Architecture for the deaf by wamugi

THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KENYA
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE FOR THE DEAF
Bachelor of Architecture Thesis
©Author: Duncan Wamugi Kariuki
BachelorofArchitectureThesis
----Author:DuncanWamugi----ARCHITECTUREFORTHEDEAFTechnicalUniversityofKenya
-------2017--------

ARCHITECTURE FOR THE DEAF
Deafspace Architectural Design Guidelines in Learning Institutions for the Deaf
Duncan Wamugi Kariuki
111/04882
A research thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the examination requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Architecture degree in the
Department of Architecture and Environmental Design, Technical University of Kenya

Declaration
This is my original work and to the best of my knowledge has not been presented for a degree in any other institution
Author: Duncan Wamugi Kariuki
Signature.................................................. Date..........................................
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the examination requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Architecture degree, Department
of Architecture and Environmental Design, Technical University of Kenya
Tutor: Arch. Mutua Mweu Year Coordinator: Arch. David Lagat
Signature................................................... Signature..............................................
Date........................................................... Date.....................................................
Chairman, Department of Architecture and Environmental Design, School of the Architecture and Built Environment
Dr. Joseph Kedogo
Signature................................................... Date..........................................

Acknowledgements
My Parents; for all the sacrifices you made.
Grandmother; for all that you’ve always been.
Richie & Peris, Timothy & Mary, My dearest for everything that you did in making this document a reality, God bless you
Arch. Mutua Mweu, my tutor, for his tireless efforts in guiding me through my academic endeavours; Arch. David Matole, for all the advice and
dedication, Dr. Peter Makachia for your advice in matters architecture and beyond;
All lecturers, Department of Architecture and Environmental Design: for all your guidance during my years in the School of Architecture.
The TUK Library & University of Nairobi ADD Library. Special regards to Jane A. Oluochi and Architect E. Abonyo.
The Management and staff at the Isinya School for the Deaf, Kajiado, especially Geogrey Abuga & Jean Claude for all efforts in ensuring unlimited
access to the school. The Management and staff at Karen Technical Training Institute, Nairobi for their permission to carry out detailed analysis
of their buildings.

Dedication
To GOD ALMIGHTY, Whom without I couldn’t.............and all your promises I witnessed fulfilled

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background.................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement......................................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Research Question.......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Research Objectives....................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Relevance/Justification.................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.6 Hypothesis..................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Scope and Limitation..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Definition of Operational Terms................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.9 Research Methodology.................................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.10. Overview of the Chapters........................................................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review..................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Framing Deaf............................................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.3 Deafspace within a historical context........................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1. History of Deaf Education in Europe............................................................................................................................ 15
2.3.2. History of Deaf Education in America......................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.3. History of deaf education in Africa.............................................................................................................................. 17
2.4 Deafspace within a Cultural context. ........................................................................................................................................... 19
2.4.1. Proxemics and Deaf space............................................................................................................................................ 19
2.4.2. Art and Literature......................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.5. Deafspace Architectural Design Strategies................................................................................................................................. 21

2.5.1. Light and colour........................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.5 2. Sensory reach ............................................................................................................................................................... 25
2.5.3. Space and proximity .................................................................................................................................................... 25
2.5 4. Mobility and proximity................................................................................................................................................ 26
2.5.5. Acoustics...................................................................................................................................................................... 27
2.5.6. Summary of Architectural Design Strategies............................................................................................................... 29
2.6. Standards Relating to Deafspace…………………..................................................................................................................... 30
2.6.1. Lighting Standards…………………........................................................................................................................... 30
2.6.2. Proxemics rule……………...………........................................................................................................................... 33
2.6.3. Acoustic standards…………………............................................................................................................................ 34
Chapter 3: Research Methodology............................................................................................................................................................................. 39
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
3.2 Research Design........................................................................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 Research Strategy.........................................................................................................................................................................41
3.4 Sample Design. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 41
3.5 Data Collection Method. ............................................................................................................................................................. 42
3.6 Data presentation Method. ........................................................................................................................................................... 46
3.7 Data Analysis Method. ................................................................................................................................................................ 47
3.8 Summary on research methods..................................................................................................................................................... 48
Chapter 4. Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
4.2 Precedent Study-Gallaudet University......................................................................................................................................... 50
4.2.1 Background information............................................................................................................................................... 50
4.2.2 Planning and Design...................................................................................................................................................... 50
4.2.3 Deafspace Design Guidelines....................................................................................................................................... 55
4.3 Case Study 1- Isinya School for the Deaf..................................................................................................................................... 63

4.3.2 Planning and Design...................................................................................................................................................... 64
4.3.3 Deafspace Design Guidelines....................................................................................................................................... 71
4.3.4 Summary on Isinya School for the Deaf....................................................................................................................... 92
4.4 Case Study 2 – Karen Technical Training Institute for the Deaf.................................................................................................. 94
4.4.2 Planning and Design.......................................................................................................................................................96
4.4.3 Deafspace Design Guidelines.........................................................................................................................................98
Chapter 5. Conclusion and Recommendation........................................................................................................................................................... 108
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................ 108
5.2 Conclusions and Recommendations on Literature and Standards Review................................................................................. 109
5.3 Conclusions and Recommendations on Precedent studies………………..................................................................................114
5.4 Conclusions and Recommendations on Case studies……………………..................................................................................115
5.5 Areas of further Research……………………...........................................................................................................................118
References................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 119
Appendices............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 121

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
CHAPTER 1
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.01 relationship between hearing impaired and the
hearing…………………………………...……. [Page 1]
Fig 1.02 relationship between man and the built
environment…………….…………………….. [Page 1]
Fig 1.03 a model of a spatial behaviour of virtual agents
in a sign language communication that is used to develop
Deafspace Design Guidelines…………………. [Page 2]
Fig 1.04 A Public space in a local University Designed
by Hearing Individual ……………………..…. [Page 2]
Fig 1.05 - A group space at Isinya School for the
Deaf………………..………………………..… [Page 3]
Fig 1.06 group space at Gallaudet University…. [Page 4]
Fig 1.07 signer in a local school explaining the
challenges associated with deafness…………... [Page 4]
Fig 1.08 image showing Deaf individuals communicate
visually and physically rather than audibly …… [Page 6]
Fig 1.11 Equipment required for measurement of sound
levels……………………………...…...….…... [Page 6]
Fig 1.13. An info graph showing Key concepts and terms
used in the research…………….…….………... [Page 7]
Fig 1.12 Daylight Simulation investigating the
relationship between Window Ratio and the position of
the sun................................................................ [Page 8]
Fig 1.13. An info graph showing a summary structure of
the research…..……………………..………... [Page 9]
CHAPTER 2
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.01. Understanding Deaf culture…………………
……………………………………….………. [Page 11]
Fig 2.02. A concept of the world myth about the
deaf.…………………………………….……. [Page 12]
Fig 2.03. Gallaudet University……...…….…. [Page 12]
Fig 2.04. A concept Model of Gallaudet University that
defined a new concept in Reframing
Deafness……………………….………….…. [Page 13]
Fig 2.05. The Great World of London Milbank Prison. A
Historic prisoner’s asylum ……. [Page 13]
Fig 2.06 panopticon……………………….…. [Page 14]
Fig 2.07. Institute National de Jeanes Sounds de Paris
(INJS) ……….………………………...…. [Page 15]
Fig 2.08. Thomas Braidwood s Academy for the Deaf
and Dumb in Edinburgh………….………. [Page 15]
Fig 2.09. America mark 200 years of deaf education
…………………………………………….[Page 16]
Fig 2.10. A historical view of Illinois school for the
deaf ………………………………………. [Page 16]
Fig 2.11. A look into Deaf Education’s history around
the world. ………………………..………. [Page 17]
Fig 2.12 Students at Tumutumu school….. [Page 17]
Fig 2.13. INFCHART of the key figures that
influenced Deaf education across Europe, America
and Africa…………………………...……. [Page 18]
Fig 2.14 Audrey Terp description of Deafness as a
cultural identity…...………………...……. [Page 19]
Fig 2.15 Sensory orientation studies…..…. [Page 19]
Fig 2.16 Communication through the window by deaf
persons……………………………………... [Pg. 20]
Fig 2.17. Students in a Classroom in a local Deaf
learning institution. ………………………. [Page 21]
Fig 2.18. Deafspace at Gallaudet University of the
Deaf. …………………………………..…. [Page 21]
Fig. 2.19. A classroom in Machakos School for the
Deaf …………………………………….... [Page 22]
Fig. 2.20. Daylighting strategies…………. [Page 22]
Fig 2.21. Illustration of poor lighting conditions
resulting to glare…………………………. [Page 23]
Fig 2.22. Illustration of colour as selective absorber
and reflector. ………………………….…. [Page 23]
Fig 2.23. Colour filters and selective transmittance of
light. …………………… ………….…. [Page 24]
Fig 2.24. Gallaudet University College of the deaf
colour-testing interiors ………………..…. [Page 24]
Fig 2.25. Extend Deaf people's awareness ... [Pg. 25]
Fig 2.26. Clear lines of sight-mobility….... [Page 26]
Fig 2.27. Relationship between sign language and
mobility………………………………....... [Page 26]
Fig2.29: The relationship between speech
intelligibility, RT and background noise…. [Page 27]
Fig 2.29. Illustration of Early and late reflection
in a small
room…………………………………….….….
[Page 27]
Fig 2.30: Sources of noise in the learning
environment…………………………….…….. [Page 28]
Fig 2.31 signal-to-noise ratio………………..... [Page 28]
Fig 2.32 & Fig 2.33 daylighting techniques. Building
Bulletin 93. …………………………….. [Page 30 & 31]
Fig 3.33. A and B. Illustration of different daylighting
techniques …………………………………..... [Page 32]
Fig 2.35. Edward t Hall theory…………….... [Page 33]
Fig 2.36. Study of the use of space deaf…….... [Page 33]
Fig 2.37. Student in a classroom at Isinya School for the
deaf. ………………………………………….. [Page 34]
Fig 2.38. A lecture room at Nottingham University
device………..………………………...…..….. [Page 34]
Fig 2.39. Hearing aid device………..……..….. [Page 35]
Fig 2.40.An acoustic Wall treatment …………. [Page 35]
Fig 2.41 logo of the American Speech Language Hearing
Association………………………………...…. [Page 36]
Fig 2.42: An ideal classroom space……..……. [Page 37]
LIST OF TABLES.
Table 2.5.1. Absorptive and Reflective properties of
colour…………………………..…...…...….… [Page 23]
Table 2.5.2. Deafspace Architectural Design Guideline
Summary……………….……….…...……..… [Page 29]
Table 2.6.0. Illuminance, Uniformity Ratio and Limiting
Glare Index for schools. The CIBSE- Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers…… [Page 32]
Table. 2.6.1 The European norm EN 12464-1… [Page 32]
Table 2.6.2. Proxemics…………….……….… [Page 33]
Table 2.6.3 Acoustic Limits on A- weighted sound levels
………………..…………….…………...….… [Page 36]
Table 2.6.4 Summary of Acoustic Standards… [Page 38]
CHAPTER 3
Fig3.01.Infographic showing a combination guidelines
involved in the research design. …………...…. [Page 39]
Fig3.02. Infographic showing research design used in
carrying out this study…………………….…... [Page 40
Fig3.03. info charts illustrating the various methods used
to find out what exists, what is needed and making
recommendation ……………………………... [Page 41]
Fig 3.04. Selected studies…………………….. [Page 42]

