) believes that a society's culture is
a basic, essential factor in education. It is through
understanding of the meanings of the symbols and icons found
in cultural and artistic products that one's outlook is
formed in both liberating and binding ways, for it is
through artistic products that the very possibility of a
shared life of meaning is established. Dewey maintains that
no one can escape culture. But the most important human
goal is to develop a culture that is consciously aware of
itself, to use Alexander's (1987) words, "as a shape and
shapeable power" (p. 72). Culture, that is, must recognize
itself as an entity for critical self-reflection,
reevaluation, and exploration toward the possibility of a
better and more enriching life.
The defining role art plays sustains its intrinsic
value in the life and culture of a society. As Dewey
(1934/1980) says, "Continuity of culture from one
civilization to another is conditioned by art more than
anything else" (p. 327). He further asserts that without

56
art, all the activities of a community, the rites and
ceremony, the dance and the drama, the delicate ornamental
designs on utensils and articles of the activities of daily
living would perish. "Art," says Dewey, "not only realizes
the community in its fullest sense, as communication, but
embodies in itself the very guest of the democratic
community: the creative exploration of the fulfilling
meaning and values of experience" (p. 332).
Art for Utilitarian Purposes
"Art must continue to maintain its traditional role as
an integral part of daily living. . . . In life that is
truly life, everything overlaps and merges" (Dewey,
1934/1980, p. 7).
In traditional society, artists function at two equally
significant and meaningful levels. Through his talents, the
artist not only assumes the role of visualizer of cultural
values and ethos, he is also responsible for the production
of objects of everyday use to fulfill societal needs.
Traditional artists employ dexterity and skill in the
service of the society. His talents are manifested for the
benefit of the entire community. Art, therefore, becomes a
gift that the artist bestows upon the society as a whole.
As argued by Coomaraswamy (1991):
There can be no doubt about the purpose of art in
traditional society. When it has been decided
that such and such a thing should be made, it is
by art that it can be properly made. There can be
no good use without art; there is no good use if

57
things are not properly made. The artist is
producing a utility— something to be used. (p. 6)
Elaborating on the social function of art, Tawa (1992)
says:
In this sense art is making well whatever needs
making— be it a garden, an icon, a building, a
city, a cloth. Making well means making for the
good of the whole human being: body, mind,
spirit. Something well-made, something artfully
made, is physically satisfying, mentally
intriguing and spiritually fulfilling. (p. 283)
Tawa (1992) further maintains that in traditional
society, art is never exclusivistic but socially oriented as
well as ubiquitous in nature. It pervades and permeates
every facet of human life and becomes, to use Dewey's
(1934/1980) words, "the enhancements of the processes of
everyday life" (p. 7). or what Jamal (1992) describes as
"museums without walls" (p. 23), muzium tanpa tembuk.
Art products, therefore, are not luxury objects
especially designed for the appreciation of the "elite"
group as they are sometimes perceived in some contemporary
societies. Furthermore, in a society where art becomes a
collective property— that it is for all and belongs to
all— it is neither distanced from the soul of each person,
who is empowered to associate with it, nor from the soul of
the community in general. Thus, the nature of traditionally
viewed art is preeminently social and not driven by the
idiosyncratic impulse for self-expression as commonly is the
case in modern art. The artist in traditional society did
not hold an elevated view of himself. As expressed by Tawa

58
(1992): "The traditional [view of an artist] is more
inclusive. An artist is not a special kind of person, but
that every person is a special kind of artist" (p. 284). In
a similar vein, Gablik (1984) also maintains: "An
individual in traditional society is submerged in tradition
which he accepts as an immediate reality, something that is
transmitted from the past" (p. 47).
Gablik (1984) further says that in traditional art, the
individual does nothing on his own account apart from the
social group. In fact, there is nothing more terrible them
to be cast out of the collective and remain alone. In this
view, traditional art is never personal as it does not
reflect a personal viewpoint.
Concomitantly, in traditional society, objects of daily
use that intensify a sense of immediate living, become the
focus of admiration. Ornaments in gold and silver, domestic
furnishings, pots, spears, and other household utensils cure
made with intense care and skill since they are the
"enhancements of the processes of everyday life" and "were
part of the significant life of an organized society"
(Dewey, 1934/1980, pp. 6-7).
Dewey (1934/1980) rejects the view which separates art
from life experience. By virtue of the fact that an
artifact is generally understood as a physical entity which
can be stored anywhere, the work of art tends to be
understood as a thing, an object only to be regarded as a

59
sheer physical presence. But for Dewey, an art work is the
interactive experience between the art object and the
appreciator; art does not exist if it is set apart from the
human experience.
Theories that isolate art from its origin, and as
disconnected from other experience, are operating
ineffectively, maintained Dewey (1934/1980). They tend to
compartmentalize aesthetic perception as a transient
pleasure. "Art-for-art's-sake theories" he contends
"spiritualize art out from its context and make it appealing
to a selected audience" (p. 10). Such theories, he posits:
. . . disconnected from other modes of
experiencing, cure not inherent in the subject
matter but arise because of specifiable extraneous
conditions . . . driving away aesthetic
perceptions that are necessary ingredients of
happiness. (p. 10)
Anderson (1985) too shares this opinion and insists
that:
The aesthetic quality— the formal make up and the
style of art work— is crucial to its overall
significance and meaning; but the consideration of
formal quality divorced from culturally contextual
concerns inevitably leads the viewer to an
incomplete or even false understanding of the
work. (p. 54)
To Dewey (1934/1980), an art work bridges the dichotomy
which seeks to separate the aesthetic from the world of
ordinary experience. But once the art products are, in
Shusterman’s (1992) words, "effectively quarantined" to the
museums and galleries and set upon far-off pedestals, the
art works lose their legitimacy. They have been elevated to

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