FINAL PROJECT 2016

INTRODUCING SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT AS A POVERTY
REDUCTION STRATEGY: A CASE OF THE INFORMAL SETTLEMENT
OF KIBERA, NAIROBI
By
ODHIAMBO GRACE AKINYI
(N50/CTY/PT/28048/2013)
A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment for the Award of Master of
Environmental Planning and Management in School of Environmental Studies of Kenyatta
University
JANUARY, 2016
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DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, declare that this project paper is my original work achieved through personal
reading, scientific research and critical reflection on the aforementioned topic. It has never been
submitted to any other College or University for academic credit.
…………………………. …………………………
Odhiambo Grace Akinyi Date
The Project paper has been submitted for examination with our approval as University
Supervisors
...................................... ................................................
Signature Date
Dr. Peter Kamau
Department of Architecture and Spatial Planning
Kenyatta University
.................................. ..................................
Signature Date
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my family members more especially to my parents, Lucas and Pamela
Odhiambo, whose words of encouragement motivated me and friends who stood by me while I
pursued this achievement in my life and to all the people who, in life struggle against all odds to
manage life under mean conditions within the informal settlements of Kibera, Africa and in the
world over.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
God alone the source of life and every gift is worthy of praise. His gift of my being is the
beginning of every work that I undertake. I thank Him for wisdom, knowledge, understanding
and for providing me with the means to bring out these thoughts and ideas in order to
successfully complete my studies. I wish to thank my supervisors who were more than generous
with their expertise and precious time. Special thanks to Dr Peter Kamau for reading,
encouraging, and most of all patience throughout the entire process – your critical comments
stirred up novel ideas in my mind. Heartfelt thanks to Mr Wilson Nyaoro and Dr Christine
Majale. I would like to appreciate and thank the school of Environmental Studies for allowing
me to conduct my research and providing necessary assistance. Special thanks go to the members
of staff at the department for their continued support.
Finally I would like to thank all my teachers, and administrators, who assisted me during this
edifice. Your willingness to provide feedback made the completion of this research an enjoyable
experience. This project would not have been possible without the support of many people.
Thank you to Kenyatta University for the opportunity to study with you. And finally, Special
thanks to my mentor Professor Oyeyinka Oyebanji for his relentless support during this study
programme.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION..............................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................................................ii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS...............................................................................................................v
OPERATIONTIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS.................................................................................................1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................3
1.0General Introduction .........................................................................................................................3
1.1Background to the study.....................................................................................................................5
1.2Statement of the problem................................................................................................................13
1.3 Research Specific Questions............................................................................................................14
1.5 Significance of the study..................................................................................................................15
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................19
2.0 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................19
3.1 Transport constraints and Urban Poverty........................................................................................40
3.1.1 Financial cost............................................................................................................................40
3.1.2 Time Burden..............................................................................................................................41
3.2 Accessibility and Urban Poverty.......................................................................................................42
3.3 Characteristics of urban travel demands.........................................................................................43
CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA...................................................................................................................44
4.1 Location of Study/ Study area..........................................................................................................44
3.2 Population .......................................................................................................................................45
3.3 Education.........................................................................................................................................46
3.4 Infrastructure...................................................................................................................................47
3.5 Land Use..........................................................................................................................................48
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY.......................................................................50
4.1 Research Design...................................................................................................................................50
4.2 Sampling Procedure.........................................................................................................................51
4.2.1 Stratified Sampling....................................................................................................................51
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4.2.2 Cluster Sampling.......................................................................................................................51
4.2.3 Purposive Sampling...................................................................................................................51
4.3 Sampling size...................................................................................................................................52
4.4 Research Instruments......................................................................................................................53
4.4.1 Questionnaires..........................................................................................................................53
4.4.2 Interviews.................................................................................................................................53
4.4.3 Photography.............................................................................................................................53
4.5 Reliability.........................................................................................................................................53
4.6 Methods of data analysis and presentation.....................................................................................54
CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION..........................................................55
5.0 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................55
5.1 The number of years the respondent has lived in Kibera................................................................55
5.3 Main mode of transport in Kibera Slums.........................................................................................55
5.4 The average amount of money used for transport in a month........................................................56
5.4 Areas of public transport that require Improvement.......................................................................57
5.5 The role of the national government, the county government and NGO in matters of transport...58
5.6 Reducing poverty in Kibera..............................................................................................................61
5.7 Making complains to relevant authorities.......................................................................................62
5.8 How business persons spend their earnings ...................................................................................62
5.9 Importance of transport system to businesses in Kibera.................................................................63
5.10 Improving the transport system ....................................................................................................64
5.11 Problem facing the transport sector .............................................................................................65
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................................................66
5.1 Conclusions......................................................................................................................................66
6.1.1 The socio-economic transport needs of the urban poor in Kibera slum...................................66
6.1.2 The role of transport planning in urban poverty alleviation.....................................................67
6.1.3 Poverty intervention Strategies that can help reduce poverty among slum dwellers..............67
6.1.4 The policies and strategies that have been put in place in the transport sector to enable
access for the population...................................................................................................................68
6.2 Recommendations for further studies ...........................................................................................69
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................70
Questionnaires......................................................................................................................................72
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Household Questionnaires................................................................................................................72
Business Questionnaire.....................................................................................................................76
Institution Questionnaire...................................................................................................................79
Interview Schedule............................................................................................................................83
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
KeNHA Kenya National Highway Authority
KENSUP Kenya Slum Upgrading Programme
KTA Kenya Transporters Association
KRRA Kenya Rural Roads Authority
KURA Kenya Urban Roads Authority
NTSA National Transport and Safety Authority
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
UN-HABITAT United Nation Human Settlement Programme
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Table of Figures
Fig 5.1 The number of years that the respondent has lived in the slums. ................................................55
Fig 5.2 The preferred mode of transport by residents...............................................................................56
Fig. 5.3 Average amount of money used for transport .............................................................................57
Fig 5.4 Areas of public transport that require improvement ....................................................................58
Fig 5.5 The role of National Government ..................................................................................................59
Fig 5.7 The role of NGOs............................................................................................................................60
Fig 5. 8 Ways of reducing poverty .............................................................................................................61
Fig 5.9 Handling of complains by authorities.............................................................................................62
Fig 5.10 How business persons spend their earnings................................................................................63
Fig 5.11 Importance of transport services to Businesses in Kibera............................................................63
Fig 5.12 Ways of improving the transport system in Kibera......................................................................64
Fig 5.13 Problems facing the transport sector...........................................................................................65
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OPERATIONTIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Sustainable Urban Transport
According to the (United Nations, 2000) Millenium Summit of Septermber, 2000, 189 nations
reaffirmed their commitment to creating sustainable development through effective
implementation of a set of eight goals to be achieved over a period of 25 years popularly known
as the MDGs. Development is essentially about improving the welfare of the society through
appropriate social, political and economic conditions whereupon the expected outcome becomes
the quantitative and qualitative improvements in human capital such as is contained in income
and education levels and as well as physical capital such as infrastructural utilities, transport and
communication.
As such, sustainable development encompasses physical, social, economic and environmental
aspects. For a holistic development to be realized a balance of the aforementioned is requisite.