c
Fig.3.05. UMM-6 microphone, lux meter, balloons
notebook and a laptop used to do actual measurement
on site. …………………………………...…. [Page 43]
Fig.3.06. 30M tape measure used to do actual
measurement on site. ………………………. [Page 43]
Fig 3.07. Isinya School Architectural drgs….. [Page 46]
Fig.3.08. A tabulation of the daylight factors recorded
in the field. ……..………………………..…. [Page 47]
Fig.3.09. A comparative info graph of the various RT60
recorded. ………….……………………....... [Page 47]
Fig 3.10. Image illustration of the identity used by the
two cases studied in this research. ……….…. [Page 49]
CHAPTER 4
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 4.1.1.analysis parameters info chart.……. [Page 49]
Fig 4.2.1. Logo of Gallaudet University…..… [Page 50]
Fig 4.2.2. Gallaudet federally-chartered private
University………………………………...… [Page 50]
Fig 4.2.3. Gallaudet site plan……………..…. [Page 51]
Fig 4.2.4 Historical Gallaudet site plan…..…. [Page 52]
Fig 4.2.5 Zoning Gallaudet site plan……...…. [Page 52]
Fig 4.2.6 Historical Gallaudet site plan…..…. [Page 52]
Fig 4.2.7 Screening site plan……………..…. [Page 52]
Fig.4.2.8.Vertical building plan of the Gallaudet
Residence hall………………………………. [Page 53]
Fig4.2.9. plan showing clear lines of sight.…. [Page 53]
Fig.4.2.10 Dangermond Keane typical classroom
space……………………………………..…. [Page 54]
Fig.4.2.11 central living room at Gallaudet University
…………………………………………...…. [Page 54]
Fig4.2.12 Main lobby at Gallaudet……...…. [Page 55]
Fig 4.2.13: Illustration of light and colour
concept…………………………………..…. [Page 56]
Fig 4.2.14: Extended Sensory reach at Gallaudet
University. ……………………………….…. [Page 57]
Fig 4.2.15: Illustration of deafspace and proximity at
Gallaudet University………………………... [Page 58]
Fig 4.2.16: Illustration of mobility concept used by
Gallaudet University……………………..…. [Page 59]
Fig 4.2.17: Illustration of acoustic design
consideration……………………………..…. [Page 60]
Fig 4.2.18: A classroom at Gallaudet ………. [Page 60]
Fig. 4.3.1 Isinya School for the deaf ….. [Page 63]
Fig 4.3.2. Site plan of Isinya School
A- Nairobi-Namanga road………….…. [Page 64]
B- Image of existing vegetation and man-made
Dam next to the school.………….…. [Page 64]
C- Nairobi-Namanga road.………....…. [Page 64]
Fig.4.3.3 A foot path Isinya School…......... [Page 65]
Fig.4.3.4 Site plan of the Isinya School…... [Page 65]
Fig.4.3.5 Typical Classroom building at Isinya School
for the Deaf.………….............................…. [Page 66]
Fig: 4.3.6 Buildings Section at Isinya…...… [Page 67]
Fig: 4.3.7 Buildings Elevation at Isinya...… [Page 67]
Fig: 4.3.8 Buildings Perspective at Isinya… [Page 67]
Fig: 4.3.9 Building Plan showing access view [Pg. 67]
Fig: 4.3.10 Buildings Floor Plan………..… [Page 67]
Fig: 4.3.11. Plan of the Dormitory floor….. [Page 68]
Fig: 4.3.12 Dormitory- evidence of Glare…… [Pg68]
Fig.4.3.13 Furniture layout in a classroom... [Page69]
Fig.4.3.14 Images of the classroom ….....… [Page 69]
Fig.4.3.15 Floor plan the dormitory at Isinya School.
………………………….…..…………...… [Page 70]
Fig.4.3.16 Images of the dormitory at Isinya School.
……………..…………………………...… [Page 70]
Fig 4.3.17-19.Classroom 5 space description [Pg. 73]
Fig 4.3.20. Daylight contours in classroom 5 at
Isinya…………………………………...… [Page 73]
Fig 4.3.21. Ecotect Daylight analysis.… … [Page 74]
Fig 4.3.22-25 strategies for sun shading with Ecotect
analysis…………………………………… [Page 76]
Fig 4.3.26. Evident glare in Classroom....… [Page 77]
Fig 4.3.27. Interior of Classroom 5………… [Page78]
Fig 4.3.31. Sketch section of learning centre at
Isinya…………………………………....… [Page 79]
Fig 4.3.32. Section of Kimbrel Art Museum –
Renzo…………………………………...… [Page 79]
Fig. 4.3.29-30. Isinya Classroom layout - sensory
reach. ……………………………….…..… [Page 80]
Fig.4.3.31 The space outside core learning spaces at
Isinya School. ……………………….….… [Page 82]
Fig. 4.3.32 .Mobility plan at Isinya………. [Page 83]
Fig. 4.3.33 Mobility path in and around the
classroom……………………………….… [Page 84]
A- 4.3.34 Site Footpath (1.2M width) …… [Page 84]
B- 4.3.35 Interior lobby (2M) ……..…………. [Page 84]
C- 4.3.36. Staircase ……….……….……….… [Page 84]
Fig. 4.3.37. Sources of noise and existing infrastructures.
…………………………………………..….… [Page 85]
Fig. 4.3.38-40. Classroom 5 space description.
…………….....………………...…… [Page 85, 86 & 87]
Fig 4.3.41 comparative RT graph…………..… [Page 87]
Fig 4.3.52-53: Background noise levels measured in
classroom 5. ……………………………..…… [Page 93]
Fig 4.3.42: Exterior background noise levels
…………………………………………..….… [Page 94]
Fig 4.3.43: interior and exterior noise levels
…………………………………………..….… [Page 90]
Fig 4.3.44. Class 5 permanent ventilation. ….… [Page 90]
Fig 4.3.45. Noise reduction illustrated…..….… [Page 90]
Fig 4.3.46. Nairobi-Namanga road………….… [Page 91]
Fig 4.3.47. SII 1/3 octave band recorded in classroom
5…………………………………………….… [Page 91]
Fig 4.3.48. Evident Glare From direct sunlight in the
classroom 5……………………...………….… [Page 92]
Fig 4.3.49. Expansive glass walls used to extend sensory
reach……………………………………..….… [Page 92]
Fig 4.3.50. Relationship between classroom shape and
layout……………………………………….… [Page 92]
Fig 4.3.51. A Narrow corridor at Isinya
School……………………...……………….… [Page 93]
Fig 4.3.52. Classroom 5 at Isinya
School……………………...……………….… [Page 93]
Fig: 4.4.1. The logo of Kttid……………….… [Page 94]
Fig: 4.4.2. Kttid Main Gate……………..….… [Page 94]
Fig: 4.4.3. Kttid Site plan…………………..… [Page 95]
Fig 4.4.4. Spaces Function relationship at
Kttid………………………………….……..… [Page 95]
Fig. 4.4.05. Deputy Principal office-Kttid……. [Page 97]
Fig. 4.4.06.Staff room at Kttid. .……………… [Page 97]
Fig. 4.4.07. Sketch layout of an office within a classroom
at Kttid………………………………..……..... [Page 97]
Fig. 4.4.08. Sketch layout of a workshop….… [Page 97]
Fig. 4.4.09. Image of the ICT centre at Kttid… [Page 97]
Fig. 4.4.10. Sketch layout of Hair Dressing & Beauty
therapy department at Kttid. .…………..…...… [Page 97]
Fig 4.4.11-13. Tuition Room 1 Space description-
Kttid.……………………...…………...…….… [Page98]

