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Systems Model of Construction Accident Causation
Panagiotis Mitropoulos1; Tariq S. Abdelhamid2; and Gregory A. Howell3
Abstract: The current approach to safety focuses on prescribing and enforcing “defenses;” that is, physical and procedural b
reduce the workers’ exposure to hazards. Under this perspective, accidents occur because the prescribed defenses are violate
of safety knowledge and/or commitment. This perspective has a limited view of accident causality, as it ignores the work syste
and their interactions that generate the hazardous situations and shape the work behaviors. Understanding and addressing
factors that lead to accidents is necessary to develop effective accident prevention strategies. This paper presents a new accid
model of the factors affecting the likelihood of accidents during a construction activity. The model takes a systems view of acc
focuses on how the characteristics of the production system generate hazardous situations and shape the work behaviors, and
conditions that trigger the release of the hazards. The model is based on descriptive rather than prescriptive models of work be
takes into account the actual production behaviors, as opposed to the normative behaviors and procedures that workers “sho
The model identifies the critical role of task unpredictability in generating unexpected hazardous situations, and acknowl
inevitability of exposures and errors. The model identifies the need for two accident prevention strategies:~1! reliable production plannin
to reduce task unpredictability, and~2! error management to increase the workers’ ability to avoid, trap, and mitigate errors. T
causation model contributes to safety research by increasing understanding of the production system factors that affect the f
accident. The practical benefit of the model is that it provides practitioners with strategies to reduce the likelihood of acciden
DOI: 10.1061/~ASCE!0733-9364~2005!131:7~816!
CE Database subject headings: Occupational safety; Construction site accidents; Accident prevention.
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Introduction
In recent years, construction accident rates have declined
result of substantial effort by many parties. Increased pres
from OSHA and owners, and increased cost of accidents r
the contractors’ awareness. In turn, contractors increased
training and enforcement. These efforts have reduced the
and illness rate from 12.2 in 1993 to 7.9 in 2001. However,
rate of fatalities has shown little improvement—since 1997,
number of fatalities per year is consistently over 1,100~Bureau o
Labor Statistics 2004!.
The current appr.
The article deals with the identification through field research in the understanding of the workers about the risks and how these may be protected by individual protection equipment.
uction safety has been achieved, the industry still continues to lag behind most other industries with regard to safety. The construction safety of any organization consists of employee’s attitudes towards and perceptions of, health and safety
behaviour. Construction workers attitudes towards safety are influenced by their perceptions of risk, management, safety rules
and procedures. A measure of safety could be used to identify those areas of safety that need more attention and improvement.
The aim of the study was to identify factors in the safety management that any lead project success. these factors influence
construction safety. In this project questionnaire is framed to find safety in major organisations. data is collected on the basis
of questionnaire. Employees of various construction firm are interviewed. Collected data is analysed statistically. this analysis
is show the safety environment among organisation. it also gives suggestion to improve safety at construction site.
This reviews the strengths and weaknesses of long-established approaches to safety, and proposes new perspectives and concepts underlying a contemporary approach to safety.
This includes the following topics:
a) The concept of safety;
b) The evolution of safety thinking;
c) Accident causation — The Reason model;
d) The organizational accident;
e) People, operational contexts and safety — The SHEL model; and
f) Errors and violations;
The article deals with the identification through field research in the understanding of the workers about the risks and how these may be protected by individual protection equipment.
uction safety has been achieved, the industry still continues to lag behind most other industries with regard to safety. The construction safety of any organization consists of employee’s attitudes towards and perceptions of, health and safety
behaviour. Construction workers attitudes towards safety are influenced by their perceptions of risk, management, safety rules
and procedures. A measure of safety could be used to identify those areas of safety that need more attention and improvement.
The aim of the study was to identify factors in the safety management that any lead project success. these factors influence
construction safety. In this project questionnaire is framed to find safety in major organisations. data is collected on the basis
of questionnaire. Employees of various construction firm are interviewed. Collected data is analysed statistically. this analysis
is show the safety environment among organisation. it also gives suggestion to improve safety at construction site.
This reviews the strengths and weaknesses of long-established approaches to safety, and proposes new perspectives and concepts underlying a contemporary approach to safety.
This includes the following topics:
a) The concept of safety;
b) The evolution of safety thinking;
c) Accident causation — The Reason model;
d) The organizational accident;
e) People, operational contexts and safety — The SHEL model; and
f) Errors and violations;
Amelioration of safety management in infrastructure projectsIJERA Editor
Accidents are a major public health concern, resulting in an estimated 1.2 million deaths and 50 million injuries
worldwide each year specifically, the relationships between drivers' characteristics and road accidents are not
fully understood. Many factors are involved in the accident occurrence at construction site. Some important
elements that create a significant portion of accidents include: safety management error, poor training programs,
human element, act of god, outdated procedure and no clear monitoring policy. Although some of these items
are inevitable, but the occurrence of the largest part can be prevented. Therefore, for ameliorating the safety in a
project each of these items should be analyzed and a practical approach introduced. In general, near miss,
incident and accident are three dependent levels that mainly lead to injury. Risk and hazard are allocated in first
level which means near miss, therefore, no on-time identification of hazard and risk causes to create incident
and preventing accident in incident stage is unavoidable.
Study on safety management of small and medium scale industries in tamilnadueSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Session 01 _Risk Assessment Program for YSP_Introduction, Definitions and Sta...Muizz Anibire
Program Objectives
In light of industrialization trends across the globe, new hazards are constantly introduced in many workplaces. This program aims to provide Young Safety Professionals (YSPs) from diverse backgrounds with the requisite skill to address the health and safety hazards in the modern workplace.
1Running Head RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BUILDING A BRIDGE16R.docxvickeryr87
1
Running Head: RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BUILDING A BRIDGE
16
RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BUILDING A BRIDGE
MPM344 Project Risk Management
Risk Management Plan
Charles Williams
12/03/18
Table of Contents
RISK MANAGEMENT JUSTIFICATION 3
PROJECT RISK IDENTIFICATION 4
PROJECT RISK ANALYSES 6
PROJECT RISK RESPONSE STRATEGY 11
PROJECT RISK MONITORING 14
PROJECT RISK COMMUNICATIONS PLAN 15
References 16
RISK MANAGEMENT JUSTIFICATION
With a large concern on the occurrence of the accidents due to the weaknesses in building it is important to conduct and write this risk management plan (Gerardus, 2018). On average, various accidents occur due to same failures in building or the construction. It is hence important to outline such failures occurring due to the ignorance of these subcontractors and contractors. The contractors and all persons in the construction of a public infrastructure needs to take some caution to save the lives of the people as well save their properties. The procedure hence needs to be outlined in developing options and actions to enhance the proper opportunities to evade any threats to the objectives.
In this project mitigation and contingency. This means that we try to eliminate or reduce any probability of occurrence of the peril. For contingency, we can try the best to find any other solutions to the peril (Gerardus, 2018). For my risk management plan the method I have chosen will be the waterfall risk management method. The waterfall risk management is most effective in traditional projects such as construction and other examples of more common engineering projects due to the uncomplicated nature of these projects.
PROJECT RISK IDENTIFICATION
There are several risks associated with the building of a bridge. From relatively small issues like severe weather, missed payments, or late deliveries to big problems like accidents on job sites or structural failures, people who do inspection, maintenance, and construction work on bridges face an extraordinary number of risks every day. Most contractors experience inconsistent cash flow at one time or another. Cash flow issues are not usually the result of ineffective money management. Instead, they’re caused by past due payments or not getting paid in full for work that’s been completed. This issue often leads to bankruptcy or the complete failure of the business. Workplace safety should be the number-one priority on every bridge construction site. Inadequate safety practices can lead to serious injuries or even death. Accidents on a job site can cause traffic and construction delays, along with added time to investigate and resolve issues, work stoppages, penalties and fees, increased insurance rates, low morale on the job, and significant harm to a contractor’s reputation. Every contractor tries to avoid it, but it inevitably happens: Work done on a bridge site doesn’t meet regulatory standards or contractual specifications. It costs time and money to.
A Human-Centric Approach to Oil & Gas Industry SafetyCognizant
Wearables and other digital hardware can help minimize safety incidents. Monitoring biometrics and alerting workers before they become dangerously mentally or physically fatigued mitigates tiredness as a significant contributing factor in workplace accidents. Applying big data techniques to human behavior enables causal analysis to find the root causes of accidents.
