Importance Of Top-Rated Essay Writing Services - A Helpful Tool ForSean Flores
Â
The document discusses the steps to use an essay writing service:
1. Create an account with personal information.
2. Complete a form providing instructions, sources, deadline and sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the paper and authorize payment or request revisions if needed. The service offers refunds for plagiarized work.
Linking Words For Essay Telegraph. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
1. The document provides instructions for how to request and receive writing assistance from the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process for creating an account, submitting a request, reviewing bids from writers, revising the paper if needed, and requesting revisions.
2. The process involves registering with a password and email, completing a request form with instructions and deadlines, choosing a writer based on their profile, paying a deposit to start the work, reviewing and authorizing payment for the completed paper or requesting revisions.
3. HelpWriting.net uses a bidding system where writers submit proposals, and clients can ensure their needs will be fully met with original, high-quality content or receive a refund if plag
Research Paper Outline Template Sample Room SSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for creating a research paper outline on the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until needs are fully met, with a refund option for plagiarized content.
Research Paper On College Athletes Getting Paid. Gold Essay ResearchSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for requesting paper writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account, 2) Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline, 3) Review writer bids and choose one, 4) Review the paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction. It emphasizes original, high-quality content and a refund if work is plagiarized.
Essay On Basketball Basketball Essay For StudeSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for students to get writing help from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Impressive Research Paper With Cover Page ExampleSean Flores
Â
The document provides tips for getting your car ready for spring driving by visiting an auto service center for a tune up. It recommends checking your cooling system, tires, brakes, and changing the oil and filters. The cooling system should be flushed and refilled, tires inspected for tread wear and air pressure, and brakes inspected for pad thickness and fluid flushed according to the owner's manual. This will help ensure your car is road ready for spring travel.
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting a paper writing request on the HelpWriting.net site. It involves a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a form with paper details, sources, and deadline. 3) Review writer bids and qualifications and place a deposit. 4) Review the paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism.
This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Importance Of Top-Rated Essay Writing Services - A Helpful Tool ForSean Flores
Â
The document discusses the steps to use an essay writing service:
1. Create an account with personal information.
2. Complete a form providing instructions, sources, deadline and sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the paper and authorize payment or request revisions if needed. The service offers refunds for plagiarized work.
Linking Words For Essay Telegraph. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
1. The document provides instructions for how to request and receive writing assistance from the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process for creating an account, submitting a request, reviewing bids from writers, revising the paper if needed, and requesting revisions.
2. The process involves registering with a password and email, completing a request form with instructions and deadlines, choosing a writer based on their profile, paying a deposit to start the work, reviewing and authorizing payment for the completed paper or requesting revisions.
3. HelpWriting.net uses a bidding system where writers submit proposals, and clients can ensure their needs will be fully met with original, high-quality content or receive a refund if plag
Research Paper Outline Template Sample Room SSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for creating a research paper outline on the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until needs are fully met, with a refund option for plagiarized content.
Research Paper On College Athletes Getting Paid. Gold Essay ResearchSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for requesting paper writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account, 2) Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline, 3) Review writer bids and choose one, 4) Review the paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction. It emphasizes original, high-quality content and a refund if work is plagiarized.
Essay On Basketball Basketball Essay For StudeSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for students to get writing help from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Impressive Research Paper With Cover Page ExampleSean Flores
Â
The document provides tips for getting your car ready for spring driving by visiting an auto service center for a tune up. It recommends checking your cooling system, tires, brakes, and changing the oil and filters. The cooling system should be flushed and refilled, tires inspected for tread wear and air pressure, and brakes inspected for pad thickness and fluid flushed according to the owner's manual. This will help ensure your car is road ready for spring travel.
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting a paper writing request on the HelpWriting.net site. It involves a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a form with paper details, sources, and deadline. 3) Review writer bids and qualifications and place a deposit. 4) Review the paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism.
This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Funny Story Essay - Latest. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline, and attaching a sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications and reviews. Place a deposit to start the work.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize final payment if satisfied, or request revisions using the free revision policy.
5. Know that requesting assignments through the site provides original, high-quality content or a full refund if plagiarized.
The Truth About Homework Essay. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document discusses how the endocrine system maintains homeostasis in the body. It does so by secreting hormones into the bloodstream which help regulate growth, reproduction, and other bodily functions. The hormones released by the endocrine system's glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, work to keep hormonal levels constant and stable, allowing the body to maintain its natural state of homeostasis.