Fig. 4.4.14. Daylighting in Tuition classroom 1 at
Kttid………………………………….…...… [Page 99]
Fig. 4.4.15. Visual Access window in a hair dressing
classroom…………………………….….… [Page 100]
Fig. 4.4.16. A concentric space created by student at
Kttid……………………………….…….… [Page 100]
Fig 4.4.17. The passage at Kttid Administration
block……….……………………………… [Page 101]
Fig 4.4.18. Inter-cluster pavement at Kttid….. [Pg. 101]
Fig 4.4.19. Circulation pavement at Kttid…... [Pg. 101]
Fig 4.4.20. Description of tuition room on site showing
major sources of noise…………………..… [Page 102]
fig. 4.4.25 Reverberation time test for Tuition Rm 1 at
Karen……………………………...…….… [Page 103]
Fig 4.4.22: background noise levels measured in Tuition
room 1 at Kttid. ………………………….… [Page 103]
Fig 4.4.23. Tuition room 1……………….… [Page 104]
Fig 4.4.24. A corridor outside Tuition room 1
….……………………………………….… [Page 104]
Fig 4.4.25: Environmental Noise Reaching the
Façade…………………………………...… [Page 105]
Fig 4.4.26: Comparison of Interior and Exterior noise
levels. …………………………..……….… [Page 106]
Fig.4.4.27.The effect of screening on exterior noise
levels…………………………………….… [Page 107]
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.2.1. Stewardship of Gallaudet……… [Page 52]
Table 4.2.2. Unit Planning at Gallaudet
University…………………………..…….… [Page 55]
Table 4.2.3. Deafspace Architectural Design Guidelines
the Gallaudet University………………….… [Page 61]
Table 4.3.1. Deafspace Architectural Design Guidelines
the Gallaudet University……………………. [Page 70]
Table 4.3.2. Ecotect Analysis for building solar
exposure at Isinya School for the deaf…….. [Page 71]
Table 4.3.3. Description of the classroom at Isinya
School for the deaf……...………….…….… [Page 72]
Table4.3.4. Light Levels and Corresponding Daylight
Factor ……………….…………….…….… [Page 73]
Table 4.3.5. Comparative Analysis against Reviewed
Lighting Standard………………….…….… [Page 75]
Table 4.3.6. Comparative Ecotect Analysis of design
strategies …….…………………….…….… [Page 76]
Table.4.3.7. 3D Illustration of lighting levels in
classroom 5 at Isinya School ……..…….… [Page 77]
Table 4.3.8. Simulated 3D illumination levels of
classroom 5 at Isinya School …….….….… [Page 80]
Table: 4.3.9. Design elements used to increase sensory
reach in the building……………………….. [Page 80]
Table.4.3.7. 3D Illustration of lighting levels in
classroom 5 at Isinya School for the Deaf......[Page 79]
Table 4.3.8. Simulated 3D illumination levels of
classroom 5 at Isinya School for the Deaf for the
Seasons of the year. …………….…..….… [Page 80]
Table: 4.3.9. Highlighting the main Design elements
used to increase sensory reach in the building. ….…
[Page 80]
Table 4.3.10. Schedule of Materials and Finishes in the
selected classroom 5 at Isinya School. ….… [Page 89]
Table.4.3.11 Reverberation time Test Report [Page 90]
Table 4.3.12: Figures for background noise levels
measured in classroom 5 at Isinya School for the deaf.
…….………………..……………………... [Page 92]
Table 4.3.13: Figures for exterior background noise le
vels measured at The Isinya School …….… [Page 94]
Table 4.3.15: Exterior background noise levels and
corresponding Traffic Noise measured at Along
Nairobi Namanga Road at the Isinya School for the
deaf………...……………………………… [Page 96]
Table 4.3.17.Summary on Isinya School...… [Page 98]
Table 4.3.18.Summary on Isinya School…... [Page 93]
Table 4.4.1. Building Design at Kttid........… [Page 97]
Table 4.4.2. Unit Design at Kttid …..........… [Page 98]
Table 4.4.3. Space description at Karen Technical
Training Institute for the Deaf. ..…………… [Pg. 99]
Table 4.4.4. Illuminance level in tuition 1. [Page 99]
Table.4.4.5 Reverberation time Test Report. [Pge103]
Table 4.4.6: Table of background noise levels
measured in Tuition room 1 Kttid. ……… [Page 104]
Table 4.4.7: Table of Environmental Noise Reaching
the Façade of Tuition room 1 at Kttid....… [Page 105]
Table 4.4.8: Table of Traffic noise levels measured in
along Karen Road…….………………..… [Page 106]
Table 4.4.9. Summary on Kttid…...…...… [Page 107]
Chapter 5
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 5.2.1. Deaf space at Gallaudet University
….............................................................… [Page 110]
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.1. Design Guidelines at Isinya
School…………………………………….. [Page 115]
Table 5.2. Recommendation on the Five Deafspace
Design Guidelines at Kttid case and new design to
enhance Deafspace. ….............................… [Page 117]
APPENDICES
------------------------------------------------------Page 121

Abstract
"We shape our buildings, and afterwards our buildings shape us." If the spark that has started with the students in the Deaf Space project
becomes a flame, then the rising generation of deaf leaders will certainly play a role in moulding the future of the deaf community.
--------Winston Churchill---------

ARCHITECTURE FOR THE DEAF Deafspace Design Guidelines in Learning Institution 2016/2017
[Page | 1 ]
1.1 BACKGROUND
The deaf, hard-to-hearing and the hearing impaired persons inhabit a rich sensory world
where vision and touch are the primary means of spatial awareness and orientation. This
group of people use sign identity (Fig.1.01). When the Deaf congregate together they tend
to alter the space to fit to their unique way of being. This is the first proof of Deaf existence
and their unique architectural way. However, our built environment presents a variety of
challenges which the deaf are unable to respond to.
“The world has watched the deaf community come of age. Together lets overcome our own
reluctance to stand up for our own rights." Dr. I. King Jordan, President Gallaudet
University
A concept of “Deaf Aesthetic” known as Deafspace has already been developed. It is meant
to offer a new voice in the discourse of universal design by exploring the ultimate experience
surrounding Architecture and the senses. Under this concept, Deafspace Design Guidelines
(DSDGs) have been developed. The guidelines touch on five broad categories which are
Light and colour, Sensory reach, Space and proximity, Mobility and proximity and
Acoustics. (Architect Hansel Bauman, hbhm architects, 2005)
Deafspace Design guidelines use human body space as a starting point for design (Fig 1.03),
rather than the space of urban systems. In this way, it resonates with other bodily
circumstances and sensory experiences to tie to the whole concept of universal design.
Fig 1.01
Relationship between hearing impaired and the hearing
Source: http://www.fotosearch.com/illustration/hearing-loss.
Fig 1.02. Relationship between man and the Built Environment.
Source: Retrieved April 2017
https://grenfellactiongroup.wordpress.com

[Page | 2 ]
Elements such as textures, vibrations, contrasting colours and acoustical considerations used
in Deafspace can also help people with low vision or who are blind, while the wide open
spaces can facilitate wheelchair use. Deafspace also attempts to address sensory conflicts,
for instance using textured patterns to improve predictability. According to Oxford
Reference, a dictionary of Psychology, sensory conflict is a sickness of motion in which
passive movement creates a mismatch between information relating to orientation and
movement supplied by the visual and vestibular system.
Deafspace design approach remains undiscovered in the architectural discourse when
designing for the deaf in the Kenyan context.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
A Space is a creation formed out of our desires to feel comfortable, safe and get inspiration
(Charlene A. Johnson 2014). Therefore, we create space to reflect who we are and what we
believe is important. Human beings perceive what is expected of them as they encounter
space and set a tone reacting to the space itself and the people in it. Spaces are complicated,
they are alive and they foster human connectivity within their confines. Most important
spaces are ideas, a reflection of our understanding of what and how a space represents
ourselves and our values. This is not an exemption to the deaf community and their space.
However, the concept of Deafspace is widely overlooked in the Kenyan context while
designing learning institutions (Fig 1.04.).
Fig 1.03
A model of a spatial behaviour of virtual agents in a sign
language communication that is used to develop Deafspace
Design Guidelines
Source: Author Edited 2017 after Hamid Laga
Fig 1.04
A Public space in a local University Designed by Hearing
Individual
Source: Author 2017

[Page | 3 ]
“I am just as deaf as I am blind. The problems of deafness are deeper and more complex, if not more
important than those of blindness. Deafness is a much worse misfortune. For it means the loss of the
most vital stimulus- the sound of the voice that brings language, sets thoughts astir, and keeps us in
the intellectual company of man.”
Helen Keller
The built environment, presents the best avenue to deal with most problems associated with the
deafspace culture because it encompasses architectural design elements for functional human space.
Numerous studies on the main architectural design elements that addresses the deaf experience in
the built environment have been studied in other countries. In the United States of America, the deaf
community has come together with the American Institute of Architects and Gallaudet University
Department of Deaf studies to develop Deafspace Design Guidelines and an implementation
methodology of deaf related projects. Elsewhere, in the United Kingdom, the Centre of Deaf Studies
at Bristol University has already defined a language, community and culture of the deaf person.
However, very little has been devoted in the Kenyan context. As a result, an architectural
masterpiece on the deaf culture remains undiscovered (Fig 1.05 and 1.06.)
The concepts of Universal Design and its principles means a design should be configured for use by
anyone, not limited to specific people. It should therefore include perceptible information designs.
This means, universal design must have essential information in a variety of mode to ensure effective
communication with all its users regardless of their sensory abilities. However, in Kenya the concept
of universal design has been limited to Universal accessibility. In the view of the author this is
separation of a design challenge. “Nothing is as dangerous in architecture as dealing with separated
Fig. 1.05 - A group space at Isinya School for the Deaf
Source: Author 2017
Fig. 1.06- A group space at Gallaudet University for the Deaf
Source: http://deaf411online.com
The comparison of a deaf group space between a local case and
Gallaudet university for the deaf