Type your short title here 1Running head Safety at work.docxwillcoxjanay
Type your short title here 1
Running head: Safety at work1Levels of Safety in Organizations and how to Deal with Acceptable RisksStudent’s nameUniversity Affiliations
QUESTION 1
Due to the collapse of a building during its construction arising from negligence my previous company ascended to NORM (naturally occurring reactive management) from SWAMP (safety without any management process). Before the catastrophe the construction company had no safety policies at all apart from wearing required safety gear by employees. The working conditions were not safe. Quite a number of employees had been involved in accidents. The company thus had begun to suffer losses. As usual the blame was on the employees for their lack of insight and safety protection during working hours. The complaints were everywhere. The employees thought that the management had squanderedall the money instead of thinking of better ways to keep them safe. There was even an attempt to boycott work until the working conditions were improved. Instead of a positive response from the management what the employees got were threats to end their contracts if they ever thought of boycotting work. Left with no option the employees returned back to work reluctantly. On top of the growing bill of insurance costs the company was also handling a number of unending law suits filed by former employees seeking compensation after being involved in accidents. The management was feeling the pain. It was then the major accident happened.
After the collapse of a whole building the company had to act fast. Nearly every employee was suing the company. The company was forced to start abiding to safety regulations. Safety managers were employed to ensure that regulations weren’t broken. Every employee was being virtually supervised. Their every move had to be watched. There were numerous programs and training sessions to inform the employees of the best safety regulations. At this point the insurance costs reduced but most of the costs were now being redirected into training and payment of the safety managers. Thus the focus shifted from the hazardous working environment to employees who were breaking safety rules. These employees were considered to be the sole cause of all the lack of safety in the company. Thus disciplinary action became a common norm.
For the construction companies to reach the EXCELLENCE level a lot of change has to occur. First the focus should shift from discipline and adherence to safety rules to what the roots of the accidents are. Safety should not be an abstract topic only discussed in meetings and displayed by huge banners in every corner of the business premises. It should be a serious thing practiced even by the management. When this happens it will be easier to have safety as a culture and not as a rule. Safety would have been integrated to become one of the success factors of the company. When any accidents happen the management would immediately deal with it and try ...
Caught in Numbers, Lost in Focus: What it Means to Manage Safety in Global Sh...Nippin Anand
Have you ever wondered about how safety gets measured and how it became one with the ‘science’ of management (granted there is such a term as management science). What is the relationship between occupational health and safety and technical safety? How reliable is compliance as a measure of safety and how could we possibly distinguish between quality and safety?
Risk Assessment for Building Construction Sites in Myanmarijtsrd
In Myanmar, construction industries carry on to become safety first. There are many hazards and risks in construction that can cause employee injuries and illnesses. In order to be safe, risk assessment technique is widely used in international but less in Myanmar. So this paper aims to help what kind of risks can occur and to know how to reduce these risks by using additional controls. Firstly, it is required to collect data. Therefore, three construction companies in Mandalay Myanmar are chosen. Hazards are obtained from the observed data. Questionnaires concerned with likelihood and severity are collected from the project engineers in these sites. The results from questionnaires are used to evaluate the risks. The evaluated risks are reviewed whether these are acceptable or additional controls are required to reduce risks. On the basis of outcome results, risk prioritization number charts can be obtained. Thus, this study can provide for developing necessary controls to reduce risks and to be safe for construction industries. Nyein Nyein Thant | Zin Mar Soe "Risk Assessment for Building Construction Sites in Myanmar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26655.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/26655/risk-assessment-for-building-construction-sites-in-myanmar/nyein-nyein-thant
Quantified Risk Assessment as a decision support for the protection of the Cr...Community Protection Forum
by Micaela Demichela
SAfeR – Centro Studi su Sicurezza Affidabilità e Rischi Dipartimento di Scienza Applicata e Tecnologia - Politecnico di Torino
e-mail: micaela.demichela@polito.it
you must read two articles which are from the field of Human Resou.docxdavezstarr61655
you must read two articles which are from the
field of Human Resources
and complete a one page annotated bibliography for each article (scholarly/peer-reviewed journal articles).
Annotated bibliographies must be written in manner, in which, they are understandable. You must describe all-important data such as:
• The participants
• The reason the study was conducted
• What research design was used (surveys, interviews, case study, etc.)
• Which research analysis was used (MANOVA, ANOVA, Kruskal Wallace, etc.) • The results of the study along with any conclusions of the author(s)
.
You must produce a minimum of a 5 pages paper. You must use a minimu.docxdavezstarr61655
You must produce a minimum of a 5 pages paper. You must use a minimum of 5 references, citing the references where you used the material within the paper itself.
- Assure you are citing in APA format
-You must use a minimum of one graphic or image (may use a table)
- Double space the paper
- You must use APA formatting (6th Edition)
.
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Amelioration of safety management in infrastructure projectsIJERA Editor
Accidents are a major public health concern, resulting in an estimated 1.2 million deaths and 50 million injuries
worldwide each year specifically, the relationships between drivers' characteristics and road accidents are not
fully understood. Many factors are involved in the accident occurrence at construction site. Some important
elements that create a significant portion of accidents include: safety management error, poor training programs,
human element, act of god, outdated procedure and no clear monitoring policy. Although some of these items
are inevitable, but the occurrence of the largest part can be prevented. Therefore, for ameliorating the safety in a
project each of these items should be analyzed and a practical approach introduced. In general, near miss,
incident and accident are three dependent levels that mainly lead to injury. Risk and hazard are allocated in first
level which means near miss, therefore, no on-time identification of hazard and risk causes to create incident
and preventing accident in incident stage is unavoidable.
Study on safety management of small and medium scale industries in tamilnadueSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Session 01 _Risk Assessment Program for YSP_Introduction, Definitions and Sta...Muizz Anibire
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In light of industrialization trends across the globe, new hazards are constantly introduced in many workplaces. This program aims to provide Young Safety Professionals (YSPs) from diverse backgrounds with the requisite skill to address the health and safety hazards in the modern workplace.
1Running Head RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BUILDING A BRIDGE16R.docxvickeryr87
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Running Head: RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BUILDING A BRIDGE
16
RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BUILDING A BRIDGE
MPM344 Project Risk Management
Risk Management Plan
Charles Williams
12/03/18
Table of Contents
RISK MANAGEMENT JUSTIFICATION 3
PROJECT RISK IDENTIFICATION 4
PROJECT RISK ANALYSES 6
PROJECT RISK RESPONSE STRATEGY 11
PROJECT RISK MONITORING 14
PROJECT RISK COMMUNICATIONS PLAN 15
References 16
RISK MANAGEMENT JUSTIFICATION
With a large concern on the occurrence of the accidents due to the weaknesses in building it is important to conduct and write this risk management plan (Gerardus, 2018). On average, various accidents occur due to same failures in building or the construction. It is hence important to outline such failures occurring due to the ignorance of these subcontractors and contractors. The contractors and all persons in the construction of a public infrastructure needs to take some caution to save the lives of the people as well save their properties. The procedure hence needs to be outlined in developing options and actions to enhance the proper opportunities to evade any threats to the objectives.
In this project mitigation and contingency. This means that we try to eliminate or reduce any probability of occurrence of the peril. For contingency, we can try the best to find any other solutions to the peril (Gerardus, 2018). For my risk management plan the method I have chosen will be the waterfall risk management method. The waterfall risk management is most effective in traditional projects such as construction and other examples of more common engineering projects due to the uncomplicated nature of these projects.
PROJECT RISK IDENTIFICATION
There are several risks associated with the building of a bridge. From relatively small issues like severe weather, missed payments, or late deliveries to big problems like accidents on job sites or structural failures, people who do inspection, maintenance, and construction work on bridges face an extraordinary number of risks every day. Most contractors experience inconsistent cash flow at one time or another. Cash flow issues are not usually the result of ineffective money management. Instead, they’re caused by past due payments or not getting paid in full for work that’s been completed. This issue often leads to bankruptcy or the complete failure of the business. Workplace safety should be the number-one priority on every bridge construction site. Inadequate safety practices can lead to serious injuries or even death. Accidents on a job site can cause traffic and construction delays, along with added time to investigate and resolve issues, work stoppages, penalties and fees, increased insurance rates, low morale on the job, and significant harm to a contractor’s reputation. Every contractor tries to avoid it, but it inevitably happens: Work done on a bridge site doesn’t meet regulatory standards or contractual specifications. It costs time and money to.