10 Spelman College Graduate EntrepreneurSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, deadline, and sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism.
College Essay Editing. Essay Writing ServicSean Flores
Â
This document provides instructions for using an essay editing service on the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete an order form with instructions and attach a sample; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content and offers refunds for plagiarized work.
Think Twice Before You Pa. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
Trade protectionism refers to policies that place restrictions on imports or promote exports, usually through the use of tariffs, quotas, and subsidies. While protectionism aims to protect domestic industries from foreign competition, it can lead to less efficient production and higher prices for consumers. There is typically debate around whether the benefits of protecting certain industries outweigh the costs of reduced trade and higher prices.
The document provides instructions for creating free printable Thanksgiving stationery on a website. It outlines a 5 step process for registering for an account, completing an order form to request a paper, reviewing writer bids and selecting one, reviewing the completed paper, and requesting revisions if needed. The document promotes this site as offering original, high-quality content and a refund if plagiarism is found.
The document summarizes the key events of protests in Iran in July 1999 between students and the government. Students protested the closure of a reformist newspaper by the government, leading to clashes between protesters and police. The protests pitted conservative president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei against former presidents who supported reforms and the student movement. Reports later indicated some student leaders were detained or missing after being taken by police.
Writing A Procedure - Studyladder Interactive LeSean Flores
Â
The document discusses similarities between the characters of Hester Prynne from The Scarlet Letter and Mary from the Bible. Both are described as beautiful women. A key difference is that Hester commits adultery while Mary is seen as the virgin mother. The document explores how Hester endures public shaming and criticism despite also showing virtuous qualities like Mary. It suggests the author Hawthorne portrayed Hester as a modern representation of Mary.
Reflective Essay On Presentation And D. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document discusses the popularity and significance of Reese's Peanut Butter Cups in American culture and history. It notes that the combination of peanut butter and chocolate in the cups, which have been produced since 1928, is irresistible to many Americans. The cups contain two iconic American ingredients and are now the number one most popular candy in the U.S. The Reese's company merged with Hershey in 1956 and Hershey continues to introduce new flavors and designs of the cups during holidays.
Hamburger Writing Template For Teachers Perfect For GSean Flores
Â
Giddens' theory of structuration posits that social systems are both the medium and outcome of the practices they recursively organize. Social structures shape human agency while simultaneously being reproduced and transformed by it. There is a duality of structure, as structures both enable and constrain human action. Structure and agency are inextricably linked in a process of structural reproduction. Individuals both draw upon rules and resources from social structures while also reproducing or transforming those structures through their actions and interactions.
How To Write Thematic Statement. How To Write ASean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net writing service in 5 steps:
1. Create an account and provide contact details.
2. Complete an order form with instructions, sources, deadline and sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Financial Need Scholarship Essay Examples ScholarSean Flores
Â
1. The document discusses a linear regression model that was run using an index of attitudes toward income inequality as the independent variable.
2. The index is comprised of responses to three survey questions about income inequality.
3. Controlling for demographic factors, the model examines the relationship between attitudes toward income inequality and other variables.
This document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net website to have essays written. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism. The website uses a bidding system to match clients with qualified writers.
The Astonishing Blank Letter Writing Template Free LeSean Flores
Â
This document discusses strategic challenges faced by Samsung and Eskom, two large companies in different industries. It identifies load shedding as a major challenge for Eskom in the energy sector in South Africa. For Samsung in the technology industry, increased competition from other smartphone manufacturers posed a challenge. The document then analyzes the internal and external factors of each company and how they overcame these challenges, with Eskom focusing on improving power supply and Samsung strengthening its brand and product innovation.
Writing Introductory And Concluding ParagraphsSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting a request for writing assistance on the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a full refund option for plagiarized work.
Lined Paper Image. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
This document discusses Louis Pasteur's invention of pasteurization to prevent wine from spoiling. It explains that Pasteur developed pasteurization in the 1800s to address concerns in the wine industry about wine souring. Pasteurization not only prevents wine spoilage but also foodborne illnesses. The document will analyze the history of pasteurization, its impacts on public health, and controversies around its use to determine if pasteurization should continue being used.