[Page | 4 ]
problems. If we split life into separated problems we split the possibilities to make good building
art.”(Alvar Henrik Aalto).
The hearing impaired have therefore been forced to adapt in a built environment which is not
considerate to their unique culture (Fig 1.07). To achieve a fully functional built environment for
the deaf in this country, there is need for researchers to critically investigate the various design
strategies to match with Deaf culture. Countries such as the United States of America have Deaf
space architectural design guidelines (by Architect Hansel Bauman, hbhm architects, 2005 and
adopted by the American Institute of Architects) and it’s time Kenya develops its own guidelines to
match the existing and projected percentage of Deaf persons in the country’s population. Based on
2009 consensus close to 1% of the Kenyan people have hearing impairment which approximates to
600,000 people. Of these only around 340,000 persons can use the Kenya Sign Language (based
the Ministry of Education, Special Need Department).
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research will seek to provide answers to the following questions.
1. What are the unique challenges and opportunities associated with Deaf persons in the built
environments within learning institution?
2. Can deaf persons bring unique sensibility to Architectural discourse in Learning Institutions?
3. What are the proper Architectural elements that can be used to bring comfort to deaf attuned
persons in learning institutions?
Fig: 1.07 THE ABSTRACT CONCEPT OF BUILT
ENVIRONMENT
Deafness and hearing loss pose challenges to people in the
built environment. Source: Author, 2017.
Fig: 1.08. A signer in a local school explaining the
challenges associated with deafness Source: Author, 2017.

[Page | 5 ]
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.
The objective of this research is to.
1. Explore the unique challenges and opportunities associated with Deafspace architecture and identify how the lessons learnt can be applied in
universal design and best practice in learning institutions for the Deaf.
2. Examine the aspect of Architecture and deaf culture to identify the unique sensibility that the concept of Deafspace offers to the architectural
discourse.
3. Identify and document proper Architectural elements that can be used to bring comfort to deaf attuned persons in learning institution in the
Kenyan context.
1.5 RELEVANCE/JUSTIFICATION
This proposal is aligned with the Constitution of the Republic of Kenya under THE PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES (AMENDMENT) BILL, 2013.
A person with disability (this includes the deaf and hard to hearing individuals) is entitled to reasonable access to all places, and information for their
rehabilitation, self-development and self-reliance.
The national government is focused on offering the best support services to persons with disability in Kenya through provision of resources, promotion
of awareness on the contribution they make towards national development, and advocacy of appropriate measures to minimize conditions giving rise to
disability. This research therefore comes at the most appropriate time to expand the knowledge for this mission.
The research is limited to learning institutions for the deaf because they present the best avenue in which the government can use to realize its mission
of provision of resource leading to self-reliance and minimise conditions leading to disability.
Therefore, Knowledge on Deafspace architectural design elements for Deaf space architecture is needed for a better integration of deaf persons in the
built environment. The knowledge will be of great importance to the government, architects, interior designers and other individuals involved in achieving
the well-being of the Deaf.

[Page | 6 ]
1.6 HYPOTHESIS
This research is conducted within the hypothesis “The clarity with which a deaf person
communicates relates to the clarity and clutter of what’s around them” (Fig 1.09.)
Architecture is essential for quantity and quality aesthetics of life. It should focus on understanding
new technologies and guiding thoughtful implementation because they play a pivotal role in design
clarity. Arts are a clear and direct expression of cultures and global interconnectedness, providing
access to the understanding of societal and individual difference through universal avenues.
1.7 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This research will focus on the study of selected learning institutions for the deaf in Kenya. It will
be framed against the five Deafspace design guidelines identified early in this proposal. However,
Deaf culture is not well attuned in this country compared to other developed countries like United
States of America, Netherlands, England, South Africa and Egypt. As a result, the context in which
the research is carried out has limited resources to provide adequate knowledge required for this
undertaking. The author acknowledges this as a constraint.
Since quite a substantial part of this research depends on the ability to communicate using the Kenya
sign language, the author acknowledges his limited ability to use the language as a research
constraint. The use of an interpreter poses logistical and biased relay of information required for the
purpose of this research.
Some of the equipment such as acoustic analyzers (Fig. 1.10) and Daylighting measurement tools
and software that are required to carry out the research are very expensive. This shall limit the extent
to which the research can be conducted. However, basic requirements for carrying out acoustic and
Fig 1.09. Deaf individuals communicate visually and
physically rather than audibly
Source: Deaf People - info skicenkovice. Search by image
Fig 1.10: Acoustic Analyzers Equipment required for
measurement of sound levels.
Source:http://www.norsonic.com/no/en/products/sound_le
vel_meters/sound_analyser_nor140/Sound

[Page | 7 ]
daylighting measurements shall be adhered to as required by their respective standards (The British
Association of Teachers of the Deaf- BATOD)
There has been quite a number of issues outside the deafspace architectural scope such as social
rejection, impaired memory, diminished psychological health and irritability among many others
that has not been researched. This research will not investigate these realms, it will mainly focus on
evidence based architectural elements. This approach might pose a research limitation.
Time to visit and document all the selected case studies is also a possible research constraint. In
addition financial difficulties to access and travel to all the selected institutions is expected for this
research.
1.8 DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS
This proposal defines the following key concepts and terms to be used in the study.
1. Deaf. A community of people characterized by individuals who lack the power to hear, hard
to hearing and the associated hearing personnel’s that support the well-being of deaf. For the
purpose of this research “Deaf “is used with capital “D” to refer to the context. When used
in lowercase it will be referring to the auditory experience.
2. Deafspace. A space that has been created for the visual- centred community to meet their
unique way of life. In this study, it will therefore be used to refer to an approach to design
and architecture informed by the unique way of life characterized by use of sign language
and tactile modes inhabited by the Deaf community.
Fig 1.11. AN INFO GRAPH showing Key concepts
and terms used in the research
Source: Author 2017.
Deaf-
Community
Deaf
Culture
Deafspace Design
Guidelines.

[Page | 8 ]
3. Deaf Culture. A set of social beliefs, values, behaviour and shared institution frameworks
that are influenced by the deaf. It is characterized by community of people who use visual
kinetic mode of communication. In the built environment, like any other culture, deaf culture
is manifested through Deafspace.
4. Deafspace Design Guidelines. An innovative series of guidelines established by Architect
Hansel Bauman and Dangermood Keane at Gallaudet University for the design of
environments for Deaf individuals. The guidelines provide a framework for development
and implementation of Deaf related projects.
1.9 METHODOLOGY
This research is conducted by carrying out detailed case studies and a selected precedent study to
answer the specific research questions. It mainly investigates if there is any Deafspace architectural
design element in the selected case.
The research applies Simple tools and calculations to help determine the viability of architectural
design elements in designing for the deaf. These include: Sun path diagrams and Daylight factor
calculation for available interior daylight to investigate light as an architectural design element for
Deaf space (Fig 1.12)
To investigate the acoustic performance of the Deafspace the study will focus on calculation of
reverberation time in specific rooms, indoor and outdoor recording of sound level to help
determine Speech intelligibility.
Fig 1.12 Daylight Simulation investigating the
relationship between Window Ratio and the position of
the sun
Source: Author 2017. Ecotect Simulation.

[Page | 9 ]
Photography will be used for obstruction analysis. Other tools to be used will include observation
and actual measurements.
The researcher also uses interviews and questionnaires directed to the teachers and learners in Deaf
teaching institutions. The questionnaires seek information relating to the deaf experience in the built
environment and the architectural discourse (Appendix 6.1).
1.10 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS
1.10.1 Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter introduces the research topic by providing background information, giving a statement
of the problem, the study objectives, its hypothesis, relevance and justifications in the chosen
context. It also highlights the scope in which the author is limiting himself to in this study, given
the complex nature of this subject matter.
1.10.2 Chapter 2: Literature Review
The Chapter looks at the relevant information carried out prior to this research from the published
and unpublished materials. Some of these materials include books, journals, articles, reports,
newspapers reviews and thesis.
Here, the author critically reviews literature on the history and evolution of deafspace culture from
ancient Greece to date. This culture revolves around visual kinetic mode, visual sensory reach and
tactic modes. These parameters form the basis for the study and have helped to define the deafspace
design guidelines. This chapter also reviews standards relating to deafspace design.
Fig 1.13. AN INFO GRAPH showing a summary structure
of the research chapters
Source: Author 2017.
CHAPTER 1
•Defination of the research problem
CHAPTER 2
•Review of the literature
•Formulation of hypothesis
CHAPTER 3
•research design and strategies,
sampling methods,
•research tools, data collection and
data presentation techniques
CHAPTER 4
•data Analysis
CHAPTER 5
•Reporting conclusions and
recommendation

[Page | 10 ]
1.10.3 Chapter 3: Research Methodologies
The chapter explores various varied research methodologies used to answer the specific question put forward for the purpose of this study. It discusses
research design and strategies, sampling methods, research tools, data collection, presentation and analysis techniques used.
1.10.4 Chapter 4: Precedent and Case Studies Analysis
This chapter will synthesis the data collected from case studies for the purpose of this research with the aim of achieving research objectives. Descriptive
statistics, exploratory and confirmatory data analysis will be applied in this chapter to predict, credit of falsify the hypothesis in this research.
1.10.5 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendation
The chapter presents the authors conclusions and recommendations based on the facts of the study.