Sustainable urban transport, a physical component of development according to this paper
therefore implies micro and macro economic mobility of both people and materials leading to
effective, efficient, equitable, affordable, environmentally friendly transport System hence
geographical location’s accessibility wrought of easy resource circulation.
Poverty Reduction
According to (World Bank, 2001), poverty is an outright deprivation of well being whereupon
individual’s income possession, health, nutrition, education, assets, housing, rights in a society
such as freedom of speech rank lowest. Poverty could also be understood as the general lack of
opportunities, powerlessness and vulnerability that besmirches and individual of human dignity
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thereby relegating him/her to inhuman status. As such they become unable to get food, afford
basic health services, secure an employment, not able to go to schools, living from hand to
mouth, and not being able to access safe and clean drinking water. Poverty is a status quo
problem usually structurally ingrained upon societal systems in order to systematically ostracise
and discriminate against some individuals or groups of people. Poverty reduction or alleviation
or eradication is therefore used in this paper to refer to the deliberate mechanism and techniques
put in place by policy makers and opinion leaders to help improve human welfare.
Planning
Planning is used in this paper to refer to the process of vision development. It is about coming up
with the strategies and mechanisms which will help put in place sustainable mechanism for
poverty alleviation. This may entail involving all the primary, secondary and even tertiary
stakeholders, collective participation.
Urban informal settlements
These are human settlement areas within the cities deprived of proper human liveability
conditions. They are usually referred to as slums. They are characterized by squalid conditions,
inefficient and sub standard infrastructure, and inaccessibility leading to poor physical, economic
and social mobility.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 General Introduction
Kibera, the largest informal settlement of Kenya in Sub – Saharan Africa has faced high poverty
issues. Owing to the social, economic and environmental problems emanating from this
situation, awareness is quickly rising for a more sustainable urban transport system. If Kibera is
to be open for local and foreign investors, a more sustainable transport investment system ought
to be introduced. It is toward introducing a rather sustainable transport investment that
sustainable development in Kibera would be made real.
There is equal need for concerted efforts and mutual participation by all the stakeholders in
order to make introduction of a more sustainable urban transport a lived reality thus achieving
both economic growth and social progress by the masses. This only follows from an effective
adherence to a proper and efficient planning strategy by the international, county and the
country’s national policy makers and planners of infrastructures. This has put a strain on the only
available transportation facilities a move that has spilled over to manifest as congestion in the
Central Business District (CBD) of Nairobi, the only centre of business activity.
Transport networks for the diversified modes have not been fully invested in resulting in narrow
alleys within the informal settlement of Kibera making development a distant mirage. With
increasing populations, available transport investments have not offered a sufficient
commensurate to the ever burgeoning transport demands resulting in congestion and many other
negative environmental influences not only in Kibera but also within the CBD given the
proximity of Kibera to town centre.
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Kibera has suffered from a myriad of imbalances in urban development, transportation, and
liveability. Sustainable transport investment is by and large conceived as key to any serious
contemplation on economic growth. Sustainable transport is usually largely at the intermediate
service of a wide spectrum of productive activities in a multiplicity of economic sectors. No
doubt, in the absence of any strategic and sustainable transport investment, no productive
activities can be executed. Not only will proper transport services in either the rural or urban
settings stimulate trade, but will also enhance investment in other sectors within a particular
locus given improved accessibility. Effective reduction in transport costs resulting from
improved transport infrastructure will in turn promote trade, makes specialization and subsequent
economies of scale possible thus widening the market thereby promoting economic growth.
However, it is important to note that the role of effective transport investment in poverty
reduction has not been fairly appreciated by many save only for the planners. This in part derives
from the fact that poverty is a fluid concept with a contrariety of plausible concepts. Poverty is
not only associated with low level per capita income but also to many non – income conditions
such as ill - health, illiteracy levels, and the general inaccessibility to the day –to – day basic
necessities of life. It is important to note that both low income levels and non – income
conditions are inextricably interrelated hence leading to direct and indirect poverty reduction in
both the urban and rural settlements.
A paradigm shift toward a more sustainable transport makes it possible redefining urban
transport puzzle thereby rendering affordable and efficient transport investment modes hence
accessibility to basic needs, saving costs, and heightened productivity thus realizing sustainable
urban development.
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The survey is organized in five parts. The introduction section covers the study background, the
problem statement, the research questions and objectives, and the significance of the study. The
literature review, the theoretical and conceptual framework are largely covered in the second
part. The third part focuses on the methodology that was used that is used during the survey
while the fourth part presents the findings to the specific research questions. The final part
summarises the study conclusions, and general recommendations.
1.1 Background to the study
Urbanization is an imminent reality all over the world. However, in the developing world in
particular, it is taking place at an alarming rate. The role of transport in urban areas however,
hitherto remains a crucial seminal component to accommodate the burgeoning travel demands.
Solving the transportation planning problems both in the rural and in the city settings still
remains a puzzle for most governments of developing countries not least Kenya. A city is
considered a complex system. It does encompass numerous interactive subsystems and is
affected by a dazzling multiplicity of diversified factors which include but not limited to
governmental land policies, population growth, transportation infrastructure, and market
behaviour. Land use and transportation systems are two of the most important aspects of
determining the essence and form of the urban in the long run. However, urban growth remains
yet one of the most crucial seminal issues in urban studies whose main determining components
include population growth and transportation development. Modelling and simulation are
therefore rendered the only viable tools and techniques for exploring the mechanisms of urban
evolution and planning support in growth management.
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According to the 2011 Revision of World’s Urbanization Prospect, (United Nations, 2012), the
world’s urban population burgeoned from 0.75 billion (29.4% of the world’s population) in 1950
to 3.63 billion (52.1%) in 2011 and is anticipated to hit 6.25 billion (67.2%) in 2050. To a height
of general consternation, during 2011 – 2030 urban populace in the developing regions is
projected to shoot by 2.02% from 2.67 billion to 3.92 billion. Contrasting though, the urban
population in the developed regions is expected to sour rather modestly from 0.96 billion to 1.06
billion. From these glaring outcomes, there exist two imminent inevitable results which include
rapid urbanization hence upsurge of mega cities and an unprecedented size of largest cities. It is
therefore worth noting that population growth remains an important indicator of change in any
urban system. In the event that urban population burgeons, the city must expand vertically or
horizontally.
It is important to recognize that the urban in most developing countries accounts for at least 50%
of the gross national product and in some countries over 70%. Cities in developing countries
often devote 15 per cent to 25 per cent of their annual expenditures to their transport systems,
and sometimes much more (World Bank, 2002).
Alongside economic and technological development (communication and transport) revolution,
rapid urban growth can be made manifest in the suburban sprawl, expansion and redevelopment
in the city centres. Sprawl is a form of urban growth that happens through rapid surbunization
especially in North America, with a fragmental form and low density in development (Gordon &
Richardson, 1997). (Nuissl, Haase, Lanzendorf, & Wittener, 2008) observe that urbanization
leads to an unnatural or spoiled lanscape in spatial planning . Agricultural land or forest at the
urban fringe is converted to residential and industrial areas a move that weakens ecosystem
services and landscape functions in diversified ways (de Groot, Wilson, & Boumans, 2002).
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However, increased use of cars and increased energy consumption cause concentrate pollution,
which doubly damages people’s health and the natural environment. Urban sprawl in the surbubs
call for additional costs in terms of travel and increased inefficient investmentn of services in
low density urban areas (Batty, 2008).
The (United Nations Human Settlement Program, 2011) observes that Africa has lagged behind
considerably in terms of infrastructure service quality, and quantity. This in part derives from
the density of road networks and paved roads, per capita capacity and house access, water and
sanitation. Most african countries are largely not a breast with rapid demographic growth
including the ever first growing urbanization tendencies. The report augment that adequate
supply of infrastructure services has always been viewed as a requisite condition for economic
development hence poverty reduction in both policy and academic realms.
Two decades have hitherto witnessed rigorous efforts inclined toward theoretical and empirical
evaluation of the contribution of insfrastructure to growth and economic development. Until
recently, concerted attention has more or less drifted toward investigating the impact of
infrastructure on poverty and inequality (Ariyo & Jerome, 2004). However, the non- existing
literature on these two concerns remains essentially opposed. But on the whole, there is a general
consensus that under amiable conditions, infrastructure development does play a pivotal role in
the promotion of growth and equity hence alleviating poverty. Ironically, despite these
universally acknowledged underpinnings, Sub – Saharan Africa still lags behind other regions
insofar as service provision and quality is concerned. A gap does exists and constantly gets wider
and wider especially when a cursory look is turned to the energy sector. With a total of 800
million Sub – Saharan Africans, 48 countries within the a forementioned region collectively
produce as much powere as Spain which is only one eighteenth of Africa’s population (World
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Bank, 2009). Thought proficient in clean energy resource production, facilities have been largely
inadequate creating a serious and an acute supply imbalance. Proper investment and maintenance
of existing infrasture has not been carefully executed thus many countries in Africa have hitherto
remained with dilapidated and unmaintained infrastructural facilities.
The rather adverse infrastructural deficiencies in Sub – Saharan Africa could in part be
compounnded by unprecedented burgeoning urban populations whose consequences are
manifestly expressed in the explosion of informal settlements (slums) all over the continent
(Binde & Mayor, 2001). Urbanization in Africa is happening at a slightly higher rate than any
other region in the world. It was projected that Africa’s population will double the 2007 level of
373.4 million as early as 2005, when 54% of the population will be purely urban residents. There
will be close to 800 million African urban dwellers then, making it slightly higher than what we
have today as city dwellers in the entire world (Tibaijuka, 2010).
Urbanization in Africa is largely characterized by the fact that it does happen with or without
limited development. A manifest expression of urban poverty is the formation and proliferation
of infromal settlements - slums (Arimah, 2010). In the situation of economic stagnation, poor
governance, and weak public institutions, it is observed that two – thirds of the African urban
residents reside in the slums typified by poor infrastructure (Pieterse, 2008).
All across Africa, rapid urbanization has been characterized by and closely associaited with
unemployment and underemployment, increasing number of slums, dilapidated infrastructure
and service delivery capacity, congestion, environmental degradation and severe shortage of
houses (United Nations Human Settlement Program, 2011). It is this situation that by and large
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forms the crux of impediment to Africa’s economic development hence forming an enormous
constraint toward realizing a poverty- free society as well as the attainment of MDGs.
There is a lot of untold human misery owing to inadequate transport, power, communication
networks, water, sanitation, and other infrastructure. All these add up to render Africa bereft of
competitivenes hence stifling Africa’s participation in the international markets. According to
(World Bank, 2009), 40% of African countries rank bottom in doing business as investment
needs remain substantial. (Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic, 2010) estimates that the