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Type your short title here 1Running head Safety at work.docxwillcoxjanay
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Running head: Safety at work1Levels of Safety in Organizations and how to Deal with Acceptable RisksStudent’s nameUniversity Affiliations
QUESTION 1
Due to the collapse of a building during its construction arising from negligence my previous company ascended to NORM (naturally occurring reactive management) from SWAMP (safety without any management process). Before the catastrophe the construction company had no safety policies at all apart from wearing required safety gear by employees. The working conditions were not safe. Quite a number of employees had been involved in accidents. The company thus had begun to suffer losses. As usual the blame was on the employees for their lack of insight and safety protection during working hours. The complaints were everywhere. The employees thought that the management had squanderedall the money instead of thinking of better ways to keep them safe. There was even an attempt to boycott work until the working conditions were improved. Instead of a positive response from the management what the employees got were threats to end their contracts if they ever thought of boycotting work. Left with no option the employees returned back to work reluctantly. On top of the growing bill of insurance costs the company was also handling a number of unending law suits filed by former employees seeking compensation after being involved in accidents. The management was feeling the pain. It was then the major accident happened.
After the collapse of a whole building the company had to act fast. Nearly every employee was suing the company. The company was forced to start abiding to safety regulations. Safety managers were employed to ensure that regulations weren’t broken. Every employee was being virtually supervised. Their every move had to be watched. There were numerous programs and training sessions to inform the employees of the best safety regulations. At this point the insurance costs reduced but most of the costs were now being redirected into training and payment of the safety managers. Thus the focus shifted from the hazardous working environment to employees who were breaking safety rules. These employees were considered to be the sole cause of all the lack of safety in the company. Thus disciplinary action became a common norm.
For the construction companies to reach the EXCELLENCE level a lot of change has to occur. First the focus should shift from discipline and adherence to safety rules to what the roots of the accidents are. Safety should not be an abstract topic only discussed in meetings and displayed by huge banners in every corner of the business premises. It should be a serious thing practiced even by the management. When this happens it will be easier to have safety as a culture and not as a rule. Safety would have been integrated to become one of the success factors of the company. When any accidents happen the management would immediately deal with it and try ...
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Risk Assessment for Building Construction Sites in Myanmarijtsrd
In Myanmar, construction industries carry on to become safety first. There are many hazards and risks in construction that can cause employee injuries and illnesses. In order to be safe, risk assessment technique is widely used in international but less in Myanmar. So this paper aims to help what kind of risks can occur and to know how to reduce these risks by using additional controls. Firstly, it is required to collect data. Therefore, three construction companies in Mandalay Myanmar are chosen. Hazards are obtained from the observed data. Questionnaires concerned with likelihood and severity are collected from the project engineers in these sites. The results from questionnaires are used to evaluate the risks. The evaluated risks are reviewed whether these are acceptable or additional controls are required to reduce risks. On the basis of outcome results, risk prioritization number charts can be obtained. Thus, this study can provide for developing necessary controls to reduce risks and to be safe for construction industries. Nyein Nyein Thant | Zin Mar Soe "Risk Assessment for Building Construction Sites in Myanmar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26655.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/26655/risk-assessment-for-building-construction-sites-in-myanmar/nyein-nyein-thant
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e-mail: micaela.demichela@polito.it
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• The participants
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1. Theories seem to be such esoteric notions for a profession that seemed to function well for decades, without highlighting them. Can our practice history guide our practice future with theories? Why/not? 2. Define both rationalism and empiricism. Differentiate between these two scientific approaches.
.
you must present your findings to the IT supervisor before the s.docxdavezstarr61655
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Select one major incident to research regarding technological breaches. Identify the company that was affected and then describe this incident and why you selected it.
Explain the implications associated with this breach, specifically in terms of privacy laws and violations of the law.
Analyze the impact that these technological breaches have on consumer safety and well-being.
Recommend further actions to protect the privacy of clients.
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You must produce a minimum of a 10 pages paper. You must use a m.docxdavezstarr61655
You must produce a minimum of a 10 pages paper. You must use a minimum of 5 references, citing the references where you used the material within the paper itself.
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- Assure you are citing in APA format
-You must use a minimum of one graphic or image (may use a table)
- Double space the paper
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You must include the resources you used if any.. THese papers are opinion papers on the subjects posted and not just research papers that you are digging up on previous material... If references are used they most be accessible if not the assignement will be considered to not have been followed and be sent back for revision or dispute if you do not respond.
Paper #1 SCHOOL DROPOUTS
Some statistics about student dropouts follow. The task is to decide what you would do to keep students in schools. In other words, what can be done to improve these statistics?
The national dropout rate is between 25 and 30 percent of students. The typical high school graduation includes only 70 percent of its ninth-grade class members. One result is that approximately one-third of the adult population is functionally illiterate.
States with the lowest dropout rates:
North Dakota
Minnesota
Delaware
Iowa
South Dakota
States with the highest dropout rates:
Louisiana
Florida
Nevada
Mississippi
Tennessee
Georgia
It is possible to spot regional differences in dropout rates, but even more noticeable is the effect of family economics on dropout statistics.
Are there differences by ethnic groups within these statistics?
Analyze the Area of Coos County Oregon
Paper #2
Based on the work of Marcia, there are four general areas in which a person needs to make commitments in order to achieve an identity. These include career identity, sexual beliefs and values, religious beliefs and values, and political beliefs.
Interview a young teenager about his or her plans and commitments in these four areas: 1) career; 2) religion; 3) sexual behavior; and, 4) politics. You do not have to ask about specific behaviors, but ask generally what the person believes. After you interview the child... Write a paper on that interview and the correaltion of Marcia's four Identity Commitments and how it translates to that of the child. 2.5 pages double spaced. you may reference material used from MARCIA
Paper # 3
CHILDERN AND ANXIETY
CHILDREN AND ANXIETY
The prevalence of anxiety disorders among children seems to be on the rise. Children are being treated for obsessive-compulsive disorder, for post-traumatic stress syndrome, and generalized anxiety disorders. Some authors have suggested that the world is a far more frightening and stressful place for children now than in previous generations. Recent historical events, such as the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, the war in Iraq, and similar events that receive heavy media coverage, may present children with things to think about that previous generations did not experience. In addition, children are exposed to many more graphic images of violence and victimization in their media. These factors, plus the fact that their parents, teachers, and caregivers are also experiencing stressors, might contribute to children’s anxiety.
What did you fear as a child? What things might children fear? Consider the definition of .
You must include the Textbook definition and a picture f.docxdavezstarr61655
You must include the
Textbook definition
and a
picture
for EACH term below.
Terms:
1. rotation
2. day
3. revolution
4. year
5. season
6. equinox
7. solstice
8. satellite
the textbook - HMH Georgia Science
.
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You must include 6 references, two that must come peer-reviewed journals. Include an Abstract, introduction, and conclusion, as well as the body of content. The paper must follow APA.
TOPIC:
Emerging enterprise network applications
Research paper basics:
• 10-12 pages in length
• APA formatted
• Minimum six (6) sources – at least two (2) from peer reviewed journals.
1. Context and Background Information: Clearly developed Paper with the appropriate details
2. Content: Paper is interesting and relevant
3.APA Format: Used APA format correctly throughout paper
4. Used Compelling Chart, Table, or Map to Illustrate Something in the Paper: A compelling chart, table, or map was used correctly to illustrate a point in the paper
5. Excellent closing
6. Excellent body of paper detailing the Topic
7. Excellent closing
8. Included a list of all references used and all references were cited correctly
9. Format is appropriate and enhances the understanding of the Topic in a creative and dramatic manner throughout the paper.
10. Zero plagiarism
.
You must have the Project Libre to create this! Develop a chart .docxdavezstarr61655
You must have the Project Libre to create this!
Develop a chart showing the inputs required from other project documents required to develop the scope of a project and the outputs of a project scope document. Don’t copy another author’s work for any reason, you may use it for input with citations/references.
Suggestion: create columns with input on the left, document description in the middle, and scope output on the far right, then fill it in using the textual information.
Post the Project Libre file (“xxxxx”.pod)
.
You must have experience doing PhD proposal , so the topic of th.docxdavezstarr61655
You must have experience doing PhD proposal , so the topic of the proposal is ( the impact of value -added tax on the locally economy in the developing countries , advantage ,disadvantage. Saudi Arabia as case study
Introduction of value -added tax
Local economy
The impact of the developing countries such as countries close of the Saudi araba
advantage
disadvantage.
Saudi Arabia with value added tax
.
You must have at least 3 sources. Sources should be cited within you.docxdavezstarr61655
You must have at least 3 sources. Sources should be cited within your writing and you should have a bibliography page. Do not use wikipedia, or any .com websites.
The paper should be at least 750 words. Use APA or MLA format. (Artist Name : Leonardo da Vinci)
In Essay:
1) Begin with some biographical information about the artist.
2) Describe their artwork, write about their process, the media they use, the meaning of their art include name of that art, any inspiration or influences, and body of artwork.
3) Explain why you chose this artist and why their art appeals to you.