[Page | 11 ]
LITERATURE
REVIEW

[Page | 11 ]
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter examines the evolution of Deafspace in Historical and Cultural context. It also engages
in a study of the architectural design guidelines, relevant deafspace standards and the existing
knowledge on the safety and comfort of the Deaf community in the built environment.
“The problem is not that the deaf do not hear. The problem is that the hearing world does not listen”
Rev. Jesse Jackson.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of spaces meant for use by the deaf community in the past has mainly targeted providing
basic shelter against weather elements Vis a Vis comfort and safety. However, recent developments
are showing a paradigm shift towards deafspace concept that incorporates evidence based design.
Recently, a group of Deaf, Hard of Hearing and hearing community members from Gallaudet
University in Washington, D.C., codified the concepts that visually centred communicators use into
a working document called the Deafspace Design Guidelines (DSDG). The institution has hence
become a refuge for Deaf and Hard of Hearing people in North America and has moved
tremendously into inviting interests from the rest of the world.
Today, the central focus in design for Deafspace should be attentive to a guideline that addresses the
needs of the deaf community. With the acknowledgement of such design concepts Deafspace will
subsequently have improved surroundings that not only focus on comfort and safety but also offer a
sustainable model in the built environment.
Fig 2.1. The premise of Deaf within the forces of the
society
Source: https://books.google.co.ke>.
understanding_Deaf_Culture.html

[Page | 12 ]
2.2 DEAF FRAMING
Framing refers to how we interpret the world and, specifically, how certain views are encouraged
while others are expressly discouraged. Deafness has long been interpreted and viewed as a hearing
loss, an absence, a void or a lack. It is virtually impossible to think of deafness without thinking of
loss. However, Deaf people do not often consider their lives to be defined by loss. Rather, there is
something present in their lives, something full and complete that makes them view their lives
through a frame referred as ‘deaf gain’ that is diametrically opposed to the frame of hearing loss.
(Fig 2.02)
Deaf gain is therefore a form of sensory and cognitive diversity that has the potential to contribute
to the greater good of humanity. Applying this frame we provide an answer to the question. “Why
should we continue to value the existence of Deaf people?” This is a bioethical question, and it can
be answered using intrinsic or extrinsic argument as proposed by Theresa Burke (2006). An intrinsic
argument says that Deaf culture ought to be valued and preserved for its own sake. Contrary, an
extrinsic argument, states that Deaf people should be cherished because they have something to
contribute to the general society i.e. reframing deaf.
Beyond Deaf framing architecture has a supervisory role to make deafspace safe and comfortable.
In their dormitory design, Gallaudet university’s Architects redefined deafspace elements to make
the young deaf resident feel safe secure and at home. The dormitory has wide, open staircase and
hallways with smooth corners to enhance clear conversation while moving (Fig 2.03).
The doors are designed with clear transom to maintain privacy while offering visual clues as to
whether the room is occupied. A deaf occupant can easily note a shadow if anyone stands at the
Fig 2.02. A concept of reframing the myth of deafness.
Source: unknown Author, pinterest
Fig: 2.03. Gallaudet University Dorm Designed as an
architectural supervisory masterpiece that enhances
safety and comfort of the Deaf residents. Source:
Gallaudet University

[Page | 13 ]
door. "Everywhere we can, we’re extending that visual reach as much as possible," says Christopher
Keane, one of Dangermond Keane’s principals, who is hearing.
The lobby design includes a solar threshold, mitigating changes in the light level over spatial zones.
Eye strain is a common complaint among signers. To mitigate this, the building has a large overhang
to begin the transition to interior light, so eyes don’t have to adjust to abrupt shifts from bright
sunshine to dimness (Fig 2.04).
The design team was careful to avoid voluminous spaces that might cause bad acoustics. They
isolated any vibrations in the mechanical systems to prevent annoyance. Deafspace research actually
proposed the use of controlled, positive vibrations as a means of signalling activity in a space,
furthering social interaction. Deaf person might tap the floor to get another’s attention or to announce
a transition between public and private areas. The design must therefore have isolated floor systems.
2.3 DEAFSPACE WITHIN A HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Historically there has always been places where deaf people were together such as asylums (Fig
2.05), schools or clubs. Unfortunately through the history these places have always being controlled
by hearing individuals. This has been a challenge to the well-being of the deaf especially when it
comes to issues of privacy. The safety and comfort of the deaf has therefore being overlooked over
a long period of time.
‘From the Hands of Quacks’ by Jaipreet Virdi the first formal school for the deaf started to appear
in Northern Europe in the 18th
century. Before, history indicates existence of asylums in America
Fig 2.04. Gallaudet University building that defined a new
concept in Reframing Deafness
Source: Dangermood Keane Architects
Fig 2.05. The Great World of London Milbank Prison. A
Historic prisoner’s asylum
Source: https://www.gettyimages-prison-on-the-site
----------------------------------------------------------------------

[Page | 14 ]
and Europe which were involved in the business of treating deaf. Asylums were viewed as
rehabilitative places to give faith through language to prepare the deaf for life.
Asylums were designed based on ‘the technique mode of power and knowledge’ (below) that was
cited by social theorist Michel Foucaunt as Panopticon.
Knowledge linked to power, not only assumes the authority of 'the truth' but has the power to make
itself true. All knowledge, once applied in the real world, has effects, and in that sense at least,
'becomes true.' Knowledge, once used to regulate the conduct of others, entails constraint, regulation
and the disciplining of practice. Thus, 'there is no power relation without the correlative constitution
of a field of knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not presuppose and constitute at the same time,
power relations (Michel Foucault 1977, 27).
Panopticon was an architectural design masterpiece based at the periphery, an annular building; at
the centre and a tower (Fig 2.06). The tower had wide windows that open into the inner side of the
ring; the peripheric building was divided into cells, which extended the whole width of the building.
This panopticon was designed to inculcate the feeling of self-control in individuals to behave in a
sense as if they were constantly being watched.
The asylums remained a place for the deaf for about two hundred years. Towards the end of 18th
century the deaf people eventually moved from the asylum and carried their essence to deaf
residentials school. The design of these schools borrowed from aslyums seen that they were
designed by hearing individuals.
Fig 2.06 A, B and C. Images showing the plan of a
panopticon designed as periphery, an annular building to
inculcate the feeling of self-control in constantly watched
environment.
Source. http://www.worldmeets.us/images/Panopticon

[Page | 15 ]
2.3.1. The history of Deaf Schools in Europe
The history of Deafness in Europe dates back to the era of ancient Greece. In Greece, the
deaf, like any other disabled persons were considered as a burden to the society.
Consequently, they were put to death. This acute idea remained in place until 16th
century
when two children were born deaf in the royal family. After the 16th
century, deaf children
were hidden in a monastery. A phenomenon that spread widely in Europe. This habit carried
on till the 18th
century.
In the 18th
century there were increasing forces to educate the deaf. In 1759, Abbé Charles-
Michel de l'Épée, while working for charity was introduced to two deaf girls. He decided to
save and educate the children. In 1760 he founded Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris
(INJS) in his house (Fig 2.07.), the first ever deaf school in the world. De l'Épée went ahead
to develop a system of instructions that he used to train the deaf. This model was widely
adopted in the rest of European nations for liberation of the deaf.
In the Great Britain the first school dedicated to teaching the deaf was Thomas Braidwood s
Academy for the Deaf and Dumb in Edinburgh (Fig 2.08.), established in the 1760s. The
school was moved to London in 1783, and renamed to the Asylum for the Support and
Education of the Deaf and Dumb Children of the Poor. Under the management of
Braidwood's nephew, the school expanded encouraging the establishment of an Institution
for the Deaf and Dumb in Edgbaston in 1814. Other schools were later introduced in
Liverpool, Edinburgh, Exeter, Manchester and Doncaster. The European model later moved
to America.
Fig 2.07. Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris (INJS)
founded by Abbé Charles-Michel de l'Épée in 1760 as the first
Deaf school in the world.
Source:http://www.injs-paris.fr/page/lhistorique
Fig 2.08. Thomas Braidwood s Academy for the Deaf and Dumb
in Edinburgh, established in the 1760s.
Source: The-silent-worker-newspaper/

[Page | 16 ]
2.3.2. The History of Deaf school in America
Before the 1800s, few, if any, educational opportunities existed in America (Fig
2.09). Wealthy people sent their deaf children to Europe to receive education. One
such was Thomas Boiling family who established the Cobb School in 1818, the first
deaf school in America. Unfortunately the school closed down after 18 months.
In 1815 Hopkins Gallaudet travelled to Europe for insight on how to educate deaf.
Few months later he returned with a deaf teacher and opened Connecticut’s asylum,
which was later named America school for the deaf. The spark grew and more deaf
schools were opened. In 1864, Gallaudet College (now Gallaudet University) was
founded in Washington D.C. During this time deaf school emphasized on manualism
(Signing).
In the early 20th
century the hearing advocated for oralism in the education system.
Manualism was effectively kicked out. The deaf had no alternative but to learn lip
reading. The system was not successful for the deaf student and was considered as
“Dark Age of Oralism “by ‘lovers of the deaf’.
In the late 20th
century the ‘lovers of the deaf’ established a philosophy called total
communication for use in the education system. Students were allowed to use a
language that best suited them between oralism and American Sign Language. In
1988 Gallaudet university students decided to fight for their rights. For the first time
a deaf president was appointed to head the school. The moment mainstreamed deaf
education to the current inclusive deaf education.
Fig 2.09. American Mark of 200 years of deaf education in 2000
Source. Unknown Author, internet source
Fig 2.10. A historical view of Illinois school for the deaf established as
Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb in 1939.
Source: source.net/a-historical-view-of-Illinois-school-for-the-deaf