cost of correcting Africa’s infrastructural deficiencies stands at USD 93 billion translating to
15% GDP, a third of which is for maintenance. This is a discrepancy that the private sector left
on its own may not be able to sufficiently address.
(Nairobi Metro, 2003) observe that the Nairobi Metropolitan Region (NMR) contributes
approximately 60% of the National Domestic Produce and is subsequently a home to 60% of the
urban population. According to the observations purveyed, NMR experiences the highest level
of immigrtion resulting in high pressure on available meagre physical and social infrasture. This
by extension, has been manifestly expressed in the incessant traffic congestion not only within
the CBD but also in the neighouring estates Kibera being a typical case in point during peak and
off peak hours. For years, proper infrastructural management has taken centre stage in city
planning meetings but unfortunately very little has been rendered in terms of pragmatic results.
Sprawl and spatial expansion scenario world over has led to an increased demand for proper
urban transport facilities and social services and the case is not exempt in Nairobi’s Kibera
informal settement. However, the provision of services in both African and Asian regions have
hitherto been stiffled by high rates of spatial expansion with minimal or no development
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planning resulting in some cases in the failure in the instruments of the government culminating
in a blatant waste of public’s resources or more stilll in low quality infrastructure. Enormous
capital costs, institution’s feableness and the time needed to develop efficacious and sustainable
transport systems have proved a stumblling block to timely implementation of transport policies
in urban areas. This has consequently led to a scenario whereupon informal settlements heavily
rely upon road stransport networks which has hitherto demonstrated capacity constraints and
social negative consequences on the environment. Traffic congestion, pollution, accidents and
huge unexploited potentials remain some of the visible realities in our cities. It is important to
underscore that the situation in Nairobi just like in most Asian and other African cities has the
situation already spuring out of hand hence negatively impacting on the urban economy, health
and welfare of the people living within the city’s informal settlments hence a drawback to
sustainable development (Steg & Gifford, 2005).
A sustainable Urban transport demands efficient, equitable, and environmentally friendly
transport system cognizant of the socio – political and environmental constraints. (Todd, 2003)
observes that sustainable transport system is only tenable when the transport infrastructue design
and its subsequent evaluation is carefullly looked into so as to necessitate meeting persistent
present and future needs. Sustainability does have a huge implication on both rural and urban
mobility planning since transport remains at the centre of development .
Urban transport can play a pivotal role in poverty reduction, given its symbiotic relationship with
urban economy indirectly, through economic growth, and directly, through its impact on the
needs of the poor. However, there is a fundamental paradox in the urban transportation poverty
reduction nexus: increasing urban affluence seems to reduce rather than increase the
accessibility, mobility, and quality of travel for the poor. The relationship between poverty and
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urban transport is poorly understood. Transportation infrastructure has a bearing on the poverty
levels within urban spaces. Urban growth benefits human civilizations in terms of society,
economy, and culture. Cities, today control world’s economies and political decision power,
manage the flow of finances, other non – financial resources and control the knowledge of
science, art, and technology. However, rapid urban growth also brings with it social, physical,
and environmental problems. It is by this token that proper system planning need to be put in
place to offer checks and balances
Consequently, urban transport represents a particularly important physical common-property
asset to the urban poor. Owing to the long distances between homes, workplaces and services in
urban areas non-availability of public transport can considerably limit the livelihood strategies of
the poor for example, job opportunities and access to market places. Equally, good provision can
enhance livelihood profiles and enable the poor to develop and broaden their asset base.
Infrastructure planning and service provisions are resources which, in combination, either
enhance or disadvantage the livelihood of urban dwellers. Mobility and accessibility are related
terms which include transport costs and times (Maunder, 1983) and more qualitative factors
which define the degree of accessibility, such as frequency, time of availability, comfort etc.
The transport problems of the urban poor have received considerable attention in the
development literature, yet the role of transport in alleviating urban poverty is not clearly
understood (UNDP, 1998). It is important to consider these linkages in the urban context for a
number of reasons. Firstly, (Fouracre,1999) contend that for cities to function well and serve
the population there needs to be an effective and efficient and accessible transport infrastructure
and that with rapid urbanization and the increasing number of poor economic migrants in the
city, transportation remains a key factor in people’s livelihood strategies.
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Tending to live in geographically marginalized areas, the urban poor get subjected to high
transport costs and long journeys, with poorer quality services and infrastructure than in more
wealthy areas where housing is not affordable or available to those on lower-incomes. Lower-
income families are to some extent trapped. They are unable to travel to relatively inaccessible
jobs which might pay higher wages than ones that can easily be reached.
The limited treatment of poverty issues in transport sector operations can be partly explained by
the fact that most transport projects are designed to support economic growth, and only a small
number of projects, mostly rural road and urban public transport projects, have components that
target the transport needs of the poor. The urban poor are neglected from the onset of planning of
public transportation services.
The thesis strives to analyse and model urban growth basing on the simulation of land use
changes and the model of road network systems expansion in Kibera so as to create equitable
livelihoods through proper transport planning strategy, complete streets and creation of
sustainable modes of transport which are socially, economically, and environmentally senstive
hence sustainable development.
The study intends to achieve its objective of providing a blueprint for introducing sustainable
urban transport in Kibera in order to establish a suitable balance between urban development ,
transportation, and liveability. The thesis takes an integral approach by taking into account the
correlation between land use and transportation and the balance between the various modes of
transport.
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1.2 Statement of the problem
Productivity, welfare, and security of rural and urban populations are usually notoriously
influenced by the extent of infrastructural links to towns, and major national centres of
administration and trade. Infrastructural services are commonly social capital facilities and
activities with a commonality in techno-economic aspects thereby elevating productive
capabilities of the families and corporate organizations and by extension the state.
A balance in infrastructural provision emanates from a balanced perception of urban traffic and
vision. (World Bank, 2006) maintains that one of the reasons why the quest for the said balance
remains practically inconclusive is because of the old school thought that sustainable transport is
about physical infrastructure. However, sustainable transport ought to be an economic
production and market system that calls for efficiency hence the need for the reduction of direct
and indirect costs of transport and time spent on a single journey.
Kibera suffers from several imbalances in urban development, transportation, and liveability.
The city of Nairobi has developed unplanned road networks resulting in incongruence between
housing, employment, and services. This has hitherto put a strain on the CBD as the only centre
of economic activity. Transport networks for the diversified modes have not properly been
developed. As a consequence, the narrow alleys within the city’s informal settlements, slums are
largely unable to expand in order to commensurate the ever increasing demand for proper
transport infrastructure investment and maintenance which goes along way to make the slums
accessible and open to investment thus alleviating abject poverty hitherto experienced by the
slum dwellers thus easing congestions and subsequent social, economic and environmental
effects emanating from the failure to have a transport infrastructure investment strategy.
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In order to effectively and efficiently address the effects of the sprawl in Kibera brought about by
rapid urbanization, change in human settlement, a collective participation from all the
stakeholders ranging from the local community, policy makers, city planners, and the political
folk should all sit down and come up with a more sustainable transport investment strategy that
would enhance Kibera’s accessibility as more and more conducive road networks and other
infrastructural services will make it easy for the slum dwellers to open businesses, move freely in
and out of the settlement, and make it easy for investors to get in thus creating employment
opportunities whence cash flow will be made a reality thus extricating the slum dwellers from
abject poverty and untold human suffering. This creates anxiety within the researcher to
investigate whether introduction of sustainable transport investment within Kibera slum would
bolster collective participation in development ventures thereby alleviating urban poverty
1.3 Research Specific Questions
i) What socio-economic and environmental transport needs exist in Kibera slum?
ii) What physical, economic and social interventions can help alleviate poverty among
slum dwellers?
iii) What is the role of transport planning in urban poverty alleviation?
iv) What contribution does transport policies, principles and strategies play toward
making transport infrastructure investment alleviate poverty?
1.3 Research Objectives
1.4.1 Overall Research Objective
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To provide a blueprint to introduce sustainable transport infrastructure investment planning and
accessibility influences poverty levels in the informal settlement of Kibera in Nairobi.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
i. To identify the socio-economic and environmental transport needs of Kibera slum
ii. To establish the physical, economic and social interventions that can help alleviate slum
poverty
iii. To determine the role of transport policies, principles and strategies toward making
transport infrastructure investment alleviate poverty
1.5 Significance of the study
The research emanated from the recognition of the fact that there are no sufficient blueprints
articulating the role of transport investment planning and accessibility in poverty reduction
among the urban poor in Nairobi city. The findings of this study will therefore be helpful in a
multiplicity of ways. Firstly, the study aims to suggest more sustainable transport investments
that would help reduce poverty alongside lessening long term – term environmental damage at
local, regional, and global levels.
Secondly, by closely investigating the link between infrastructure investments and of
infrastructure reform to poverty and economic growth, the study intends to act as a Poverty
Action Plan thus helping in boosting economic prosperity. This document will act as a policy
document by the planners and city policy makers to help determine the type of investment to
help make slums reach growth rates which will help eradicate poverty in the slums.
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Thirdly, the research review would make it possible for further research to enhance improved
reliability thus establishing existing gaps among specific sectors and point to other potential
areas needing further research.
Fourthly, the findings of this study will act as an investment plan to different development
stakeholders thereby acting as a source on information on slum’s projects entry point. This will
make the government, the not-for-profit organizations, and the corporate sector to work
collectively toward determining the need of the slum hence types of investments which when
addressed will result in increased income among the slum dweller thus improved life –standards.
Last but not least, the findings could provide a pedestal for further investigation to help
community developers and governments; managers and policy implementers develop an
efficacious policy framework to help front sustainable slum development. The Nairobi County
Ministry of Physical Planning and Management will be better informed on how to come upp
with ways of eliminating vicious slum poverty.
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1.6 Conceptual Framework
Fig 1.1: Interrelationship between Variable Subsumed in the Study
Source: Author’s Conceptualization, 2015
The Conceptual Framework demonstrates that land use and transport infrastructure investment
do influence each other at the very level of policy making and/or implementation as captured in
the statement of the problem or the hypothesis. Land use policies have an effect on the land use
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Land Use
Policy
Policy
Transport
Urban Transport
Interaction
Urban Form
I
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
i
o
n
Effective, Efficient,
Equitable, Affordable,
Environmental Friendly
Transport System =
Sustainable Transport
Investment
Sustainable
Development
Other Intervening Factors