.
You must have access to the book needed for the Case Study part. I w.docxdavezstarr61655
You must have access to the book needed for the Case Study part. I will not be able to supply it. Again you must have the book yourself. Follow word count! APA format required.
This is a very important assignment and my price is FIRM.
Newton,Englehardt, Prichard (2012). Taking Sides: Clashing Views in Business Ethics and Society,
12th/E
. McGraw-Hill ISBN: 9780073527352
.
You must give the Source(s) of your answers (textbook - WITH SPECIFI.docxdavezstarr61655
You must give the Source(s) of your answers (textbook - WITH SPECIFIC PAGE REFERENCES; websites etc.)
Please give your Sources WITH SPECIFICITY to avoid receiving a failing grade.
WHY? Because you are not an authority on the Law and you are not the Source of the Law, therefore you have to refer to resources. I had to learn this too when I was starting out!
These are the Essay Topics:(Min. 100 words EACH Essay, just write a paragraph for each and all questions below)
What is meant by the phrase “crimes are statutory offenses”?
Explain Criminal Intent.
Choose one of the Constitutional Safeguards and explain how it works.
Can a person be prosecuted twice for the same act? Explain fully all issues.
What is RICO?
.
You must create a court system for the newly created state of Puerto.docxdavezstarr61655
You must create a court system for the newly created state of Puerto Rico. You are to work under the assumption that Puerto Rico has just been admitted as the 51st state and build your court system from the bottom up. To be certain you understand how courts are organized in other states, you must research at least three current state court systems, within the United States, and use those systems to create Puerto Rico’s system. Do not use Puerto Rico’s current system as one of your examples. You must describe your proposal for creating Puerto Rico’s municipal courts, major trial courts, appellate courts, and the state’s highest court. Include geographic jurisdictions.
You must also describe how judges will be chosen for each court and must discuss how judicial and attorney ethical standards will be structured and enforced. You should conduct basic research on Puerto Rico (size, geography, population, existing counties or municipios, etc.) to be certain your proposed system will actually work.
Remember to provide citations when you borrow some idea or structure from another state.
The body (not including cover page, works cited/bibliography, etc.) of the paper must be 10-12 pages in length, double spaced, using Times New Roman 12-point font. A works cited page or bibliography (depending on the citation system used) must be included. Submitting too many pages will have the same result as submitting too few pages. Any images, charts, etc., used in the paper should be submitted as exhibits and are not included in the page count requirement.
.
You must conduct an informational interview as part of this course. .docxdavezstarr61655
You must conduct an informational interview as part of this course. Use Pioneer Connect or LinkedIn to
reach out to a DU alum or other business professional and conduct an informational interview. You may
also utilize professionals you meet through faculty, staff, extracurriculars, athletics, volunteer work,
family, friends, etc. Submit a 1-page reflection on the experience to the Canvas page by Friday of week
7. Attend class and see Canvas for further details on how to conduct an informational interview
.
You must complete an Electronic Presentation on Black Culture.docxdavezstarr61655
You must complete an
Electronic Presentation on Black Culture
. You will select and present on the significances of two works of black culture. The first work you select must be a work of African-American literature, poetry, music, fashion, dance, or some other cultural art form that was created and/or popularized by an
African American
during the time periods of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances (1917-1949). Your second work of black culture must have been created and/or popularized by a black person (but not necessarily an African American) within YOUR lifetime. For example, if you were born in 1999, your second cultural selection needs to have been created by a black person between 1999 and the present. The two works you select to present do not have to share a cultural form (i.e. one work can be a poem and the other can be a song; one work can be a painting and the other can be a fashion trend). Nor do the two works have to share a particular theme. You may choose to do a compare-and-contrast type presentation. But, you do not have to. In presenting the works, you will need to provide background information on your chosen works (i.e. when where the works created; who created them or made them famous; and, what impact did the works have on the cultural landscape when and since they first appeared?). You will also have to briefly explain why you made those particular selections, and explain what you think each work tells people about the ways in which African-American/Black culture and experiences remained congruent and/or changed from the eras of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances to the modern era. Moreover, your Electronic Presentation on Black Culture must be creative in both style and substance.
Your Electronic Presentation should have a run time of 7-10 minutes.
And, it must contain both audio and visual components.
When delivering your Electronic Presentation, you will serve as the professor for the class. So, give a Presentation that your temporary students (i.e. your classmates and Dr. Brown) will find to be both impressive and informative. The more creative, interesting, organized, and informative your Presentation is, the higher your grade will be. If your Presentation is disorganized, bland, lacks imagination, or does little more than echo information and ideas that have already been presented through the course texts, media, and PowerPoint lectures, you should not expect to earn a stellar grade on it.
Your presentation should add information, details, and/or perspectives that we did not cover in class. As such, I strongly recommend that you research and select cultural works that we did not discuss in class. In other words, avoid selecting a poem by Langston Hughes or a song we covered in class. Be more creative. Do more research. And, you should use and cite outside sources for the Electronic Presentation.
(See page 15 for the Electronic Presentation on Black Culture Grading Rubric.) You wil.
You must complete an Electronic Presentation on Black Cu.docxdavezstarr61655
You must complete an Electronic Presentation on Black Culture. You will select and present on the significances of two works of black culture. The first work you select must be a work of African-American literature, poetry, music, fashion, dance, or some other cultural art form that was created and/or popularized by an
African American
during the time periods of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances (1917-1949). Your second work of black culture must have been created and/or popularized by a black person (but not necessarily an African American) within YOUR lifetime. For example, if you were born in 1999, your second cultural selection needs to have been created by a black person between 1999 and the present. The two works you select to present do not have to share a cultural form (i.e. one work can be a poem and the other can be a song; one work can be a painting and the other can be a fashion trend). Nor do the two works have to share a particular theme. You may choose to do a compare-and-contrast type presentation. But, you do not have to. In presenting the works, you will need to provide background information on your chosen works (i.e. when where the works created; who created them or made them famous; and, what impact did the works have on the cultural landscape when and since they first appeared?). You will also have to briefly explain why you made those particular selections, and explain what you think each work tells people about the ways in which African-American/Black culture and experiences remained congruent and/or changed from the eras of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances to the modern era. Moreover, your Electronic Presentation on Black Culture must be creative in both style and substance.
.
You must choose from the approved list below1. Angels .docxdavezstarr61655
You must choose from the approved list below:
1. Angels
2. Adoption
3. Christ
4. Conscience
5. Conversion
6. Covenants (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, New)
7. Creation
8. Election
9. Eternal Life
10. Faith
11. Fall of Man
12. Forgiveness
13. Glory of God
14. Gospel
15. Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke John
16. Grace
17. Heart
18. Holiness
19. Holy Spirit
20. Hope
21. Image of God
22. Immanence
23. Judgment of God
24. Justice
25. Justification
26. Law
27. Love
28. Mercy
29. Millennium
30. Miracles
31. Names of God
32. Nature of God
33. Peace of God
34. Power of God
35. Prayer
36. Predestination
37. Preservation of Scripture
38. Prophecy
39. Reconciliation
40. Redemption
41. Reliability of Scripture
42. Repentance
43. Revelation
44. Righteousness
45. Sabbath
46. Salvation
47. Sanctification
48. Satan
49. Savior
50. Sin nature
51. Substitution
52. Temptation
53. Transcendence
54. Tribulation
55. Trinity
56. Union with Christ
57. Unity of God
58. Will/Plan of God
59. Wisdom
60. Works of the Holy Spirit
61. Worship
The paper must thoroughly address your chosen social problem, investigate possible solutions for the problem, incorporate five peer-reviewed resources and journal articles, and have a properly formatted reference page.
Papers will be between 6 to 8 pages in length. It is important to convey your subject and topic content concisely for your final assignment. Longer assignments have a tendency to veer off subject. It is important to clearly write about your topic. (An example of a research paper outline is included below which might be of interest to you).
Remember that you must discuss the roles that the church, the family, and the community should play in the solutions to the problem. Additionally, be sure to incorporate biblical support for the positions and opinions that you express.
Review the grading rubric to improve the quality of your paper. Your paper will be submitted through SafeAssign, a tool used to detect plagiarism.
An example of a research paper which you might use to guide you, using APA guidelines which can be reviewed through the Writing Center:
Title Page
The title page for a research paper can be reviewed through the Writing Center and if you have an APA Manual 6th ed. p. 41 includes an example.
Abstract
Double-spaced, flush left margin. An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article. An abstract reports rather than evaluates. Be brief, and make each sentence informative, especially the lead sentence. An abstract will be viewed alone on the page. An abstract will not include citations per APA guidelines.