[Page | 17 ]

Today all deaf students in America regardless of placement, receive an individualised education
program (IEP) that meet their needs. Deaf students receive free appropriate education in the least
restrictive environment. The government sets a full inclusion program for deaf education.
2.3.3. The History of Deaf school in Africa
Prior to 1956 deaf schools in Africa were only found in South Africa and Egypt. This was an attribute
of early civilization. The Egyptians lived a philanthropic way of life centred within a shared African
heritage expressed through talents (Fig 2.11.) Many of the disabled citizens displayed talents that
were not easily acquired. On the other hand, South Africa was characterised by early settlers dating
back to the 17th
century. As early as 1863, there were Irish nuns involved in training programmes
for the Deaf, eleven years later (1874) Grimley Institute for the Deaf and Dumb was established by
Bridget Lynne in Cape Town. In 1941 the First school "for the Black Deaf" was established.
The first ever deaf education in the rest of Africa was introduced in 1957 by Andrew Foster. Andrew
Foster was instrumental in the establishment of various African sign languages though they were a
dialect of the American Sign Language. The Ghanaian Sign Language (1957) and the Nigerian Sign
Language (1960) are among Fosters icons in West Africa. Sign Language played an imperative role
in Establishment and evolution of Deaf schools in the African Context. However most schools were
designed to provide basic shelter for the deaf during the learning process Vis avis safety and comfort.
Lighting, acoustics and other Deafspace design guidelines were non-existent.
In Kenya, schools for the Deaf (Fig 2.12) were established by religious bodies. The pioneer school
was Aga Khan School in Mombasa established in 1958, the same year Kenya Society for the Deaf
Children (KSDC) was registered. Thereafter, Mumias school and Nyangoma School for the deaf
Fig 2.11 A screen Shot of a presentation on: A look into
Deaf Education’s history around the world.
Source: slideplayer.com
Fig 2.12 Students at a local deaf school seated in a U-
shaped layout to facilitate communication.
Source: http://tumutumu.blogspot.co.ke

[Page | 18 ]

were opened by the Catholic Church (1961), Kambui School (1963) and Tumu Tumu School (1970)
by the Presbyterian Church of East Africa (PCEA). The Methodist Church is associated with Kaaga
School while African Inland Church takes pride of Maseno School for the Deaf.
Fig 2.13. A flow chart showing Evolution of Deaf Education.
Source Author Edited
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Fig 2.13. INFCHART of the key figures that influenced
Deaf education across Europe, America and Africa
Source: Author Edited
Abbé Charles‐Michel de
l'Épée ‐ Europe
Hopkins Gallaudet ‐
America
Adrew Foster‐ Africa

[Page | 19 ]
2.4 DEAFSPACE WITHIN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
Deaf Culture is centred on sign language. It cannot be associated with any native land as it is a global
culture (Fig 2.14). However, like any other culture it is based on the relationship between people
providing a common ground. It is therefore, expressed through the peoples way of life. The author
will hence use the following two approaches to review previous studies seeking to understand this
culture:
 Proxemics of Deafspace
 Art and Literature in Deafspace
2.4.1 Proxemics of Deafspace
Sensory orientation studies show there exist eye patterns when deaf persons communicate (Fig
2.15). With two deaf people, they have a one on one space formed directly from each other. When
a third person shows up, they form a triangle. When more people join the group, the triangle evolves
to a quadrilateral, to a pentagon, to hexagon and so forth until a circle is achieved. This whole system
is based on being able to see each other in the group. The bigger the group, the bigger the circle
formed.
Studies by Daphne Bavelier, Matthew William Geoffrey Dye, and Peter C. Hauser, on the cognitive
science of “Do deaf individuals see well?" showed that Deaf people have a heightened peripheral
vision. However, it is imperative to note that this does not mean deaf people can see better than
hearing people. Hearing people leave their peripherals to their ability of hearing. Every time they
hear a sound, they turn to it. On the other hand, Deaf people have developed adoptive behaviour that
makes them more sensitive to recognize details in their peripheral visions. For this reason the deaf
are able to read the world for sound through visual cues that lead them to the source of the sound.
Fig 2.14 An Image screen shot of a book by Audrey Terp
that describes Deafness as a cultural identity other than a
Disability. Source: Pinterest.
Fig 2.15 Images from Sensory orientation studies showing
heightened peripheral vision of Deaf Persons. Source:
Architect Hansel Bauman, Gallaudet University
Department of Deaf Studies

[Page | 20 ]
Besides the ability to reading the world for sound, Robert Sirvage at Gallaudet University
investigated proxemics and established that deaf people navigate through space while conversing in
America Sign Language (ASL) maintains an imaginary axle between them. If one of them moves
closer to the other, the other will move away to maintain the distance of the imaginary axle. The
signing space and how much eye contact both signers make while walking indicates that apart from
conversing and navigation the deaf are much aware of the environment around them
2.4.2 Deafspace in Art and Literature
The arts and literature of the deaf has common themes and motifs in America Sign Language.
According to Benjamin J. Bahan a professor of America Sign Language (ASL) and Deaf Studies at
Gallaudet University. “Door is to hearing as window is to deaf.” This means hearing persons have
communication access through a door but not through a window. On the other hand, for deaf
persons, they do not have communication access through a door, but can have communication access
through a window (Fig 2.16). So for a hearing person, if the window is closed, they’ll find a door to
communicate. Opposite is true for a deaf person, if the door is closed, they’ll find a window to
communicate.
In the arts and literature concept, if a deaf person is locked outside a room by another deaf person,
he will look for a window to alert the person inside. This shows that the arts and literature reinforce
concepts in Deafspace, particularly on sensory reach. Closed doors cut off visual access where
windows extend visual access.
In a different concept, if a deaf person “Yells” at you, turn off the light. This means that he will not
be able to see you hence the communication is cut.
Fig 2.16. Glass pane on the door to provide communication
access at Isinya School for the deaf.
Source. Author 2017

[Page | 21 ]
2.5 DEAFSPACE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STRATEGIES
An important aspect of Deafspace is to ensure that it does not have negative impact on the occupant.
However, it is evident that Deafspace today do not follow important universal design principles
despite the availability of advanced technologies and huge expenditure in place to promote the well-
being of the deaf.
Universal design describe a concept of designing all products and the built environment to be
aesthetic and usable to the greatest extent possible by everyone, regardless of their age, ability, or
status in life
-Architect Ronald L. Mace –
With this, deaf spaces have become havens for multiplication of deaf challenges such as existence
of physical barriers to visual communication and orientation that causes eyestrain (Fig 2.17).
Consequently, there is need to look at selected Deafspace principles that designers should employ
for spatial comfort of its users.
While most scholars in this field have varying constituents for deafspace, the basic components of a
sustainable deafspace have been clearly identified (Architects Hansel Bauman –DSDG 2010). This
literature review therefore investigates the following five Deafspace design guidelines and their
impacts on occupants' well-being.
1. Light and colour
2. Sensory reach
3. Space and proximity
4. Mobility and proximity
5. Acoustics
Fig 2.17. Students in a Classroom in a local Deaf learning
institution. The classroom is organised in groups of four
where students sit together depending on impairment levels
and use of hearing aid devices Source: Author
Fig 2.18. Deafspace at Gallaudet University of the Deaf.
Source: Architects Hansel Bauman –DSDG 2010.

[Page | 22 ]

2.5.1 Light and colour
In Kenya there are no comprehensive design regulations for learning space for the deaf provided.
Administrators are required to rely on the Department of Education and Skills, Building units for
design consideration which stipulates:
1. Natural day lighting should be exploited when designing classrooms, to minimise the
dependence on artificial lighting. Glare must be avoided. Windows for teaching spaces
should have a horizontal vista.
2. A good quality daylight distribution is required in each room with the average daylighting
factor for each room to be in the range of 4.5 to 5.5% with the emphasis on an even light
distribution throughout the space. A schedule of all rooms and associated daylight factor is
to be provided.
The phenomenology of Deaf existence, joy and sense of dwelling inside the place are enhanced by
the powerful connection with the outside environment that can be realized when natural light is
present (Fig 2.19). However, daylighting should be designed such that it evokes feelings of comfort
and satisfaction with the visual environment. Consequently daylighting as a science in architecture
should not become more important than the architectural quality resulting from the visually inspiring
daylighting design (Steemers,1994). Since vision is the most developed of deaf senses, it is important
to ensure visual comfort by controlling glare and ensuring appropriate patterns of contrast (Yin,
2011).
The pendulum of lighting design in architecture is swung towards sustainability (Fig 2.20).
Sustainable daylighting in the tropics is achieved by strategic design that eliminates direct sunlight
that is likely to cause overheating and glare in buildings. Good practice of daylighting techniques
help reduce building energy use and provide a stable and comfortable indoor environment for the
Fig. 2.19. A classroom in Machakos School for the Deaf
(2015)
Source. http://www.dfocuscommunication.co.ke
Fig. 2.20. Illustration of Daylighting strategies
Source. http://www.birddogdistributing.com