MotherS Help Essay. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for getting writing help from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction and get a refund for plagiarized work. The purpose is to help students get high-quality original content through the writing assistance services on HelpWriting.net.
Definition And Examples Of Academic WritingSean Flores
Â
This document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net service to get academic writing assistance. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a request form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Writing In The Behavioral Sciences What Is A ReactiSean Flores
Â
The document discusses Rod Serling's television show The Twilight Zone and how it reflected the anxieties of the Cold War era in the United States. It touched on issues like the threat of nuclear war and McCarthyism. One episode in particular, "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street", shows the paranoia that took hold in communities during this time period when unusual events occurred. The story depicts how neighbors quickly turn against each other out of fear and suspicion.
The document provides instructions for requesting and completing an assignment writing request through the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism. The document promises original, high-quality content through this process.
Funny Story Essay - Latest. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline, and attaching a sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications and reviews. Place a deposit to start the work.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize final payment if satisfied, or request revisions using the free revision policy.
5. Know that requesting assignments through the site provides original, high-quality content or a full refund if plagiarized.
The Truth About Homework Essay. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document discusses how the endocrine system maintains homeostasis in the body. It does so by secreting hormones into the bloodstream which help regulate growth, reproduction, and other bodily functions. The hormones released by the endocrine system's glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, work to keep hormonal levels constant and stable, allowing the body to maintain its natural state of homeostasis.
10 Spelman College Graduate EntrepreneurSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, deadline, and sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism.
College Essay Editing. Essay Writing ServicSean Flores
Â
This document provides instructions for using an essay editing service on the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete an order form with instructions and attach a sample; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content and offers refunds for plagiarized work.
Think Twice Before You Pa. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
Trade protectionism refers to policies that place restrictions on imports or promote exports, usually through the use of tariffs, quotas, and subsidies. While protectionism aims to protect domestic industries from foreign competition, it can lead to less efficient production and higher prices for consumers. There is typically debate around whether the benefits of protecting certain industries outweigh the costs of reduced trade and higher prices.
The document provides instructions for creating free printable Thanksgiving stationery on a website. It outlines a 5 step process for registering for an account, completing an order form to request a paper, reviewing writer bids and selecting one, reviewing the completed paper, and requesting revisions if needed. The document promotes this site as offering original, high-quality content and a refund if plagiarism is found.
The document summarizes the key events of protests in Iran in July 1999 between students and the government. Students protested the closure of a reformist newspaper by the government, leading to clashes between protesters and police. The protests pitted conservative president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei against former presidents who supported reforms and the student movement. Reports later indicated some student leaders were detained or missing after being taken by police.
Writing A Procedure - Studyladder Interactive LeSean Flores
Â
The document discusses similarities between the characters of Hester Prynne from The Scarlet Letter and Mary from the Bible. Both are described as beautiful women. A key difference is that Hester commits adultery while Mary is seen as the virgin mother. The document explores how Hester endures public shaming and criticism despite also showing virtuous qualities like Mary. It suggests the author Hawthorne portrayed Hester as a modern representation of Mary.
Reflective Essay On Presentation And D. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document discusses the popularity and significance of Reese's Peanut Butter Cups in American culture and history. It notes that the combination of peanut butter and chocolate in the cups, which have been produced since 1928, is irresistible to many Americans. The cups contain two iconic American ingredients and are now the number one most popular candy in the U.S. The Reese's company merged with Hershey in 1956 and Hershey continues to introduce new flavors and designs of the cups during holidays.
Hamburger Writing Template For Teachers Perfect For GSean Flores
Â
Giddens' theory of structuration posits that social systems are both the medium and outcome of the practices they recursively organize. Social structures shape human agency while simultaneously being reproduced and transformed by it. There is a duality of structure, as structures both enable and constrain human action. Structure and agency are inextricably linked in a process of structural reproduction. Individuals both draw upon rules and resources from social structures while also reproducing or transforming those structures through their actions and interactions.
How To Write Thematic Statement. How To Write ASean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net writing service in 5 steps:
1. Create an account and provide contact details.
2. Complete an order form with instructions, sources, deadline and sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Financial Need Scholarship Essay Examples ScholarSean Flores
Â
1. The document discusses a linear regression model that was run using an index of attitudes toward income inequality as the independent variable.
2. The index is comprised of responses to three survey questions about income inequality.
3. Controlling for demographic factors, the model examines the relationship between attitudes toward income inequality and other variables.