Introduction
The body of a manuscript opens with an introduction that presents the specific problem being studied, and describes the research strategy. Although not mandatory, APA citations can be included in an introduction.
Headings will e.
You must be proficient in all MS office. I am looking for someon.docxdavezstarr61655
You must be proficient in all MS office.
I am looking for someone who can help with putting presentations together, also someone who knows and understands: spreadsheets, Pivot Tables, VLookups, etc.
If you are interested you can send me your interests to
(monroe simpson bpo at g mail dot com)
.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
arriers thatd due to lackm factorsthese causalent ca.docx
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Systems Model of Construction Accident Causation
Panagiotis Mitropoulos1; Tariq S. Abdelhamid2; and Gregory
A. Howell3
Abstract: The current approach to safety focuses on prescribing
and enforcing “defenses;” that is, physical and procedural b
reduce the workers’ exposure to hazards. Under this
perspective, accidents occur because the prescribed defenses are
violate
of safety knowledge and/or commitment. This perspective has a
limited view of accident causality, as it ignores the work syste
and their interactions that generate the hazardous situations and
shape the work behaviors. Understanding and addressing
factors that lead to accidents is necessary to develop effective
accident prevention strategies. This paper presents a new accid
model of the factors affecting the likelihood of accidents during
a construction activity. The model takes a systems view of acc
2. focuses on how the characteristics of the production system
generate hazardous situations and shape the work behaviors, and
conditions that trigger the release of the hazards. The model is
based on descriptive rather than prescriptive models of work be
takes into account the actual production behaviors, as opposed
to the normative behaviors and procedures that workers “sho
The model identifies the critical role of task unpredictability in
generating unexpected hazardous situations, and acknowl
inevitability of exposures and errors. The model identifies the
need for two accident prevention strategies:~1! reliable
production plannin
to reduce task unpredictability, and~2! error management to
increase the workers’ ability to avoid, trap, and mitigate errors.
T
causation model contributes to safety research by increasing
understanding of the production system factors that affect the f
accident. The practical benefit of the model is that it provides
practitioners with strategies to reduce the likelihood of acciden
DOI: 10.1061/~ASCE!0733-9364~2005!131:7~816!
CE Database subject headings: Occupational safety;
Construction site accidents; Accident prevention.
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Introduction
In recent years, construction accident rates have declined
result of substantial effort by many parties. Increased pres
from OSHA and owners, and increased cost of accidents r
the contractors’ awareness. In turn, contractors increased
training and enforcement. These efforts have reduced the
and illness rate from 12.2 in 1993 to 7.9 in 2001. However,
rate of fatalities has shown little improvement—since 1997,
number of fatalities per year is consistently over 1,100~Bureau
o
Labor Statistics 2004!.
The current approach to accident prevention is base
OSHA’s violations approach and focuses on prescribing and
forcing “defenses;” that is, physical and procedural barriers
reduce the workers’ exposure to hazards. The violations o
defenses are called “unsafe conditions” and “unsafe behav
This approach emphasizes~a! management commitment and po
1Assistant Professor, Arizona State University, Del E. Webb
Scho
10. con-
of hazards~e.g., ergonomic hazards!, and in some cases cann
overcome the legacy of design and the need to work in dang
circumstances~e.g., roofwork!.
(4) Limited view of accident causality. The violations per
spective attributes accidents to the managers’ or workers’ la
safety knowledge and/or motivation. This approach perce
safety as a problem of “right versus wrong”~safe versus unsaf!
choice, and ignores the fact that the dynamic nature of work
not involve conscious decision making or risk assessment.
seems to be a rational act under a particular work situation,
easily be judged as a unacceptable mistake on
hindsight~Rasmus
sen 1990!.
(5) Limited learning . The focus on violations limits the ab
ity to learn from accidents. Accident investigation focuses on
lations and liability and does not increase understanding o
accident phenomenon; rather, it perpetuates the current str
by assigning blame. An evaluation of 17 accident investiga
methodologies used by public agencies found that OSHA’s v
tions approach is among the lowest in its ability to identify r
causes~Benner 1985!.
Better models of accident causation are essential for dev
ing effective accident prevention strategies. We argue that e
tive causation models need to take a systems view of safet
provide better understanding of how the characteristics o
production system generate hazardous situations and sha
work behaviors.
This paper develops a new causation model of the factor
processes that generate construction accidents. The mode
sented here, has the following attributes:
11. • It focuses on the activity level, as opposed to event-b
models that focus on the incident level. This model attemp
answer the question: “What causal factors and processes
fluence the number of accidents during a construction op
tion?” It is a conceptual model and at this stage it does
operationalize or quantify the variables.
• It takes a systems view of accidents—it is a causal mod
approach that moves away from looking at isolated events
looks at the production as a system made up of intera
variables~Sterman 2000!. Thus, accidents are viewed as
products of the production system and the model focuse
the characteristics of the production system that generat
risks and shape the work behaviors.
• It is based on descriptive rather than prescriptive mode
work behavior. That is, it takes into account the actual pro
tion behaviors, as opposed to the normative behaviors
workers “should” follow.
The model is based on previous research in accident caus
human error, and construction safety. The next section pre
the background literature. We then present the model and di
its implications. Based on the model, the paper proposes
directions for accident prevention.
Background Literature
Definitions
The National Safety Council~NSC! definessafetyas “the contro
of recognized hazards to attain an acceptable level of risk
hazard is defined as “an unsafe condition or activity that, if
uncontrolled, can contribute to an accident.”Risk is a term ap
plied to the individual or combined assessments of “probabili
12. loss” and “potential amount of loss.” NSC definesaccidentas “an
JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCT
e
-
,
occurrence in a sequence of events that produces unintend
jury, death, or property damage. Accident refers to the even
the result of the event.”
Accident Causation Models
Accident causation models attempt to understand the factor
processes involved in accidents in order to develop strategi
accident prevention. The different models are based on diff
perception of the accident process. Some of the most influ
accident causation models and methodologies are:~1! the Single
Event concept;~2! the Determinant Variable concept;~3! the
Domino Theory ~Heinrich 1936!; ~4! the Fault Tree analytica
methodology; ~5! the Energy-Barriers-Targets model, which
views the accident process as an unwanted release of ener
to inadequate physical or procedural barriers;~6! the Manage-
ment Oversight and Risk Tree, which focuses on “what” barr
ers failed and “why” they failed—that is, what management
ments permitted the barrier failure~DOE 1992!; ~7! Petersen’
Multiple Causation model ~1971!; and ~8! Reason’s~1990!
‘Swiss Cheese’ model of human error, and the “resident pat
gens” or “latent failures.”
Construction Safety Literature
13. Construction researchers have proposed several accident
tion models and root causes. McClay’s~1989! “universal frame
work” identified three key elements of accidents: hazards, hu
actions, and functional limitations. Hinze’s distraction the
~1996! argued that production pressures can distract workers
the hazards and increase the probability of accidents. Abdelh
and Everett~2000! identified management deficiencies, train
and workers’ attitude as the three general root causes.
“constraints-response” model~Suraji et al. 2001! argues tha
project conditions or management decisions~distal factors! can
cause responses that create inappropriate conditions or a
~proximal factors! that lead to accidents.
Organizational factors associated with safety performanc
clude top management’s attitude toward safety~Levitt 1975!, or-
ganizational culture~Molenaar et al. 2002!, safety climate~Mo-
hamed 2002!, superintendent practices~Levitt and Samelso
1987; Hinze and Gordon 1979!, and turnover~Hinze 1978!.
Hinze
and Parker~1978! found that job pressures and crew competi
are related to more injuries. Hinze~1981! found that good work
ing relationships improve safety.
In terms of safety practices, Jaselskis et al.~1996! identified
the frequency of formal safety meetings with project supervi
and safety budget as factors related to lower incident rates
Construction Industry Institute identified five best
practices~Liska
et al. 1993!: preproject and pretask planning for safety, sa
orientation and training, safety incentives~the effect of this ha
been debated!, alcohol and substance abuse programs, and
dent investigations. Toole~2002! identified eight root causes
accidents: lack of proper training, safety equipment not prov
deficient enforcement of safety, unsafe equipment, metho
condition, poor safety attitude, and isolated deviation from
scribed behavior.
17. zards.
” and
zard
ntrol
ut do
safety of specific construction operations~Bernhold et al. 2001!.
These approaches focus on reducing the safety risks, rathe
increasing the safety effort.
The construction safety literature has paid little attentio
worker errors and effective ways to manage errors in the w
place.
Human Error
Human error is a central element in accidents and has bee
searched extensively by researchers of high-risk systems.