[Page | 23 ]
people. Lighting must fulfil the purpose for which it exist in a space (Lee, Di Bartolomeo, & Selkowitz
1998). i.e. physically, physiologically and psychologically satisfaction.
The performance of a task is limited by visibility (Fig 2.21). Effective signing and reading is
determined by the stimuli present in the system, and therefore lighting design for the deaf is of
paramount importance. Bearing in mind, the deaf community primarily depend on visual- kinetic
mode of communication, poor lighting conditions results to glare, undesirable shadow patterns
and backlighting that can cause eye strains and fatigue. This can lead to loss of concentration and
physical exhaustion.
We are born of light. The seasons are felt through light. We only know the world as it is evoked by light.- Louis Kahn-
The principle of light is tied to colour. Colour has three integral parts namely hue, value and Chroma
which influence properties of light such as absorption and reflection (Table 2.5.1 & Fig 2.22). Hue
describes a dimension on colour we experience when we look at colour, value refers to lightness or
darkness while Chroma describes saturation. Light value tend to reflect more while dark value
absorb more light. If the intensity of light is kept constant, an increase in colour value of a surface
results to more reflection. If this reflected light rays converge at one point on a working surface they
cause glare. On the other hand dark colours absorb a lot of light and increase the surface temperature
of a material.
Colour pigments are selective absorbers, their colour resulting from a subtractive process.
Pigment Reflected absorbed
Yellow blue; reflects red, yellow, green
Blue red and yellow blue, green
Yellow/Blue 3 colours above; reflects only green
Fig 2.21. Illustration of poor lighting conditions
resulting to glare and undesirable shadow patterns
source: Autodesk Sustainability Workshop.
Fig 2.22. Illustration of colour as selective absorber
and reflector.
Source: Author
Table 2.5.1. Absorptive and Reflective properties of colour

[Page | 24 ]
A mix of all kinds of pigments results in black, as it absorbs all
wavelengths. Whereas no mixture of pigments can result in white as
there will always be some absorption (Fig 2.23).
Colour filters can produce coloured light by a subtractive process
involving materials with high but selective transmittance of light.
They reflect and absorb most of the other wavelengths transmitting
only the specified narrow band.
Coloured lights from different sources can be mixed to give a
resultant colour whose wavelength is the sum of the wavelength
ranges of the individual components. This is an additive process.
Complimentary colours add up to form white light. E.g. Red/Green;
Yellow and Blue.
Certain colours, especially muted blues and greens, contrast well with
a variety of skin tones, making them easy on signers’ eyes. Gallaudet
University College of the deaf does rigorous colour-testing on new
and refurbished interiors to ensure ideal colour and lighting
conditions. (Fig 2.24) In the university, lighting is done such that soft
and diffuse illumination avoiding dimness, backlighting, glare, and
abrupt changes in illumination levels is achieved. This provides an
ideal condition for lighting design for the deaf of Gallaudet
University.
Fig 2.23. Infor chart on Colour filters and selective transmittance of light.
Source: Bangkok Patana School https://www.google.com
Fig 2.24. Gallaudet University College of the deaf colour-testing interiors that ensure ideal
colour and lighting conditions. Source: Gallaudet University College

[Page | 25 ]
2.5.2 Sensory reach
Apparently, most people think that the hearing impaired can comfortably occupy a room, say an
ordinary classroom. However the deaf inhabit a sensory world that is different from that of the
hearing. Hearing impaired persons need to spatially orient themselves in a space and have visual
awareness of the activities in their surroundings at the same time. The fact that, Deaf people are
highly attuned to visual and tactile cues such as shadows and vibrations means they can read their
surroundings environment and various activities in ways that hearing people do not. The Built
environments can be designed so as to provide visual and tactile reach in 360 degrees, extending
Deaf people's awareness and making spatial orientation easier. For example, installing windows in
walls that divide rooms or building such walls to waist-height can allow Deaf people to see what is
happening in other areas (Fig 2.25).
2.5.3 Space and proximity
A visual-spatial language such as The American sign language, which the Kenya sign language is
adopted, necessitates that signers maintain enough distance to accommodate each other’s signing
space when conversing. This space is typically greater than that maintained by people holding a
spoken conversation, i.e the demand for clear sightlines between them mean there is less shared
space. As more signers join the conversation, the space between them grows so that all participants
can access the communication.
In an architectural approach the layout of furniture and rooms takes into account these characteristics
of signed communication. For example, movable chairs without armrests make it possible to adjust
the size of a "conversation circle" and permit signers the full use of their signing space.Fig 2.25. Illustration on how to extend Deaf people's
awareness and making spatial orientation easier.
Source: Architect hansel Bauman, Gallaudet

[Page | 26 ]
2.5.4 Mobility and proximity
There is urgency to design circulation spaces that enable signers to maintain visual connection while
maintaining direction. When walking and conversing at the same time, signers usually maintain a
wide space between them in order to facilitate clear visual communication. If one signer moves
towards the other, the other responds by moving away to maintain the signers distance. They will
also scan the surroundings to check for hazards and to navigate, adjusting their path when necessary.
Landscapes, buildings, pathways, and rooms can be designed so that signers can move through space
unimpeded (Fig 2.27). For example, the design of Gallaudet University is centred on creating wider
hallways that can allow signers to hold conversations while walking without feeling cramped.
Fig 2.26. Illustrations of Deaf People mobility in the built
environment.
Source: Clear line of sight by metropolis magazine.
www.Metropolismag.com.
Fig 2.27.Sign communication in transit zones
Source: Clear line of sight by metropolis magazine. www.Metropolismag.com.

[Page | 27 ]
2.5.5 Acoustics
Architectural acoustics is defined as the science and engineering of achieving good sound levels in
a space (Morfey Christopher 2001) is concerned with speech intelligibility. Speech Intelligibility is
greatly dictated by background noise levels and reverberation effects (Fig 2.28) A lot of effort has
been put up in theatres, classrooms and transport terminal buildings to suppress noise level to
pleasant levels that make this space liveable (BS 8233, 2014 a Guidance on sound insulation and
noise levels reduction for buildings).
Sound wave in a space tends to be broken up as it is bounced back and forth among the reflecting
surfaces. This creates an effect known as reverberation (Fig 2.29). The reverberant quality of any
space, whether enclosed or not, helps to define the way in which it is perceived. Although it may
not be realized consciously, reverberation is one of many cues used by a listener for orientation,
depth and distance in a given space.
Reverberation has direct effect on ambient noise level and apparent loudness of sounds within a
space. This is an important factor to consider in the acoustic design of deafspace. Architectural
acousticians’ emphasise on early reflections (within 80 Ms) which reinforce the direct sound.
However, the angle of reflection must not be wide. Reflections arriving after 80 Ms add reverberant
energy which can be distracting to the human ear. The acoustic design of such spaces usually
involves creating a balance between clarity and definition on one hand, and spaciousness on the
other. Listeners often have different preferences as to this balance regardless of their hearing ability.
Hearing impaired persons experience different degree of hearing loss. Considering that this group
of people has heighted sense to vibrations, uncontrolled background sounds can be distractive.
Figure 2.28: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY, RT AND
BACKGROUND NOISE
Achieving speech intelligibility in classrooms. The target
of good speech intelligibility requires attention to both
background noise levels AND reverberation time.
Source: Author 2017
Fig 2.29. Illustration of Early and late reflection in a small
room
Source. Unknown Author, Google Image Search.

[Page | 28 ]
Deafspace concept seeks to design spaces that eliminate reverberation and other sources of
background noise in order to have higher signal to Noise Ratio.
Speech Intelligibility is negatively impacted by higher background noise and longer
reverberation (Fig 2.30). The relationship between sound and noise levels is generally described
in terms of a signal-to-noise ratio. With a masking noise level between 35 and 100 dB, the threshold
for 100% intelligibility is usually a signal-to-noise ratio of 12 dB (Fig 2.31). (Robinson, G. S., and
Casali, J. G. (2003). Speech communication and signal detection in noise. In E. H. Berger, L. H.
Royster, J. D. Royster, D. P. Driscoll, and M. Layne (Eds.), The noise manual (5th ed.) (pp. 567-
600). Fairfax, VA: American Industrial Hygiene Association.)
The design of Gallaudet University considered Hearing aids devices which capture distracting
ambient noise, such as foot traffic, chairs scraping along a hard floor, and echoes. The design team
modelled acoustic ceiling solutions using layered panels and cedar slats. In addition, sound control
in wide-open spaces comes from carpet tiles and bamboo partitions, which also provide seating and
work surfaces.
Fig 2.30: Sources of noise in the learning environment
Source: (Association of noise consultants, 2009
Fig 2.31 Illustration of signal-to-noise ratio of 12 dB. Source:
Author Edited 2017.Used after Robinson 2003