patterns of any human settlement and at the same time having an impact upon the transport
policy hence transport system as a whole. Transport system does attract more sustainable
development into an area which will further affect land use and decisions on how to use the land.
Similarly, transport policies impact positively or negatively on transport service provision
consequently creating a change in demand in an area and land use decisions. This in turn affects
the land use policies of a given settlement to harmonize the situation with the future development
and control thus shaping development trends. Spatial structure of cities which could be guided
formally or informally will catch the eye of transport service providers who will require some
correction on land use and transport policies.
As already demonstrated, all the four seminal components will mutually interpenetrate thus
inviting a resolute action to sustain slum development. The idea is to emphasize the pivotal role
of sustainable transport investment in creating sustainable development.
18

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
The previous chapter introduced the background and succinctly stated the problem statement.
This Chapter contains the theoretical review and subsequently reviews related literature
2.1 Theoretical Literature Review
2.1.1 Complexity Theory
This theory is necessary for understanding systems characterized by non –linear behaviour, self
organization, irreducibility and emergent properties (Page, 2007). According to (Durlauf, 2005),
a complex system is usually characterized by four features which include but not limited to non –
ergordicity, phase transition, emergence and universality.
According to this theory, cities are conceived of as complex systems because they are
comprehensive entities coping with infinite variety (Batty, 2000). This is part derive from the
understanding that urban evolution is essentially bottom – top and urban development is
dynamic. Urban growth therefore requires an interplay and participation by various individuals
with variuos behaviour patterns at both spatial and temporal scales and shows dynamic
interactions between socio – economic and environmental impact. Cities comprise many
interactive sub – systems which include but not limited to land use and transportation networks
which usually gradually change. Expansion of road network for instance will have a consequent
influece on the location choice of firms or households and accessibility.
The growth pole theory in spite of the emerging criticisms contributes immensely toward the
maintenance of a conceptual division as a pole of modernity and the rural or by extension
19

regions removed from the city centre. This enables LDCs to extricate the consequences of rural –
urban conceptual dichotomy.
2.1.2 Growth Pole Theory
The growth pole theory in part derives from the belief that governments of the 3rd
world
countries can induce economic growth and welfare by opting to invest in capital – intensive
industries in mega – urban cities or regional capitals. It is presumed that this growth by necessity
spreads to the rural areas through a process of regional development (Rondinelli, 1985). This
theory is grounded on the assumption that free market forces provide conditions for development
through the trickle – down effect putting together various economic forces, creating a virtuous
cycle that ensures that economic growth is spread from the urban centres to the periphery.
This theory is very much in support of a top – bottom planning strategy whence centralized
planning system following an external demand and innovation impulses, invites heavy
investment in high technology urban industrial development (Stöhr & Taylor, 1981). This theory
presupposes that if city centres are properly planned, the development therein will trickle to the
estates thus improving standards of slum life.
2.1.3 Equilibrium Theory
This theory was discovered by (Auerbach, 1913) and is consistent with Zipf’s law. The basis of
this theory is that the sum total of all economic activity is in essence urban economic activity.
This presupposition flows from the conviction that most economic activity occurs in cities thus
creating a tension between the local increasing return made manifest in societies’ existence, and
total constant returns implied by balance growth. According to Auerbach, the changes in the
urban structure through growth, birth and death of cities create a margin eliminating the local
20

increasing returns to yield constant returns in totality (Ross-HansBerg & Wright, 2007). The
theory demonstrates that dispersion of city sizes is usually consistent with the dispersion of
producivity shocks. By this theory, the size of the city is determined by the trade-off between
conglomeration effects and congestion related costs (Ross-HansBerg & Wright, 2007).
2.2 Theoretical Framework
The dependent variable in the study is poverty within the informal settlement of Kibera.
Hypothetically, this vicious cycle of poverty is a consequence of lack of sustainable transport
infrastructure investment and corresponding policies. Transport infrastructure posits land use
which in turn presupposes decisions on household and firm’s use and corresponding policy
frameworks. It is toward the recognition of the fact that sustainable growth and development
posits proper physical, economic, social, and environmental planning that the complexity theory,
equilibrium and growth pole theory all augment the fact that sustainable development is resident
in effective, equitable, efficient, and accessible to the physical, economic, social and
environmental resources.
Fig 2.1 below shows the interconnectedness of these theories
Source: Author’s Conceptualization
2.3 Empirical Literature Review
2.3.1 Sustainable Growth and Development
21
Complexity Theory
Growth Pole Theory
Sustainable Transport Infrastructure
Investment
Equilibrium Theory

Economic vitality, social equity, and environmental quality are some of the world’s concerns
being brought together under the opaque concept of Sustainable development. The concept of
sustainability came to the fore after the publication of “Our Common Future” in 1987 by the
World Commission on Environment and Development. The report came to be popularly known
as Brundtland Report after the name of its chair Harlem Brundtland (United Nations, 1987).
Since then, the concept has basically informed all discussions about the concept of Sustainable
Development. The concept was first used in the transport sector in the developed countries for
the first time in 1990. In 1995, the Organization for Economic Co-operative Development
(OECD) group on urban affairs and the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT)
presented the Urban Travel and Sustainable Development Report that recommended a three
dimensional approach to achieving a sustainable transport system grounded on the principles of
best practice in land use and transportation planning, innovation in land use planning and traffic
management, and pricing measures (Deakin, 2001). According to the (World Bank, 1996)
Report, entitled “Sustainable Transport: Priority for Policy Reform”, extrapolated the discussion
to include recommendations for developing countries. The content of these two reports have
since enlivened argumentation on sustainable development.
A variety of literatures have striven to define the concept of sustainable development. (United
Nations, 1987) defines Sustainable Development that project implementation strategy that meets
the needs of the present situation without necessarily compromising the survival of the future
progeny. By needs the United Nations refers to the enduring basic requirements of the world’s
poor to which particular priority and focus should be given. International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) infers that the United Nation’s definition of Sustainable
Development captures two essential aspects of sustainable development which essentially
22

include the problem of environmental degradation that usually goes hand in hand with economic
growth and the growth as a requisite to alleviate poverty (IUCN, 2006). It is important to agree
with the (United Nations, 1987) in affirming that sustainable development is not a goal but rather
a process of change. In agreement with the 2005 Summit Outcome Document of the United
Nations, it is important to recognize that by the aforementioned token, sustainable development
does have three mutually interpenetrating components which include but not limited to economic
development, social progress and environmental protection (United Nations, 2005).
Fig 2.2 shows the visual representation of the three pillars of sustainable development
Source: IUCN, 2006
There is a general presupposition that sustainable development does have three phases which
include the present situation, the change needed and the theory or ideal situation.
23
Economic
Growth
Environmental
care
Social
Progress
Sustainable Development

While introducing the concept of sustainable development, the United Nations was well aware of
the risks of irreversible damage that human beings create to the environment without particularly
paying attention to the consequence of their actions on others. This of course causes a stress on
the environment hence threatening human development. Huge attention has hitherto been turned
toward the exploitation of otherwise meager world’s resources and the environment’s quality
getting poorer and poorer as a lot of economic activities emit contaminated substances to the
hemisphere, stratosphere and the lithosphere thus polluting them all together. The (United
Nations, 1987) maintain that most of contemporary environmental challenges emanate from both
lack of development and unplanned aftermath of various economic activities going on in nature.
It is important to note that today, sustainable development projects are being implemented as far
south as from Bogota, Colombia further east to Perth, Australia and in Copenhagen, Denmark to
South Africa. This means that different states and nations have fully appreciated the need to
protect not only their lives but also the environment in which they live thus leaving it safe even
for the future generations.
Kibera, the largest slum in Kenya and the second largest in Africa is expanding spatially in order
to accommodate the burgeoning populations resulting from rapid rural – urban migrations and
natural growth. Residents of such sprawled residential settlements are usually left at the fringes
of the society and therefore incessantly cry foul over inefficient transport infrastructure
investment in order to effectively travel to job markets, health centres, and other socio –
economic activities. It is worth noting that sustainable development remains a distant mirage in
Kibera and in any cities with sprawling slums if no meticulous transport infrastructure policies
and strategies are put in place.
24