~1970! defines an error as a set of human actions that exc
some level of acceptability. Traditionally, the standard of ju
ment is the normative~prescribed! behavior. From this perspe
tive, human error is a deviation from a normative procedure.
son~1990! classified unsafe acts in three types of errors, and
types of violations.
Errors. Slips and lapsesare “skill-based” errors and occur w
little or no conscious thought. A slip is an unintended error in
execution of an otherwise correct plan. Mistakes~or decision er
rors! involve the correct execution of a wrong plan. In ot
words, mistakes are intentional behaviors that involve inco
choice of action~inappropriate for the situation!. Perceptual
error
are actions that result from misinterpretation of the actual s
tion.
Violations. Routine violationsare habitual departures from t
rules and often tolerated by supervision. This may involve be
18. iors that are established practice as opposed to the specified
tice, such as driving 5–10 mph faster than the speed limitEx-
ceptional violationsare neither typical of the individual n
condoned by management.
Rasmussen’s Descriptive Model of Work Behavior
Descriptive models of work behavior attempt to understand
dents without reference to normative concepts of errors or v
tions. An important descriptive model is the one proposed
Rasmussen et al.~1994!. According to Rasmussen, workers op
ate within a work system shaped by objectives and constr
~economic, functional, safety related, etc.!. A worker searche
freely within those boundaries guided by criteria such as w
load, cost effectiveness, risk of failure, joy of exploration,
Figure 1 illustrates how the work behaviors tend to migrate c
to the boundary of functionally acceptable performance~limit of
loss of control! due to two primary pressures: the production p
Fig. 1. Rasumussen’s work behavior model~adapted from
Rasmussen et al. 1994!
sures for increased efficiency, and the tendency for least effort,
818 / JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND
MANAGEMENT
-
which is a response to increased workload. Managers supp
“cost gradient” and the worker searches and finds a “least
gradient.” The result is a “systematic migration toward the boun
ary of acceptable performance, and when crossing an irrever
boundary, work will no longer be successful due to a ‘hu
error’” ~Rasmussen et al. 1994, p. 149!. A breakdown in work
performance indicates an operation too close to its capability
its and/or the limits of the ability to recover control.
19. Safety programs attempt to counter the pressures outlin
the Rasmussen model and prescribe “safe behaviors” away
the boundary. However, the pressures that push workers to
the boundary require that safety efforts are continuous. Fu
more, efforts to improve system safety lead to human adap
that compensates for safety improvements. Thus, the work b
ior is likely to be maintained close to the boundary of los
control. To address these problems, Rasmussen proposes t
cident prevention efforts should focus on development of e
tolerant work systems that make the boundary of loss of co
visible and reversible.
Based on Rasmussen’s framework, Howell et al.~2003! iden-
tify three zones of operation:~a! the “safe zone,” where the wor
ers’ behaviors are within the boundary defined by safety rule~b!
the “hazard zone”~or “near the edge”!, and~c! the “loss of con
trol” zone.
Accident Causation Model
Model Overview
Figure 2 presents the accident causation model, which buil
the Rasmussen model and previous construction accident
tion models. This conceptual framework identifies the varia
that influence the likelihood of accidents during a construc
activity. The arrows indicate cause-effect relationships. The
indicate the direction of the relationship between the facto
positive sign indicates that when the causal factor X change
effect Y changes in the same direction~X increase→Y increase
o
X decrease→Y decrease!. A negative sign indicates that the eff
changes in the opposite direction~X increase→Y decrease, X
decrease→Y increase!.
The characteristics of the activity and work context, and
22. ent
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hazard must be released. Human errors and changes in con
create a “mismatch” between conditions and actions and tr
the release of hazards. Not all errors release hazards—ma
rors are inconsequential, while other errors are “trapped” and
trol is recovered before the hazard is released. The shaded s
where “Exposures” and “Errors & Changes in conditions” o
lap, indicates the errors under condition of exposure that re
hazards and generate incidents. The likelihood of errors de
on the task, the environment, and the workers’ capacity fac
Depending on the consequences, an incident may be a
miss,” an injury accident, or a fatality.
The causation model in Fig. 2 depicts the key factors
23. processes that lead to accidents. Several other relationship
feedback loops exist, which are discussed briefly as they ar
as critical for understanding the accident process.
Hazardous Work Situations
In this paper, hazardous situations are defined as “situations
the potential to cause injury, unless the worker can detec
avoid the hazard, without exposing themselves to a greater
ard.” This definition acknowledges the subjective and situati
nature of many hazards. In other words, what is a threat fo
person may not be for another, depending on the ability to d
and avoid the hazard. Furthermore, what is a hazard in one
ation may not be in another. The hazardous situations definit
consistent with NSC’s definition, because the ability to detect
avoid a hazard reduces its potential to contribute to an acci
As shown in Fig. 2, the nature and number of hazardous
situations during an activity depend on the following
factors:~1!
characteristics of the activity and context,~2! safety efforts to
control conditions, and~3! task unpredictability. A discussion
these factors follows.
Activity and Context Characteristics
Different activities involve different hazards. Surveying in
Fig. 2. Accid
empty site involves few hazards, while steel erection includes
JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCT
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24. d
many more. Furthermore, the same activity involves diffe
hazardous situations if performed with a different method
under different conditions. There are three main sources of
ards:~a! the work technology,~b! the physical conditions,
and~c!
the surrounding activities.
(a) Work technology. The work technology includes the o
jects and actions necessary to perform the task, such as the
and equipment~scaffolds, power tools, cranes, heavy equipm!,
the material~e.g., heavy or sharp objects, chemicals, electric!,
the physical tasks required~material handling!, and the by
products of the production task~scrap metal, etc.!. The same ac
tivity may be performed with different tools and equipment~lad-
ders, scaffolds, or mechanical lifts!, or at different locations~on
the ground or at elevation! and involve different hazards.
(b) Physical conditions. The physical environment of the a
tivity ~such as high elevations, floor openings, trenches, con
space, overhead power lines, and housekeeping conditions! cre-
ates another set of hazards. Environmental conditions~such as
cold, heat, illumination, vibrations, noise, vapors, etc.! may
create
additional sources of hazards.
(c) Surrounding activities. Surrounding activities also gener
“threats,” such as falling objects, heavy equipment traffic, de
etc. The project schedule~sequence and timing of activities! af-
fects the work context. For example, out-of-sequence work
increase the difficulty and the hazards of the activity.
The number and nature of hazardous work situations cha
during the course of an activity. Some hazard sources exist b
28. way
d by
y
educe
s to
g in
cam-
-
ad-
. First,
ision
amic
tion
dy-
ures
t-
olved
ely
to-
unter
x and
any
duc-
increase task unpredictability as errors by one crew may c
unpredictable conditions for a following crew. Task unpredicta
ity increases both the likelihood of hazardous situations, an
production pressures and workload.
Unpredictability Generates Hazardous Situations. First, the
29. resources, equipment, manpower, or safety measures re
may not be available for the unexpected tasks or conditions,
the crew planned for a 6 ft. ladder, but some locations requi
8 ft. ladder. Even if a crew performs safety pretask planning
plan will be inadequate if the task is unpredictable. Second
predictable tasks and conditions require increased effort,
movement of workers and equipment, increased material
dling, increased need to improvise, more out-of-sequence
and involve much chaos and confusion.
Unpredictability Increases Workload and Production Pres-
sures. This generates interruptions and “urgent/last min
problems that have to be resolved promptly, otherwise produ
can be significantly disrupted. This creates temporary “peak
production pressure and sudden changes to production pace
if the overall activity is not under particular schedule press
Furthermore, resolving the interruptions takes time and red
the time available for the planned task.
The increased production pressures may lead the worke~or
supervisors! to do the work in any way they can~“make do”!
without the appropriate safety measures or resources. Fo
ample, lack of adequate manpower may lead a worker to
vidually perform tasks that normally require two people~e.g.,
move heavy material, enter confined space, etc.!. Or, if a ladder
is
not tall enough for all the work locations, the worker may step
the last two steps, rather than look for an appropriate ladde
Much of the complexity and dynamism of the work in c
struction is caused by a failure to reliably plan and coordinat
work activities.
Safety Effort to Control Conditions
Safety measures to control conditions are barriers that confin
hazard sources, and prevent exposure to the hazards, such
30. rimeter cable, support of deep trenches, and closing-off the
under steel erection. OSHA regulations define what condition
hazardous and what safety barriers are needed. Safety effo
control conditions include training and inspections to iden
hazardous conditions, and the time and resources needed t
vide and maintain the safety measures. Economic pressure
time or personnel shortage may prevent management from
viding and maintaining the required safety measures. Man
ment commitment and policies that support safety increas
likelihood that the safety resources and effort will be commit
Efficient Work Behaviors
Efficient work behaviors increase production, but in the pres
of hazards such behaviors also bring the workers in the h
zone~expose workers to the hazards!, which in turn increases th
likelihood of incidents that may disrupt production and cou
any prior gains. Thus, under hazardous conditions, less effi
work behavior is required to prevent exposure.