This document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net website to have essays written. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism. The website uses a bidding system to match clients with qualified writers.
The Astonishing Blank Letter Writing Template Free LeSean Flores
Â
This document discusses strategic challenges faced by Samsung and Eskom, two large companies in different industries. It identifies load shedding as a major challenge for Eskom in the energy sector in South Africa. For Samsung in the technology industry, increased competition from other smartphone manufacturers posed a challenge. The document then analyzes the internal and external factors of each company and how they overcame these challenges, with Eskom focusing on improving power supply and Samsung strengthening its brand and product innovation.
Writing Introductory And Concluding ParagraphsSean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting a request for writing assistance on the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a full refund option for plagiarized work.
Lined Paper Image. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
This document discusses Louis Pasteur's invention of pasteurization to prevent wine from spoiling. It explains that Pasteur developed pasteurization in the 1800s to address concerns in the wine industry about wine souring. Pasteurization not only prevents wine spoilage but also foodborne illnesses. The document will analyze the history of pasteurization, its impacts on public health, and controversies around its use to determine if pasteurization should continue being used.
MotherS Help Essay. Online assignment writing service.Sean Flores
Â
The document provides instructions for getting writing help from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction and get a refund for plagiarized work. The purpose is to help students get high-quality original content through the writing assistance services on HelpWriting.net.
Definition And Examples Of Academic WritingSean Flores
Â
This document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net service to get academic writing assistance. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a request form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
Writing In The Behavioral Sciences What Is A ReactiSean Flores
Â
The document discusses Rod Serling's television show The Twilight Zone and how it reflected the anxieties of the Cold War era in the United States. It touched on issues like the threat of nuclear war and McCarthyism. One episode in particular, "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street", shows the paranoia that took hold in communities during this time period when unusual events occurred. The story depicts how neighbors quickly turn against each other out of fear and suspicion.
The document provides instructions for requesting and completing an assignment writing request through the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism. The document promises original, high-quality content through this process.
1. Appendix A - Supplement to Chapter 2
Palaeogeographic map of the Limes-zone along the western Lower Rhine, the
Netherlands. Scale 1 : 50,000, A0-format.
This map is part of the manuscript: Van Dinter, M., 2013. The Roman Limes in the Netherlands: how
a delta landscape determined the location of the military structures. Netherlands Journal of
Geosciences – Geologie en Mijnbouw 92-1, 11-32.
(https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/netherlands-journal-of-geosciences/article/the-roman-
limes-in-the-netherlands-how-a-delta-landscape-determined-the-location-of-the-military-
structures/7731E612F9341D39D5587763CAEDE641)
This Appendix is available through
https://figshare.com/authors/Marieke_Van_Dinter/4174441, choose Appendix A
or directly
https://figshare.com/articles/Appendix_A_Palaeogeographical_map_of_western_Lower_Rhin
e_The_Netherlands_Van_Dinter_2017_/5151166
or https://www.academia.edu/5169100/Van_Dinter_2013_NJG_92-
1_Appendix_1_Limes_map_A0
Map layers are digitally available at at DANS EASY:
http://www.persistent-identifier.nl/?identifier=urn:nbn:nl:ui:13-08qf-sf or
https://easy.dans.knaw.nl/ui/datasets/id/easy-dataset:61652
2.
3. Appendix B
Appendix B
Appendix B
Appendix B
Supplement to Chapter 2
This is part of the manuscript:: Van Dinter, M., 2013. The Roman Limes in the Netherlands: how a
delta landscape determined the location of the military structures. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences
– Geologie en Mijnbouw 92-1, 11-32.
All sources used for the construction of the palaeogeographical map and the
archaeological sites of Appendix A.
The catalogue is subdivided in the following topics:
I. Maps
II. Roman river
III. Castella
IV. Small military sites
V. Canals
VI. Settlements (Rural settlements and vici)
Some references contain information on several of the topics these references and therefore
referenced in several topics. For comprehensive list of excavations and surveys of the Roman road
see Luksen-IJtsma (2010).
4. I Maps
I Maps
I Maps
I Maps
Soil maps of the Netherlands, scale 1:50,000 (Alterra):
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1965. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 25 (Oost-Amsterdam).
Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1969. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 31 West (Utrecht).
Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1972. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 37 Oost (Rotterdam).
Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1976. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 31 Oost (Utrecht).
Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1981. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 38 Oost (Gorinchem).
Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1982. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 30 West en 30 Oost (’s-
Gravenhage). Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1983. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 37 West (Rotterdam).
Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1984. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 38 West (Gorinchem).
Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1987. Bodemkaart van Nederland, blad 19 Oost. Alkmaar / 20 West
Enkhuizen. Wageningen.
Geomorphological maps of the Netherlands, scale 1:50,000 (Alterra):
Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 1975. Geomorfologische kaart van Nederland, blad 31 Oost en West
(Utrecht). Wageningen.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering en Rijks Geologische Dienst, 1993. Geomorfologische kaart van
Nederland, blad 24 -25 (Zandvoort - Amsterdam). Wageningen.
Geological maps of the Netherlands, scale 1:50,000 (TNO-B&O – Geological Survey of the
Netherlands):
Anonymus, 1998. Geologische kaart van Nederland, blad Rotterdam Oost (37O. Nederlands Instituut
voor Toegepaste Geowetenschappen TNO, Delft/Haarlem.
Bosch, J.H.A. & Kok, H., 1994. Geologische Kaart van Nederland 1:50,000. Blad Gorinchem (Gorkum)
West (38W). Rijks Geologische Dienst, Haarlem.
Van de Meene, E.A., Van Meerkerk M. & Van der Staay, J., 1988. Geologische kaart van Nederland
1:50,000. Blad Utrecht Oost (31O). Rijks Geologische Dienst, Haarlem.
Van Staalduinen, C.J., 1979. Geologische kaart van Nederland 1:50,000. Blad Rotterdam West (37W).
Rijks Geologische Dienst, Haarlem.
Verbraeck, A., 1970. Geologische kaart van Nederland 1:50,000. Blad Gorinchem (Gorkum) Oost
(38O). Rijks Geologische Dienst, Haarlem.
5. Van der Valk, B., 1995. Geologische kaart van Nederland 1:50,000, toelichting blad Den Haag (30
O/W). Unpublished report Rijks Geologische Dienst, Haarlem; map digitally available on request at
TNO-Geologische Dienst Nederland, Utrecht.
Historical topographic maps, scale 1:25 000:
Bonnekaarten, 1873. Chromo-topografische kaart van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, blad 364 – 368,
382 – 387, 401 – 406, 421 – 426, 439 – 445, 460 – 462.
Other maps:
Berendsen, H.J.A., 1982. De genese van het landschap in het zuiden van de provincie Utrecht, een
fysisch-geografische studie. Ph.D. diss. with map appendices, Univeristy of Utrecht / Netherlands
Geographical Studies 25.
Boekelo, M. & V.W. De Graaf, 1995. De Mare. Wat is het nou precies? Internal rapport, Boratorium
Physical Geography, Univ. of Utrecht.
Bos, I.J., H. Feike, F.P.M. Bunnik & J. Schokker, 2009. Influence of organics and clastic lake fills on
distributary channels in the distal Rhine-Meuse delta (the Netherlands). Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 284: 355-374.
Dekkers, J.M.J., 1975. Sportveldencomplex Zwammerdam: bodemgesteldheid en advies voor de
aanleg. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1217, Wageningen.
Dekkers, J.M.J., 1976. Volkstuinencomplex "Ridderbuurt" (gem. Alphen a/d Rijn): bodemgesteldheid
en advies voor de aanleg. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1307, Wageningen.
Dekkers, J.M.J., 1987a. De bodemgesteldheid van het terrein "Aaroever" te Alphen a/d Rijn: met een
advies voor de aanleg van een gezinscamping. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 2001,
Wageningen.
Dekkers, J.M.J., 1987b. De bodemgesteldheid van het terrein "Zegersloot 2" te Alphen a/d Rijn: met
een advies voor de aanleg van een golfbaan. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 2006,
Wageningen.
De Jager, D. & Milot, C., 2006. De amateurs verenigd, Veldverkenning 1987. In: W. de Jonge, J.
Bazelmans & D. de Jager. D. (Eds.) Forum Hadriani; van Romeinse stad tot monument. Utrecht, 261.
De Vries, W.J. & Van Zijverden, W.K., 1991. Kartering van een restgeul bij het fort te Vechten. Internal
rapport, Boratorium Physical Geography, University of Utrecht.