[Page | 29 ]
2.5.6. Summary of the Deafspace Architectural Design Guidelines
Guideline Light and colour Sensory Reach Mobility and
Proximity
Space and Proximity Acoustic
Application Visual comfort and safety by
avoiding Glare and
Overheating in a space
Colour rendering and clarity of
communication
Absorption and reflection of
light
Sensory orientation
and reading the
surrounding
Maintain signing
distance while
walking together
Enhance scanning for
hazards while moving
Maintain signing
circle in group space
with clear sight lines
Acoustic insulation/
screening for Speech
Intelligibility
Acoustic Absorption
lower Reverberation
times
Calculation of Signal to
Noise ratio.
Comments Daylighting that avoids direct
sunlight and extreme light level
contrast help reduce glare and
overheating effects
Dark colours absorb more light
while bright colours reflect
more. Over lit zones causes eye
strain while dark zones can
result to fatigue
Over reflection can cause glare
on a working surface
Signers position are
such that they can
easily identify with a
person approaching
Transparency in design
increase sensory reach
Reflective surface such
as mirror can be
properly used at
strategic positions for
sensory reach
Wide pavements, and
corridors are suitable
to deaf mobility.
Smooth edges enable
deaf persons to move
without stopping to
scan.
Most deafspace are
co-centric.
Large spaces can be
terraced with
staggered sitting
arrangement to
maintain sight lines
The higher the Signal to
Noise ration the Clear the
conversation is.
Speech intelligibility is
lowered by high
background noise and
longer Reverberation
times.
Table 2.5.2. Deafspace Architectural Design Guideline Summary

[Page | 30 ]
2.6 DESIGN STANDARDS RELATING TO DEAFSPACE
2.6.1 Lighting Standards.
Lighting is important for hearing impaired students, e.g, a teacher's face and hands need to
be well lit so students with hearing impairments can get more from facial expressions.
During the day there are a number of different visual tasks in a classroom. In order to get a
good lighting concept, knowledge of the different tasks in classrooms is important. Each task
needs its own light conditions but at the same time energy efficiency should not be neglected.
The standards reviewed here in will include:
1. Building Bulletin 93. Lighting design for schools
2. The European norm EN 12464-1 which gives requirements for the illuminances in
learning institution (see table 2.6.1)
Building Bulletin 93. Lighting design for schools
The best school environments gives an impression of liveness, with attractive space and
general of pleasantness. The environment should be appropriate for particular task to enable
students and staffs to carry out the various activities easily and comfortably without
compromising the aspects of architectural integration, efficiency, cost, maintenance and
visual amenities. The CIBSE- Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers- codes
for interior lighting 1994, section 2.6.4.4, public and educational buildings provide the
standards as tabulated below (Table 2.6.0)
Fig 3.32. Illustration of different daylighting techniques.
Source: Building Bulletin 93. Lighting design for schools

[Page | 31 ]

Space Standard Maintained
Illuminance in Lux
Uniformity
Ratio
Limiting
Glare Index
General teaching involving reading and writing 300 0.8 19
Teaching space with close and detailed work. 500 0.8 19
Circulation Spaces: corridors, stairs
entrance halls, lobbies &waiting areas
reception areas
80 - 120
175 - 250
250 – 350
-
-
-
19
19
19
Atria 400 19
Table 2.6.0. Illuminance, Uniformity Ratio and Limiting Glare Index for schools. The CIBSE- Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers
The European norm EN 12464-1 requirements for the illuminances in learning institution.
Task The teacher The student
Illuminance
In
classroom
In general
1 Writing on the board Reading on board 500lux
(vertical)
200lux
2 Talking to the students Paying attention to the teacher 300lux 300lux
3 Showing a presentation (slides,
PowerPoint, television.)
Looking on the screen 300lux 10lux
4 Paying attention to working
students
Writing, reading drawing, etc. 300lux 300lux
5 Coaching computer activities Looking to the computer
screen and the paper
50lux 300 lux above
the computer
6 Preparing lessons Not present 300lux 50lux

Fig 3.33. Illustration of different daylighting techniques.
Source: Building Bulletin 93. Lighting design for schools Table 2.6.1 Overview of tasks in a classroom together with the requirements for the illuminances. The European
norm EN 12464-1

[Page | 32 ]
Lighting in teaching spaces for students with special education needs
___________________________________________________________________
Avoid:
• All aspects of glare
• Strong lighting contrasts
• Direct sunlight (Fig 2.33)
___________________________________________________________________
Avoid highly reflective finishes • reflections on walls, and particularly on floors
___________________________________________________________________
Ensure signs, display areas and blackboards are well lit
Accommodate students in the part of the room that best suits their impairment and
make adjustments to improve their comfort
Adjustments may include:
 special task lighting
 fitting blinds to nearby windows or roof lights causing glare
 shielding general lighting causing glare
 a suitably coloured work top
Fig 2.34. A and B. Illustration of different daylighting techniques. Source:
Gelfand Partners Architects - Duveneck Elementary School.

[Page | 33 ]
2.6.2 Proxemics Rule.
Proxemics is defined as "the study of the use of space by human beings in a particular culture." (Fig
2.36, Edward T. Hall). Hall described the interpersonal distances of man (the relative distances
between people) in four zones: intimate space, personal space, social space, and public space.
Interpersonal distance Close range Far range
Intimate space  Close phase – less than 6
inches (15 cm)
 Far phase – 6 to 18
inches (15 to 46 cm)
Personal space  Close phase – 1.5 to 2.5
feet (46 to 76 cm)
 Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet
(76 to 122 cm)
Social space  Close phase – 4 to 7 feet
(1.2 to 2.1 m)
 Far phase – 7 to 12 feet
(2.1 to 3.7 m)
Public space  Close phase – 12 to 25
feet (3.7 to 7.6 m)
 Far phase – 25 feet
(7.6 m) or more.
Table 2.6.2. Proxemics
Fig 2.36. Study of the use of space by human beings
Source: Edward T. Hall
Fig 2.35. Interrelation of various theories on
human culture
Source: Edward T. Hall

[Page | 34 ]
2.6.3. Acoustic standards
In Kenya, no comprehensive design regulations on learning space have been developed for either
the hearing or the hearing impaired.
Administrators are required to rely on the Commission for Higher Education’s guidelines for
location of school physical facilities. Designers however only rely on basic knowledge of acoustics
to design these spaces. At times, these are not factored in at the preliminary design stage and this
causes very poor acoustic performance as Identified in chapter four.
The UNESCO Division of Educational Policy and Planning (1985), in a document titled ‘Norms and
Standards of Educational Facilities’, outlined guidelines for educational planning, administration
and facilities. In these guidelines, acoustics among other factors such as thermal comfort and lighting
design are listed as essential elements to be considered when designing ergonomic facilities.
Implementation of these guidelines, being an optional requirement, has not been very strictly
adhered to. There is therefore need to develop enforceable standards to create conducive learning
spaces.
The British Association of Teachers of the Deaf (BATOD)
Building Bulletin 93, 'Acoustic design of schools' is a powerful document and dictates, in law, the
acoustic conditions for new school buildings. Further, it is used as a 'best practice' document for
existing premises. This is the reference point for the acoustic conditions of the school buildings
adopted by British Association of Teachers of the deaf.
Fig 2.37. Student in a classroom at Isinya School for
the deaf.
Source: Author2017
Fig 2.38. A lecture room Nottingham University
Source: Nottingham University. 2017

[Page | 35 ]
The acoustic design of all special schools attached to mainstream schools for pupils with special
hearing and communication needs, should always involve an audiologist, as well as the school client
body as illustrated by Gallaudet. Pupils with special educational needs are more sensitive to the
acoustic environment than others. Consequently, required reverberation times are shorter, sound
insulation between adjacent spaces is higher and indoor ambient noise levels lower than in
environments for other pupils.
The required acoustic conditions will depend on a pupil’s individual special needs and may be
accommodated by a specialist provision (e.g a quiet room for private study and communication, or
an assisted listening device( Fig 2.37) for participation in general teaching), or by improving the
general acoustic conditions of teaching and learning spaces. Advice from a specialist acoustic
consultant should be sought to allow the school client body to make an informed decision on the
appropriate provision for the school’s intended use. The acoustic criteria for these types of
accommodation should be signed off by the school client body in the same way as alternative
performance standards (APS) as the particular needs of the pupils and the activities they take part in
may vary widely from one school to another and within the same school.
The Alternative Performance Standard (APS) states:
‘Each room or other space in a school building shall be designed and constructed in such a way
that it has the acoustic conditions and the insulation against disturbance by noise appropriate to its
intended use.’
Fig 2.39. Hearing aid device used by one of the deaf students
in a local school.
Source: Author2017
Fig 2.40.An acoustic Wall treatment that can reduce
reverberation time. Source: Moses Collins 2016

[Page | 36 ]
The BATOD Standards limits sound levels of background noise at 35dBs and reverberation time of 0.4s in unoccupied furnished learning space
Type of room
Room classification for the purpose of airborne
sound insulation
Upper limit for the indoor
ambient noise level
RT60 (S)
Activity noise
(Source room)
Noise tolerance (Receiving
room)
New Refurbishment New and refurbishment
Nursery school rooms Primary
school: classroom, class base,
general teaching area, small group
room
Secondary school: classroom,
general teaching area, seminar
room, tutorial room, language
laboratory
Average Medium 35dB 40dB ≤ 0.8
Teaching space intended
specifically for students with
special hearing and
communication needs
Average Low 35dB 35dB ≤0.4 second across the
frequency range 125Hz to
4000Hz
Table 2.6.3 Acoustic Limits on A- weighted sound levels of background noise and reverberation times in unoccupied furnished learning spaces. Source: Building bulletin 93 table 1
The American Speech Language Hearing Association
In the United States of America, acoustic performance standards are named ANSI S12.60-2002,
Acoustical Performance Criteria, Design Requirements and Guidelines for Schools standard
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2012). The standards are supported by The
American Academy of Audiology which advocate of acoustical properties of America’s classrooms
in order that all students may better hear their teachers (direct instruction) and peers (indirect
instruction).
Fig 2.41: Image of the logo of the American
Speech Language Hearing Association. Source: ASLHA

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