Efficient work behavior is shaped by:~1! production pressure
and workload, which increase efficient behavior,~2! the tendenc
for competent action, which increases efficient behaviors, an~3!
safety efforts to control behaviors, which reduce efficient be
iors and consequently exposures.
820 / JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND
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31. Production Pressures and Workload
Rasmussen’s framework illustrates that production pressure
efforts to reduce workload may lead workers to avoid safety
sures, or not follow the safety rules if they slow down produc
Similarly, cost pressures may prevent management from pr
ing the required safety measures or appropriate tools and e
ment.
Tendency for Competent Action
The tendency for efficient, competent action is another beha
shaping factor, which pushes workers close to the bounda
loss of control, even in the absence of high production press
Workers take shortcuts or exert excessive effort to reduce the
to perform a task. These behaviors are typically considered
taking.” However, from the perspective of the worker, it is co
petent action—experienced professionals develop shortcut
tricks of the trade as efficient ways to perform the work. S
behaviors often are established trade practices that may v
prescribed procedures—they are “routine violations” typic
tolerated by supervisors. Such behaviors protect and enhan
workers’ feeling of competency. They are very efficient un
normal conditions, but under special circumstances they may
to accidents.
Safety Effort to Control Behaviors
When hazards cannot be contained with physical barriers, s
procedures are prescribed to prevent exposure to the ha
~lockout-tag out, or testing the air in confined spaces!. “Unsafe
behaviors” are those acts that violate prescribed procedure. S
programs and campaigns attempt to increase compliance
safety rules, and maintain work behaviors in the “safe zone” a
from the boundary.
The prevailing view is that unsafe behaviors are cause
lack of knowledge of the hazards~competent person philosoph!
or poor safety attitude. As a result, management actions to r
35. orkers
Error
devel-
-
are-
s to
ision-
s the
, etc.,
tive-
amo-
s is
pera-
se of
ho is
ip-
b-
sce-
quent
near
fast
then
n the
very
situ-
and
work behaviors. Production is also affected by accidents—w
the number and severity of incidents increase, production i
duced.
36. Exposure to Hazards
Exposure to hazards exists when the work behavior bring
worker in the “hazard zone” and near the boundary of los
control, where events can take place faster than the worke
detect and avoid the danger. Exposure are the result of:~a! effi-
cient behavior that leads to routine violations,~b! exceptiona
violations,~c! proper actions that are near the limits of the wo
er’s ability ~such as physical effort and ergonomic exposures!,
or
~d! unrecognized hazards: if a hazard is not identified, a no
work behavior may expose a worker to the hazard withou
worker’s knowledge.
Examples of exposures are working in a deep trench wit
sloping or trench protection, working near an unprotected ope
at high elevation without fall protection, working with defect
tools and equipment~knowingly or unknowingly!, performing
electrical work without lockout-tag out, working in an area w
heavy equipment traffic, operating equipment close to po
lines, working under another crew, handling heavy material,
Exposure to hazards creates the potential for accident, bu
not automatically lead to accident: a worker near an unprote
edge will not necessarily fall. In other words, “unsafe” conditi
and actions are not sufficient to cause an accident. For an ac
to occur, the hazard must be released. Errors and changes i
ditions trigger the release of the hazard: in both cases ther
“mismatch” between the situation and the action.
Errors and Changes in Conditions
Unlike violations, errors are unintended actions that fai
achieve their intended outcome. As discussed in the literatu
view, human error involves slips~unintentional loss of control!,
37. mistakes~selection of incorrect course of action! and perceptua
errors. Huang and Hinze~2003! found that misjudgment of ha
ardous situation was a significant factor in over 30% of fall a
dents.
Not all errors release hazards. An error will have no sa
consequences if there is no exposure to a hazard; e.g., errors
in flight simulators are inconsequential. However, if a worker
the hazard zone, an error may push him over the boundary o
of control, and release the hazard. If the worker detects the
soon enough to “trap” the error and recover control, then the
will not release the hazard.
Hazards are also released by changes in the state of the s
such as mechanical failures, loss of soil stability, etc. If
worker can react fast enough and adjust the behavior to on
propriate for the new conditions, then the accident can
avoided. If the change in the conditions is too sudden for
worker to recover control, it results in an accident. Error man
ment and situation awareness increase the ability to correct e
detect changes, and prevent or avoid the release of hazard
Error Inducing Factors
The likelihood of errors depends on the task demands~complex-
ity, dynamism, pressures!, the environment, and the workers’ c
pacity. According to Rasmussen et al.~1981!, causes of huma
“malfunction” include external events~such as distractions, com
ponent failures, or the physical environment!, excessive task d
mands ~due to task characteristics and situation!, performance
JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCT
t
-
38. e
,
,
shaping factors~such as work load, skills, and stress facto!,
reduced capacity~due to fatigue, etc.!, or intrinsic human var
ability.
Natural drive toward economy of cognitive effects may lea
wrong assessment of situations and task demands, and
rules to be applied~Reason 1990!. Many perceptual errors are t
result of “cognitive confusion;” that is, the selection of a mo
program to execute a previously learned task while not cons
ing the new conditions of the environment the task is perfor
in or the new dimensions or design of the tools or equipm
being used.
Error Management
Error management is a set of strategies that enable the w
detect and correct errors before onset of consequences.
management strategies for individuals and team have been
oped in other sectors~primarily in military and commercial avia
tion! and have focused primarily on improving situation aw
ness~Endsley 1988!, and developing effective team processe
increase a team’s collective situation awareness and dec
making ~Helmreich et al. 1999!.
In construction, the primary error-management strategy i
use of warnings, such as signs, spotters, backup alarms
which alert workers when approaching a hazard. The effec
ness of such warning measures is limited. Blackmon and Gr
padhye~1995! found that the effectiveness of backup alarm
low because of the general noise level of the jobsite, the o
tors’ reliance on the alarms, and reduced attention.
39. Incidents and Consequences
An incident is the undesired event that results from the relea
the hazard. A hazard may be released by the same worker w
exposed to the hazard~e.g., a worker loses control of the equ
ment!, or by another worker~e.g., another worker drops an o
ject!. Table 1 lists examples of typical exposure to hazard
narios found on construction sites, and possible subse
scenarios of the release of hazards.
Depending on the consequences, an incident can be a
miss, an injury, or a fatality accident. If the worker can react
enough to avoid the hazard or interrupt the flow of events,
the incident is a near miss. The ability to react depends o
speed of the hazard release: when the loss of control is
sudden, there is no time to react. Worker’s experience and
ational awareness is critical in anticipating hazard release
Table 1. Hazard Scenarios on Construction Operations
Hazard Exposure to hazard Incident
Unprotected edge
~physical condition!
Worker near
unprotected edge
Worker slips and falls
Saw with dull blade
~undermaintained tool!
Worker using saw
with dull blade
43. rther
may
t
5
n
1
ame
tices.
ning
duces
and
s con-
kers
keep
ing:
ffi-
work
ss of
ome
be-
the
, we
s of
es,
Protective measures are “the last line of defense” and can
gate the consequences of an incident. Personal protective
ment increases the error tolerance of the system~e.g., fall protec
tion equipment reduces the consequences of falls!. The
magnitud
of injury also depends on situational factors that may aggrava
44. mitigate the injury ~including the individual’s tolerance, an
luck!.
Taxonomy of Incidents
The model identifies three different types of accidents, base
the source of exposure and the action that releases the h
This taxonomy is based on etiology of accidents, and differs
OSHA’s classifications.
~a! Loss of control.The first type involves situations where
person who is exposed to the hazard is also the one who re
the hazard. For example, a worker near an unprotected op
may slip or not see the opening and fall. Or a crane is wor
near a power line and comes in contact with the line. In t
cases, the release of the hazard is due to loss of control, o
ceptual failure to detect the boundary~the edge of the slab, th
distance from the power line!.