In fact, proper transport investment largely remains a seminal aspect of development as had
already been pointed out. This is because transport investment necessitates access to diversified
amenities in the absence of which quality livelihood will be done a blow. No doubt,
inaccessibility to natural and human resources essentially stifles market growth rendering
sustainable poverty reduction untenable. It is however, important to be cognizant of the fact that
not so carefully thought through transport policies and programmes in turn induces poverty
instead of alleviating it.
Feasible and sustainable solutions should therefore focus upon the improvement of the physical
transport infrastructure, improving road networks and increasing the fleet number. However, in
spite of all the efforts which have been made, the challenge still proliferates reaching a height of
general consternation hence being critically made manifest in congestion and deterioration of air
quality.
2.3.2 Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction
It is important to note that infrastructure services and the private sector participation in
infrastructure plays a critical role in the economic growth of any econony, but more especially
economies of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). It is indeed the economic growth that
consequently impacts the poor in most cases. Whenever increased access is afforded to the poor,
then the impact becomes rather direct. However, this has to be dependent upon another of factors
which included but not limited to the type of infrastructure and the nature of enabling
environment. It is important to note that projects which are meant to iimpact the lives of the poor
could be designed in such away that universal service obligations and cross – subsidies are and
access by the poor become the controling ideas.
25

The figure 2.3 shows the interaction between infrastructure investment and their subsequent
direct and indirect links to poverty
Poverty Reduction
Infrastructure
Direct Effects Indirect Effects
Services:
first time,
lower cost
or better
quality
Spending
and its
direct/indire
ct/multiplier
effects
Spending,
growth and
improved
infrastructure
capacity
Spending,
improvement
in
infrastructure
Fiscal and tax
contribution
to the
government
Access to
infrastructure
services
Jobs
Business
opportunities
Growth in GDP Taxes generated
Rising income and wealth
Fund government services and
poverty reduction programs
Increased access to basic
goods and services
Source: IFC World Bank Group
The world Developoment Report (World Bank, 1994) argue that infrastructure does play a
critical role in the development process. Development of infrastructure not only bolslter growth
but growth but growth also conversely contribute to development of insfrastructure in a rather
symbiotic relationship. (DFID, 2000) on the other hand maintains that infrastructure investment
does occasion sustainable growth through reduced transanctional costs hence facilitating trade
flows, encouraging economic actors to access new types of demands, lower in put costs and
create employment (DFID, 2002) (Asian Develoment Bank, 1999) does underscore that poverty
26
Infrastructure

reduction requires an economic growth pedestal of sound macro-economic management and
effective governance. All these give way to a sustainable and all – inclusive development. This
form of development is made manifest when the poor of the society are able to eventually access
quality education and health services, water and sanitation, employment opportunities, credit and
market for products (Ali & Pernia, 2003). It is only in doing this that the vulnerable poor of the
society would be cushioned against the economic shocks and natural disasters hence heightening
their well –being while encouraging heavy investment in human capital and in high return-
rewarding incentives. As a matter of fact, physical infrastructure does contribute immensely
toward the pursuit of socially all encompassing development.
Infrastructure investments usually lead to higher productivity, employment and income
opportunities and heightened availability of goods, thereby increasing net income and
consumption (Ali & Pernia, 2003). Increased employment will surely benefit the poor and the
vulnerable of the society more than the non-poor. Such investments have the capacity to be able
to transform the life of vulnerable masses of the society alleviating poverty even faster as income
distribution will have been enhanced and made a reality. It is important to note that government
interventions toward alleviating poverty essentially supplements thus promotes economic
growth, a more durable approach to sustainable poverty reduction hence improved human
welfare. A lot of potential reside a lot more in the rural and in the urban informal settlements
hence the need to focus on such areas if there be need for heightened productivity and
employment thus fast tracking overall economic growth. (Ali & Pernia, 2003) both observe that
project design, that is including infrastructure investment locus remain critical to sustainable
poverty reduction. Poverty reduction strategies can only be bolstered by creation of roads ,
27

irrigation, and electrification which are distributive factors favoring the poor are initiated along
strategic points accessible to the poor.
It is important to note that there prevailed two opposed schools of thought in the 90s as far as
poverty reduction versus infrastructure. It was about the physical infrastructure over and against
poverty reduction. According to the first school of thought contended that physical infrastructure
is a necessary condition for poverty alleviation efforts for developing countries. This was
however, largely opposed by the International Development Community, who in their skepticism
argued that infrastructure investment had very little bearing in poverty since the benefits do not
reach the majority given their minimalism. Their also expressed a concern over the rising levels
of poor governance and institutions giving a lee way to corruption even if effective infrastructure
were put in place. The International Development Community therefore contend that for
infrastructural interventions to be able to extricate the poor from the malaise of poverty, policy
frameworks of the governments and institutions ought to be tightened otherwise the above stated
correlation remains far – fetched (DFID, 2002).
(DFID, 2002) observes that at present, approximately 70% of the iinfrastructure investment in
the LDCs is being financed by governments or basically public utilities from ploughed back
from the generated internal income or from non – concessional borrowings, 3% aid and
discrepancy met by the private sector. Notably, ADB had invested a total of 15.9 billion sterlling
pounds in its developing member countries’ (DMCs) transport sectors, roads and road transport,
ports and shipping, airports and civil aviation and railways (Asian Develoment Bank, 2001). Out
of this amount, roads accounted for 11.2 billion sterling pounds which is 13% of ADB’s total
loan disbursement.
28

A host of studies have been conducted which point out the signigicant impact roads have on
poverty reduction via economic growth. While analyzing data from Indonesia, (Kwon, 2000)
estimates a growth elasticity with specific reference to poverty incidence of – 0.33 for good
road regions and -0.09 for bad road regions. This practically confirms that poverty incidence falls
by 0.33% and 0.09% respectively for every 1% growth in regional GDP. These regional roads
supposedly improve the wages and offers employment to the poor to an an extent that for every
1% increase in road infrastructure investment, there is a consequent 0.03% drop in poverty
incidence for a span of fives.
It is important to note that in another study on Indonesian but at district level data, it is revealed
that there is a significant effect of roads on the average incomes of the vulnerable poor through
growth route with an elasticity of 0.05 (Balisacan & Pernia, 2002). In another parallel research
conducted in the Philippines but exploiting regional data, reveal that roads when augmented by
educational investment do have a significant indirect and direct consequence on the welfare of
the vulnerable poor of the society (Balisacan & Pernia, 2002). A cursory look at the elasticity
estimates reveals that 1% increase in road accessibility supported by educational results in a
0.32% rise through growth, in the average income of the poor. By the same token, a 1% increase
in roads with education is largely reciprocal with a 0.11% increase in the income of the
vulnerable poor (Balisacan & Pernia, 2002).
According to (Fan, Zhang, & Zhang, 2002) in a study examining different types of government
expenditures on growth and rural poverty in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) establish that
roads significantly reduce poverty incidence through Agricultural productivity and non – farm
employment. The projected elasticity with reference to road density stood at 0.08 for agricultural
GDP per worker, 0.10 for non – agricultural employment and 0.15 for wages of non –
29

agricultural workers in rural areas. They established that of the government projects, rural proved
to have had an enormous impact on poverty incidence. The study established that for every
10,000 Yuan channeled on rural roads, 3.2 poor persons are lifted out of poverty (Fan, Zhang, &
Zhang, 2002).
(Glewwe, Gragnolati, & Zaman, 2000) reveal that in vietnam, poor households in the rural
communities where there are paved roads have a 67% likely probability of escaping poverty as
compared to those who reside in regions without paved roads. Similar evaluation of World Bank
– funded rural roads rehabilitation in Vietnam demonstrated that a huge impact of such
investment was on the poorest households (van de Walle & Cratty, 2002).
With specific refence to the rural road network s in Nepal, (Jacoby, 1998) observes that an
extensive provision of rural road network brings substantial benefits with the poor having a lion
share of the benefits. However, the poor’s income is never significant enough to effectively
counteract the burgeoning inequalities.
Another study assessed public expenditures in the 25 provinces of Indonesia from 2004 to 2007.
It considered government investments in irrigation, roads, health, science and technology,
agriculture and forestry, and education. However, out of all the parameters used, the rate of
decline in poverty was found to be most sensitive to road investments. In addition to the indirect
effects of roads on poverty through intervening variables, the study isolated a significant direct
effect of road density implying transport planning- in reducing poverty in Indonesia. Thus, road
capital may be considered one of the assets of the poor, improving the functioning of labor and
product markets (ADB Resource Center, 2007).
30

(Escobal, 2001) establishes the link between roads and income diversification by studying off-
farm activities in rural Peru. Using the study estimations, the author showed that access to roads,
along with other public assets such as rural electrification and education, was a significant
determinant of income diversification. He also found that access to roads and other public assets
raises the profitability of both farm and non-farm activities.
Fig. 2.3 Depicts the Connection between Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction
31
Roads Irrigation Electricity
Infrastructure Investment
Agricultural Productivity Non –Agricultural Employment Non – Agricultural
productivity
Rural Economic Growth Wages and Employment of the Poor
Supply and Price of Basic
Goods

Source: ERD
2.3.2.1 Kenyan Transport Infrastructure System and the Historical Background of
Transport in Nairobi
(AICD (Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic), 2010) observe that between 2003 and 2007,
Kenya’s economy grew exponentially at an annual average of 5.3% a remarkable improvement
from 2.3% recorded in the previous decades. However, current growth rate still falls short of the
sustained 7% per annum required for Kenya to be a breast with the MDGs agenda. Less than half
of the 1% of EAs improved per capita growth performance during 2000s can safely be attributed
to structural and stabilization policies (Calderon, 2008). The improvement could be attributed to
improvements in the ICT sector while poor roads stifled growth. If Kenya’s infrastructure
equaled Mauritius annual per capita growth rate of Kenya’s economy would tower at 33% higher
than at present.
Infrastructural gaps are responsible for about 30% of the productivity handicap by firms in
Kenya. Alongside power, government and financing constrains add to making sustainable
transport a problem in Kenya especially in the urban informal settlements (Calderon & Serven,
2008).
32
Real Income /Consumption of the Poor
Poverty Reduction

With an area of 582,646 square Kilometers and 34 million inhabitants as at 2005, Kenya still has
the problem of linking less than half of the population of Germany over almost double the space.
By 1962 the total length of Kenya’s rails stood at 2,069 km. by 1988 this had been expanded
further to a length of 2,733 km. it important to observe that all the Kenyan railways are one-
meter-gauge single tracks. Kenya’s roads covered relatively 42,000km, as at 1993, 111% of
which are surfaced and 63663km in 1997, 14% out of which were paved (Menhe, 2002).
It is important to note that mostly road and railway networks in Kenya are concentrated in the
south – western region of the country. Practically speaking, main routes of the railway line are
between Mombasa, Nairobi, Nakuru, Kisumu and Eldoret. This kind of inequitable distribution
could in part be attributable to the colonial setting whereupon rails were installed to help address
the political and economic interest of the British (Menhe, 2002).
It is important to note that the city of Nairobi’s growth derives its growth from the Kenya –
Uganda Railway line. The railhead reached Nairobi in May 1899 enroute Kisumu. When the
railway headquarters was shifted from Mombasa to Nairobi, there ensued subsequent growth of
Nairobi as a commercial and business hub of the then British East Africa protectorate (Situma,
1992). By 1900, Nairobi had already become a large and flourishing settlement comprising of
railway buildings and separate areas for Europeans and Indians, the latter being mainly the
labourers employed on the construction of the railway.
The changes in the Nairobi’s transport sector could closely be associated with colonial and post
colonial history and its political, socio – economic and geographical factors. Colonialism and its
aftermath have hugely contributed both positively and negatively toward the development of
transport infrastructure not only in Nairobi but also in Kenya as a whole. This was to later
33

influence as well the later development of transport investment in the whole of Eastern Africa
(Aduwo, 1990). It is worth noting that the design of streets, residential houses, CBD area, the
racial residential cleavages, and architectural peculiarities display foreign planning tendencies.
All these have inevitably had an impact in the transport investment systems in Kenya.
(Aligula 2005) observes that within that kind of matrix, the Europeans acquired residences in
low density and better side of the urban centre which were largely well-served with
communication and transportation facilities. This meant they were not faced with lots of
infrastructural challenges as others in the slums like in Kibera. Ideally, in 1920s Nairobi had
only one major trunk road emanating from the CBD northward to upland with a branch toward
the city’s industrial area.
34

Figure 2.4 below depicts the Kenya road network
35

Source: http://visibleearth.nasa.gov access May 28th
, 2016
Kenyan roads could be categorized as either classified or unclassified roads. Within the classified
road system, there are three main types of roads namely the international trunk roads, which
connect Kenya with neighboring countries like Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania and Sudan.
The period culminating into 1981, such roads had an entire length of 3,600 km, two – thirds of
36

which were paved road types. Then we have the national trunk roads which by the same said
period had an entire length of 2,785km two – thirds of which were paved. Then we also have the
primary road system, with an entire length of 7,750km in 1981 a quarter of which were paved
and act as a link to important provincial centers. It is the roads department of the Ministry of
Public Works which is responsible for their maintenance (Kenyaweb, 2006).
The unclassified road system also known as the secondary or minor road system ideally falls
under the mandate of county councils, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, the
Ministry of Tourism and other Organizations. (Menhe, 2002) observes that the life expectancy in
Kenya is far shorter compared to that for those who live in Germany with a life expectancy of 40
years on average. This is in part attributable to many reasons including the lack of governmental
commitment on road maintenance, conditions of various modes of transport. Corruption is also
identified as another huge setback to the realization of sustainable transport investment in Kenya.
(Otieno, 2003) argues that not all the amounts of money the government allocates for road
construction and maintenance is put for that purpose and sometimes huge sums of money never
get channeled at all to the projected ventures.
It is important to note that the half – life of most roads in Kenya is basically eight years (Mehne,
2002). This is relatively a shorter lifespan compared to roads of the same class in other areas like
in Germany. Sometimes a lot of time gets lost as funds required to refurbish roads get in
relatively late translating to shoddy jobs in realized in a bid to beat the deadlines. Sometimes
overloading problems posed by heavy commercial vehicles pose a risk to the standard and
quality of roads. Insufficient funds have at times contributed toward having an output of sub –
standard roads owing to inability to purchase the right quantity of materials. As such the roads
37

tend to wear out relatively faster and this translates to a new investment required to either do
them all together again after a short period of time or have them redone and all these have
financial implications. Should it happen that it is perceived to be a road leading to an area where
there is not much of production expected like in the informal settlements, then the tendency is
always to ignore.
2.3.2.2 Impact of Infrastructure through Economic Growth
It has been demonstrated that there are strong links between infrastructure and economic growth.
Economic literature presents a solid augmentation for very positive correlations between
infrastructure investment and economic growth. However, lively debates have ensued as to what
quantity and essence of infrastructure investment required for growth would be sufficient enough
to address poverty related questions. Contemporary studies have demonstrated that a 1%
increment in stock of infrastructure lifts GDP by 0.08% (IFC, 2013). However, this changes from
one region to another. It is important to note that an additional infrastructural stock in poor
countries will help address technological lapses hence addressing bottlenecks which stifle
development and equitable distribution of resources as such.
However, different sets of infrastructure would be required at various levels of development as
this would meticulously help maintain growth and productivity thereby allowing one country to
be at par with the rest insofar as development is concerned. It is more or less likely that
investments significant network effects will render more social benefits by connecting markets.
Of specific interest will be an investment in energy related infrastructure which usually presents
more robust results.
38

It is equally important to note that private participation in infrastructure development is of
essence if holistic economic growth and development is required. This facilitates efficiency gains
later translating to gains for the users made manifest in lowered user costs and to the tax payer
when certain taxation structures are eliminated. This presents itself generally in the form of a
trickle – down effects through overall growth to poverty.
In order that these gains benefit the users, there ought to be mechanisms well orchestrated to help
ensure sustainable equitably shared gains. These mechanisms may include having effective
regulation and competition within the private sector to help put checks and balances hence
equitable sharing of gains.
It is largely important noting that infrastructure does have a direct impact on poverty. Through
infrastructure investment, it is easy for the urban and rural dweller to affordably and qualitatively
access and partake in the national cake. In order to tune affordability right, it is important to
reconcile both the pricing levels and structures. For instance, in the event that a family is not
practically able to access clean and safe water, then they would still be able to access such
services by way of being present in institutions where such services are afforded by virtue of
presence e.g., in schools, by acquiring education, and by potentially earning good income.
Available literature provides facts of evidence on the economies achieved from saving time thus
increasing earning through productive work (IFC, 2013).
It is worth noting that when appropriate technological investment which commensurate the slum
needs and ability to afford, this enhances faster and efficient service delivery to the poorest
regions. A variety of studies on the impact of rural – feeder roads authenticates the evidence that
roads do help provide access to market, basic education and health facilities and improve the
39