~b! Coordination.In the second type of incidents, the per
who releases the hazard is different than the one who is ex
to the hazard. For example, a worker is working near h
equipment, and the equipment operator turns and unintentio
strikes him. Or a worker is under another crew, and the wo
above drops an object. What makes such accidents difficu
prevent is that they happen under normal work behaviors
though the actions of both workers may be independently “s
they fail to adjust their behavior in the new conditions create
the presence of the other worker. Safety rules try to separa
crews and determine rules of “priority” and responsibility, but
dynamic conditions on the jobsite create many such situatio
~c! Unrecognized hazard.Another type of accidents involv
situations where the worker is exposed to a “hidden” hazard
hidden hazard can be a component near its functional limit~such
as an unsecured deck! and a normal behavior~such as walking o
45. the deck! may release the hazard. The hidden hazard may
been created by an error of a previous crew. The issue of h
address unrecognized hazards is a particularly difficult one
many things are not recognized as hazards until after they m
fest themselves~Prichard 2002!. Ergonomic hazards may be a
included in this category, as the workers cannot recognize if
are approaching the limit of physical tolerance~the limit of how
much weight the worker can safely lift, the time before the o
of cumulative trauma disorders such as tendonitis, etc.!.
Other Causal Relationships
Several other relationships and feedback loops exist, whic
not depicted in Fig. 2, such as~a! safety incidents increase saf
efforts, as management typically responds to incidents wit
creased efforts to control conditions and behaviors; and~b!
safety
incidents reduce efficient behaviors, at least in the short ter
workers behave more carefully after an accident. The pape
cused on the causal factors and relationships necessary to
stand the main forces at work. A model that considers the li
hood of accidents over time should take the additi
relationships into account.
822 / JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND
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46. Model Discussion and Implications
The next section discusses some of the issues raised by the
It provides some supporting evidence, but mostly it raises q
tions, proposes hypotheses, and identifies directions for f
work.
Importance of Task Unpredictability
The model argues that the unpredictability of the task and
environment leads to increased accidents because it increas
number of hazardous situations, the production pressures, a
likelihood of errors. As a result, “unlikely events are likely
happen, because there are so many unlikely events that
happen” ~Per Bak 1996!.
The effect of task unpredictability on accidents requires fu
investigation. However, there is some initial evidence that it
be significant. A recent study~Thomassen et al. 2003! found tha
projects that used the Last Planner System®~LPS! for
production
control ~Ballard and Howell 1998! had an incident rate of 7.8
~12 incidents in 305,604 labor-hours!, while the incident rate o
projects that did not use LPS was 14.13~41 incidents in 580,37
labor-hours!. Both groups of projects were performed by the s
contractor, were of similar nature, and used same safety prac
These initial findings suggest that effective production plan
can have significant effect on safety, possibly because it re
the task unpredictability.
Task Unpredictability, Work Behaviors, and Safety
The model highlights the conflict between safety measures
the pressures for efficient behavior. Current safety measure
straint productive behaviors with a set of rules to keep wor
away from the hazard zone. Instead of asking how can we
50. not re-
ment
haz-
res-
ap-
any
s the
pre-
ards
npre-
d, the
ions
ing
and
rk
so
ated
ined
r re-
rew
the
important to stabilize the work conditions and prevent sud
deterioration when workers are at a point of high efficiency.
Error Management
As discussed earlier, production pressures, tendency for lea
fort and task unpredictability often result in the workers opera
51. in the hazard zone. In addition, human error cannot be elimin
especially in complex and dynamic work situations. Becaus
the inevitability of exposures and errors, effective error man
ment is necessary in order to increase the workers’ ability to
with hazardous situations.
Error management provides a set of error countermea
with three lines of defense:~1! error avoidance,~2! error
trapping
~to prevent errors from propagating!, and ~3! error mitigation
to
reduce the consequences of those errors that are not trappe
Error management strategies have been developed first in
tary and commercial aviation and have focused primarily on
creasing situation awareness, and establishing effective team
cesses to increase a team’s collective situation awarenes
decision-making.
Situation Awareness
In aviation, problems with situation awareness have been id
fied as the leading causal factor in accidents associated
human error. Situation Awareness~SA! is the perceptionof the
elements in the current environment within a volume of time
space, thecomprehensionof their meaning~the “forces at work”!,
and theprojection of their status in the near future~Endsley
1988!. SA is affected by individual factors~capabilities, exper
ence, fatigue/stress, set expectations, and “press-on-rega
mentality!, task factors~task overload and underload,
objective!,
and environmental factors~complexity, interruptions, and d
graded operating conditions!.
Team Processes (Crew Resource Management)
Crew Resource Management~CRM! was first developed in avi
tion to reduce accidents due to “pilot error.” CRM is an ac
52. process by crewmembers to identify significant threats to an
eration, communicate them to the pilot and carry out a pla
avoid or mitigate each threat~Helmreich et al. 1999!. In recen
years, CRM has been adopted by other high-risk operations w
effective work performance requires coordinated action, suc
hospital operating teams, oil platforms, and power plant co
centers.
Based on analysis of over 28,000 aviation accidents, N
discovered that over 70% of the accidents were due to failur
team communication and coordination rather than deficienci
technical proficiency. Further simulator studies confirmed
crew performance was more closely associated with the qual
crew communication than with the technical proficiency of in
vidual pilots. No differences were found between the severi
the errors made by effective and ineffective crews, rather, it
the ability of the effective crews to communicate that kept t
errors from snowballing into undesirable outcomes. Base
these findings, NASA developed the Cockpit Resource Man
ment system~later called Crew Resource Management! to im-
prove the crews’ situational awareness and decision making
CRM emphasizes the key nontechnical skills and team
cesses that affect operational safety. CRM training addressesitu-
ation awareness, contingency planningto identify ahead of tim
the proper response to abnormal situations, assign responsib
for handling problems, and predetermine crew roles for high-
JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCT
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”
workload phases of flight,stress management, andcrew commu
53. nication such as cross checking and communicating inten
before the execution of actions, so that another crew membe
identify an inappropriate intention or action and correct it be
the error happens, soliciting input from all crew members,
assertivenessin alerting team members and supervisor of ide
fied threats and errors.
Other Error Management Strategies
Error proofing involves design of tools and equipment in a
that they can detect an abnormal condition and shut dow
independently act to prevent failure~such as stability control sy
tems in cars!. Rasmussen~1997! proposed that an alternati
strategy to safety rules is to increase the visibility of the bo
ary. The concept of boundary however is not well defined a
may include a physical boundary~the edge of the slab!, point of
loss of control~the crane’s point of loss of stability!, or a func-
tional limit ~the load a muscle can take!.
Directions for Accident Prevention
The model identifies several potential interventions that can
ence the safety outcome of a construction operation. For a
activity, the hazards can be reduced by changing the constru
method, the work sequence or the physical environmen
course, the activities required depend on design choices~e.g.,
cas
in place concrete versus steel structure!. However, given a con
struction method, the model identifies two important direct
for accident prevention:~1! reduce task unpredictability, and~2!
increase error management capability. These strategies do
place the safety defenses and technical training but comple
them.
Reduce Task Unpredictability
Reducing unpredictability will reduce unexpected tasks and
58. in
cluded in the weekly work plans. In addition, the work proc
and conditions must be controlled to support efficient beha
~clear access, layout, location and sequence of subtasks!.
Finally,
during the task, the crew needs to periodically re-evaluate the
and conditions to prevent degradation.
Increase Error Management Capability
Construction has not developed systematic ways to train
vidual and teams in error management. The most developed
ponent is training in hazard identification which is essential,
not sufficient. The skills related to situation awareness and
processes are developed incidentally through experience
need for awareness and effective team processes~within a crew
and between different crews! becomes more important on acti
ties and projects with high uncertainty and complexity, c
pressed schedules, and limited work areas.
CRM’s main difference from existing safety practices is th
focuses on critical nontechnical aspects of the workers’ inte
tion that enable the crew to successfully recognize, cope with
recover from hazardous situations and errors.
A simple version of CRM adapted for construction has b
proposed by Mitropoulos et al.~2003!. In this approach manag
ment requires crewmembers to speak up when they identify
ditions that exceed their “comfort zone” in terms of ability
perform the work effectively and safely. Members can raise
cerns about the work method, the conditions in the work area
sequence of the work, the lack of safety measures and equip
lack of appropriate equipment for the task, etc. To support su
approach, management must take a non punitive policy to
errors, and must create a team environment that support
59. develops workers’ assertiveness.
Conclusions
The accident causation model presented in this paper invest
the production factors that generate hazardous situations and
the workers into the hazard zone. It also examined the limita
of current safety strategies in counteracting the problems g
ated by the production factors. The paper argued that expo
and errors are inevitable and proposed two alternative strat
reducing task unpredictability and improving error managem
capabilities. A limitation of the model is that it may have
considered other important factors and causal relationships
contribute to accidents. The model should be considered as p
sitions for testing. Future research should focus on better u
standing the effect of task unpredictability, and on develo
error management strategies.
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