general productivity of the poor households thus alleviating human suffering in such settings.
Affordability on the one hand can be made real in the choice of technology and quality which
eventually affects costs and then prices. International Finance Corporation (IFC) study on
Lighting Africa project reveal that in line with jobs created through improved services and lower
costs for companies, resulted from 1 billion sterling pounds spent on road construction in the
USA. This actually translated to 6000 direct jobs, 7790 indirect jobs, and 14,000 induced jobs
(IFC, 2013).
3.1 Transport constraints and Urban Poverty
3.1.1 Financial cost
For low-income people in many cities public transport service has a cost effect attached to it. As
such, it is either not affordable or constitutes a substantial financial burden (Barter, 1999). It is
argued that members of poorer households tend to spend a larger percentage of their income on
travel than do members of wealthier households (Alt, 1991; Kwakye, 1997). Estimates vary
greatly on the percentage of household income spent on transport. Some reports suggest 5per
cent to 10 per cent, while others estimate 15 per cent (World Bank 2004); but levels as high as 20
and 30 per cent are also quoted (Wegelin and Borgman, 2006). This clearly constitutes a
substantial drain on already scarce financial assets and has negative implications for socio-
economic equality.
With such a high percentage of incomes being spent on basic urban transportation the poor must
ration their travel. In household budgets, the cost of the breadwinner’s trip to work is prioritized
(Thomson, 1993), which sometimes means that trips made by women, the elderly or the young,
e.g. for schooling or health services, must be sacrificed or rationed (Thomson, 1993). Some poor
40

urban residents will be unable to afford bus fares and intermediate technology is not always
affordable. For example, in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, many residents cannot afford bus fares,
since public transport costs, on average, about four times the monthly minimum wage
(Rwebangira and Nnuma, 2004). In 2001, 14 per cent of households could only afford 20 bus
tickets or fewer per month, and 40 per cent could afford only 53, compared with the average
household which purchased 101 tickets in the same period (Barter 2002).
3.1.2 Time Burden
In many cities, low income groups walk or use non-motorized transport (Narayan, 2000). The
impact of high or unaffordable fares is clearly linked to people’s decision to walk. Long
distances are often covered in walking to the boarding point, either to save paying an extra fare
or because the bus service is scarce.
Walking long distances has a negative impact on human capital, since it induces fatigue, and
uses up both time and energy that could be spent on other tasks. Furthermore, pedestrians in
urban areas, who are mostly the urban poor, are at high risk from traffic accidents and possibly
also from attack due to high insecurity rates in informal settlements. Even long-distance
commuting by motorized transport can cause the poverty cycle to perpetuate itself: long
distances and long travel times, tiredness and boredom combine to reduce productivity (Akinlo,
1998). In Lagos, it is estimated that long waiting times of over 30 minutes for half the
commuters reduces the time available for productive activities, which by implication results in
increasing poverty levels.
41

3.2 Accessibility and Urban Poverty
Urban poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon. According to World Bank (2002), the urban
poor live with many deprivations including limited access to employment opportunities and
income, inadequate and insecure housing and services, violent and unhealthy environments, few
social protection mechanisms and limited access to health and education services.
The most visible indicator of poverty in many cities, especially in the developing world, is the
presence of slums and squatter communities (World Bank, 2009). As cities expand spatially,
poor people are compelled to live in inner-city slums or on the urban periphery. The spatial
configuration of urban areas often shows concentrations of the urban poor in inner-city areas
where old and dilapidated housing can be rented cheaply, or on the urban periphery as a result of
government resettlement programs or spontaneous settlements set up by squatters forced out of
or evicted from inner-city locations. In both inner-city and peripheral areas, the urban poor tend
to have inadequate access to urban infrastructure and services (Faiz, 2011).
In general, urban poverty manifests itself through the spatial segregation of the poorest areas
characterized by inadequate public services and deficient infrastructure, where the provision of
mass transportation is inappropriate in terms of price as well as availability (Gomide, 2008).
These limitations constrain income and employment opportunities for the urban poor because of
lack of mobility and access. The urban poor are forced to restrict their travel to essential trips
related to work, education, and essential services.
(Gomide, 2008) defines accessibility as an individual’s ability to reach desired goods, services,
activities, and destinations. The term is closely linked to mobility which is the ability of an
individual to move about and reflects the availability of clean, safe, and affordable transportation
42

(Litman, 2003). According to (Litman, 2003), accessibility is the ultimate aim of mobility;
however, more mobility does not equal greater accessibility. For this reason it is important to
recognize the association between mobility and accessibility. Lack of access to affordable
motorized transportation limits mobility, especially in big cities, and this lack of mobility
constrains access to employment and education opportunities. Travel by the poorest segments of
the urban population is often confined to walking or at most bicycling, as the weather and
topography permit.
3.3 Characteristics of urban travel demands
Rapid urbanization means that not only are more people than ever before living and working in
cities, but also that more people and more goods are making more trips in urban areas, often over
longer distances (World Resources, 2006). (Fouracre,1999) notes that the main factors likely to
influence travel demand are the city structure, the socio-economic characteristics of the
community, and transport facilities and services available to the traveler.
The dispersed patterns of many cities contribute to social inequalities; chiefly through limited
access to jobs by the urban poor as well as proportionately higher transport costs and time spend
travelling (Pendakur, 2005). In cities with large segments of low-income groups in squatter
settlements at the periphery of the urban area, forms of isolation and inaccessibility exist because
opportunities for employment, advanced education, recreation, and shopping are often located in
wealthier areas in the city centre which remain inaccessible to the urban poor.
43

CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA
4.0 Introduction
This chapter covers the study area, data types and collections methods adopted in the research.
The sampling frame, data analysis and interpretation techniques employed are also covered in the
chapter.
4.1 Location of Study/ Study area
The research is based on a case study introducing sustainable transport infrastructure investment
as a poverty reduction strategy within the informal, slum settlement of Kibera in Nairobi.
Kibera is a division of Nairobi Area, Kenya, and neighbours the city of Nairobi, 5 kilometers
(3.1 mi) from the city centre (International Medical Corps, 2006). Kibera is the largest slum in
Nairobi, and the largest urban slum in Africa (Un-Habitat, 2013). Kibera covers an area of 256
and is home to approximately 800000 people, (Kaiganaine, 2009). Much of its southern border is
bounded by the Nairobi River and the Nairobi Dam, an artificial lake that provides drinking
water to the residents of the city. The area is divided into 14 villages, including Kianda, Soweto
East, Gatwekera, Kisumu Ndogo, Lindi, Laini Saba, Siranga, Makina and Mashimoni.
The overcrowded urban area has a population density roughly 30 times that
of Manhattan (People of Kibera, 2010).
Figure 2.4 is a Map of Kenya showing the location Kibera slums in Nairobi County
44

Source: Keyobs, 2009.
3.2 Population
The 2009 Kenya Population and Housing Census reported Kibera's population as 170,070
(Karanja, M, 2010). One of the most debated and difficult to ascertain characteristics of Kibera
is its population. In the 1999 Kenyan national census, Nairobi’s slums (including Kibera and
other smaller slum areas) accounted for 640,000 people, however by 2004, was estimated to have
grown to 810,000 (Gulyani & Talukdar, 2008). Statistics from the last census (KNBS, 2010)
45

Indicate that Kibera has a total population of 634,491, majority of whom are children aged 0‐17
Years (42%) and youth aged 18‐35 years (39%).
The breakdown of ethnic groups inhabiting Kibera and their gender-specific representation is[38]
Luo: 34.9% (male), 35.4% (female); Luhya: 26.5% (male), 32.5% (female); Nubian: 11.6%
(male), 9.1% (female); Kikuyu: 7.9% (male), 6.4% (female); Kamba: 7.5% (male), 10.3%
(female); Kisii: 6.4% (male), 2.2% (female); Other: 5.2% (male), 4.1% (female).
3.3 Education
Most education centres in Kibera are classified as informal, but various initiatives have been
underway to add schools (Njeru, C, 2010). Some start as babycare centres, which later develop
into schools. Most are not regulated by the government. Some of the notable schools are
Olympic Primary School, one of the leading government schools in the country, Kibera Primary
School (also called Old Kibera), Facing the Future School (FaFu), as well as several church-
owned and privately owned schools. Notable Secondary schools include PCEA Silanga High
School, owned by the Presbyterian Church of East Africa, Raila Educational centre, and Olympic
46

secondary School among others. There is the vocational PCEA Emmanuel Technical Training
Centre, offering self-employment skills to the residents.
3.4 Infrastructure
Kibera is heavily polluted by human refuse, garbage, soot, dust, and other wastes. The slum is
contaminated with human and animal feces, due to the open sewage system and the frequent use
of "flying toilets". The lack of sanitation combined with poor nutrition among residents’
accounts for many illnesses and diseases. The Umande Trust, a local NGO, is building
communal toilets that generate methane gas (biogas) for local residents (Shimanyula, J, 2014).
Water and sanitation infrastructure is extremely poor, with open sewers and
contaminated water pipes being the norm. There is no formal system for waste management.
There is virtually no engineered road, pavement and transport infrastructure. Electricity
connection to houses is rare, and what powers connections do exist are often tapped
into illegal connections. Volatile food prices due to drought, floods, famine and political
unrest caused Kibera to be declared in a state of prolonged food crisis in June
2009(Relief Web, 2010).
Figure 2.5 shows the landmarks such as clinics, schools, churches, NGOs and government
offices).
47

Source: Keyobs-IFRA, 2009.
3.5 Land Use
On 16 September 2009 the Kenyan government, which claims ownership of the land on which
Kibera stands, began a long-term movement scheme which will re-house the people who live in
slums in Nairobi (The Standard, 2009).
The clearance of Kibera is expected to take between two and five years to complete. The entire
project is planned to take nine years and will re-house all the slum residents in the city (BBC,
2009). The new communities are planned to include schools, markets, playgrounds and other
48

facilities (The Standard, 2009). The first batch of around 1,500 people to leave the slum were
taken away by truck on 16 September 2009 from 6:30 am local time and were re-housed in 300
newly constructed apartments with a monthly rent of around $10 (BBC, 2009).
49

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.0 Introduction
This chapter covers the study area, data types and collections methods adopted in the research.
The sampling frame, data analysis and interpretation techniques employed are also covered in the
chapter.
4.1 Research Design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted (Mugenda and
Mugenda, 2003). The study will use a survey design to investigate how effective access of
transport could be for the residents in Kibera, to find out the role of stakeholders in the transport
sector, the problems facing transport planning thus resulting to poor access and finally use the
information collected to prepare an integrated plan for successful transport planning to reduce
urban poverty. A survey research could be descriptive, exploratory or involving advanced
statistical analysis.
The researcher used descriptive survey. Descriptive research determines and reports the way
things are and attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour attitudes, values and
characteristics. Schindler and Coopers, (2003) says that descriptive studies are structured with
clearly stated investigative questions. Descriptive studies serve a variety of research objectives
including description of phenomena or characteristics associated with subject population,
estimate of proportion of population that have similar characteristics associated and discovery of
association among different variables.
50

4.2 Sampling Procedure
The study did not cover the entire population in the area, a sample of total population was
undertaken to give the representation of information about the population at a minimum time and
cost. The following sampling methods will be used. Sampling is the process of selecting a
number of individuals or objectives from a population such that the selected group contains
elements representative of the characteristics found in the entire group (Mugenda and Mugenda,
2003).
4.2.1 Stratified Sampling
Stratified random sampling was used. The area was divided into homogenous groups based on
the two characteristics under consideration i.e. people with families and people without families
in order to research on the challenges they face with transport access in the area.
4.2.2 Cluster Sampling
In cluster sampling the objective is to include various groups or quotas of the population, all
items have a chance of selection in the group, it ensures that bias is eliminated or reduces
sampling error (Gitau 2013). This method was used to gather information from the households in
the town. A sample of questionnaires was administered in 8 out of 14 villages in Kibera. Finally
use systematic sampling in each of the zones whereby a sampling interval was determined based
on the number of households in the zones.
4.2.3 Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling represents a group of different non-probability sampling techniques. Also
known as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling, purposive sampling relies on the
51

judgment of the researcher when it comes to selecting the units (e.g., people, cases/organizations,
events, pieces of data) that are to be studied. Usually, the sample being investigated is quite
small, especially when compared with probability sampling techniques. This method was
employed in the identification of the various relevant institutions as follows; KENHA, KENSUP,
Ministry of Devolution and Planning, Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure and KURA.
4.3 Sampling size
According to Mulusa (1990), 10-30% of the accessible population is adequate sample for
descriptive survey. The sample size was determined using the formula as follows:
NCV
2
n=
(CV
2
+ (N-1) e2
)
Where n= Sample size
N= Population
Cv = Coefficient of variation (take 0.5)
e= Tolerance of desired level of confidence, take 0.05% at 95% confidence level
This gives 99.9 respondents as the sample size. The target population included the urban
households in the study area. The number of respondents will be rounded off to the nearest
hundred therefore the researcher will use 100 respondents for the study.
52

4.4 Research Instruments
4.4.1 Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a document containing questions and other items designed to solicit
information appropriate for analysis. The questionnaires will be administered to household heads
and key informants using household, business and institutional questionnaires respectively. A
total of 100 questionnaires were administered.
4.4.2 Interviews
This method was mainly used to gather information from key resource person including
Members of the public, Owners of matatu Saccos and County Director of Transport Services.
4.4.3 Photography
The data was collected using digital cameras; the data included transport infrastructure facilities
(bus terminals and road infrastructure), and the state of roads in the study area.
4.5 Reliability
According to Mugenda and Mugenda, (2003) reliability is a measure of the degree to which a
research instrument yields consistent results or data after repeated trials. Reliability is important
because it enables the researcher to identify the ambiguities and inadequate items in the research
instrument. To improve reliability of the instruments, the researcher will conduct a pilot study in
some families within Kibera, was carried out before the actual study. Reliability is concerned
with consistency, dependability or stability of a test (Nachmias, 1996).
53

4.6 Methods of data analysis and presentation
The data collected from research questionnaires was edited, coded and subjected to description
statistics for calculation of frequencies, means and percentages the results presented in figures,
tables, maps, graphs and charts. Qualitative data; in-depth interviews, questionnaires and
observation was edited and organized descriptively into themes and finally presented in
discussions, narrative forms and citations through transcription ( Gitau 2013).
54

CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION
5.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings from the study. To make easy for all readers to understand, the
findings are presented in figures which are well labeled and are well explained.
5.1 The number of years the respondent has lived in Kibera
From the chart below, 31% of the respondents had lived in Kibera for a period of five years and
below. 28% had lived in the area for a period of six to ten years. 25% of the respondents had
lived in the Kibera slums for more than eleven years but less than fifteen years. In addition, the
remaining 16% had lived in Kibera for over 16 years.
Fig 5.1 The number of years that the respondent has lived in the slums.
5.3 Main mode of transport in Kibera Slums
In this study, respondents were asked to indicate their preferred modes of transport when
carrying on their daily activities. 37% of the respondents indicated that they use boda boda mode
55

of transport, 26% said they also use other means of public transport such as matatus, 16% said
they at times use bicycles for transport while 21% said that they walk. This diagram below
presents these findings.
Fig 5.2 The preferred mode of transport by residents
5.4 The average amount of money used for transport in a month
As indicated in the figure below, about 51% of the residents who responded to a question about
the average amount of money they use for transport in a month said they use more than Ksh. 500.
26% use between Ksh. 350 and Ksh. 500, while 13% use less than Ksh.300.
56

Fig. 5.3 Average amount of money used for transport
5.4 Areas of public transport that require Improvement
When asked about the areas of public transport that required improvement, the residents of
Kibera area had responses that varied from the cost of transport services, easy access to transport
services, road infrastructure, and alternative modes of transport to government support. The
ratings of these responses are presented in the following line graph.
57

Fig 5.4 Areas of public transport that require improvement
5.5 The role of the national government, the county government and NGO in matters of
transport
Respondents were asked to give their opinion and with regard to their understanding of the
different roles played by the national government, the county government and the NGOs in
enhancing better transport services in the area. The following graphs present the responses with
respect to each of the three.
58

Fig 5.5 The role of National Government
Fig 4.6 The role of the County Government
59

5.6 Reducing poverty in Kibera
Residents were asked to state the interventions that they think would help in reducing poverty in
Kibera. Youth empowerment projects programmes were advocated by most of the respondents.
Capacity building through training on how to nature businesses were also highlighted. Giving
affordable loans had a score of 75%, creating jobs for youths scored 80%, giving credit facilities
to all people had a score of 60%, 87% of the respondents said that more youth should be
employed in the ongoing slum upgrading projects by the government, 46% of the respondents
urged that business should be protected, entrepreneurial skills were recommended by 62% of the
respondents, another 39% of responses said that education should be made cheaper, 43% others
recommended that at least 30% of all job opportunities should be given to youth and lastly, 66%
of others said that the UWEZO fund, an initiative by the government should be enhanced and the
process of getting the funding be made faster. This information is presented in the next figure
Fig 5. 8 Ways of reducing poverty
61

5.7 Making complains to relevant authorities
37% of the respondents said that they had complained about the poor transport services while
63% said they have never made any complain. 21% of those who complained said that there
were some changes after their complain but 79% said nothing much was done.
Fig 5.9 Handling of complains by authorities
5.8 How business persons spend their earnings
The business community in Kibera was asked on how they spend their income, given three
option, rent school fees and others which could mean leisure, tithing, charity etc, the responses
were as shown in the figure below.
62

Fig 5.10 How business persons spend their earnings
5.9 Importance of transport system to businesses in Kibera
The residents value the role of transport in their businesses. The responses are as illustrated
Fig 5.11 Importance of transport services to Businesses in Kibera
63

5.10 Improving the transport system
When asked how the transport system should be improved to enhance businesses in Kibera. The
respondents had a range of answers as illustrated below.
Fig 5.12 Ways of improving the transport system in Kibera
As the diagram illustrates, tarmac-king of roads, street lighting, and continuation of the NYS
projects in the slum are the most highly rated ways of improving roads and peoples businesses in
the Kibera slums. Nonetheless, training of boda boda operators and regulating public transport
were among the other issues that were advocated for in bid to enhance efficiency in the transport
system.
64

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