Feiken, H., 2005. De ontstaangescheidenis van het Vechtgebied met nadruk op het Vecht-Angstel
systeem. Internal rapport, Boratorium Physical Geography, Univ. of Utrecht.
Jansen, B. & J.W. De Kort, 2004. Toelichting limes-kaart Utrecht, provincie Utrecht. RAAP-rapport
1054, Amsterdam.
Kleijer, H., 1975. Sportveldencomplex "de Bijlen" (gem. Alphen aan den Rijn): de bodemgesteldheid
en het advies voor de aanleg. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1251, Wageningen.
Kleijer, H., 1975. Sportveldencomplex Zwammerdam II: bodemgesteldheid en advies voor de aanleg.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1235, Wageningen.
6. Kleijer, H., 1976. Woonwagencentrum Alphen aan den Rijn: de bodemgesteldheid. Stichting voor
Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1316, Wageningen.
Kleijer, H., 1977. Boomkwekerijperceel Alphen a/d Rijn: bodemgesteldheid en bodemgeschiktheid.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1336, Wageningen.
Kleijer, H., 1978. Recreatiegebied Zegersloot - fase 3 (Gem. Alphen a/d Rijn): bodemgesteldheid en
bodemgeschiktheid. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1412, Wageningen:
Kleijer, H., 1980a. Bodemkundig onderzoek aan het plantsoen te Woerden. Stichting voor
Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1553, Wageningen.
Kleijer, H., 1980b. Sportveldencomplex "De Bijlen" IV, gem. Alphen a/d Rijn : bodemgesteldheid en
advies voor de aanleg van voetbalvelden. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1521,
Wageningen.
Kleijer, H., 1980c. Sportveldencomplex "Nieuwe Sloot", gem. Alphen a/d Rijn bodemgesteldheid en
advies voor de aanleg van een ijsbaan en tennisbanen (Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr.
1522, Wageningen).
Kleijer, H., 1980d. Sportveldencomplex "Zegersloot", gem. Alphen a/d Rijn: bodemgesteldheid en
advies voor de aanleg van honkbalvelden. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1523,
Wageningen.
Kleijer, H. & H.J.M. Zegers, 1974. Oostelijke groenzone zandwinplaats Alphen aan den Rijn:
bodemgesteldheid en bodemgeschiktheid.Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 1163,
Wageningen.
Kok, R.S., 1999. Archeologische inventarisatie stadshart, gemeente Alphen aan den Rijn. Gemeente
Alphen aan den Rijn, Alphen aan den Rijn.
Kok, R.S., 2001. Archeologische inventarisatie gemeente Alphen aan den Rijn. Afdeling Ruimtelijke
Ordening en Volkshuisvesting Gemeente Alphen aan den Rijn, Alphen aan den Rijn.
Pleijter, G. & H.J.M. Zegers, 1969. De bodemgesteldheid van de gronden in het structuurplan
Woerden. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 831, Wageningen.
Pleijter, G. & H.J.M.Zegers, 1971. Aanvullend bodemkundig onderzoek in het uitbreidingsplan
Molenvliet (gem. Woerden). Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport nr. 974, Wageningen.
Pons, L.J., 1992. Holocene peat formation in the lower parts of The Netherlands. In: Verhoeven J.T.A.
(Ed.): Fens and Bogs in the Netherlands: vegetation, history, nutrient dynamics and conservation.
Geobotany 18: 7-79.
Schutte, I.A. & Jansen, B., 2007. Gemeente Katwijk: een archeologische verwachtings- en
beleidsadvieskaart. RAAP-rapport 1340, Amsterdam.
Van der Meer, K., 1952. Bodemkaart van Bloembollenstreek, Zuid-Hollands gedeelte. Ph.D. Diss.,
Univ. of Wageningen / Verslagen Landbouwkundige Onderzoekingen 58-2, Stichting voor
Bodemkartering, Wageningen.
Van Heeringen, R.M., 1984. Bewoning uit de Midden en Late IJzertijd en de Romeinse tijd in de
Stevenshofjespolder in Leiden. Bodemonderzoek in Leiden 6: 152-167.
Van Liere, W.J, 1949. De bodemgesteldheid van enige percelen onder de gemeente Alkemade.
Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport, Wageningen.
7. Van Wallenburg, C., 1966. De bodem van Zuid-Holland. Toelichting bij blad 6 van de Bodemkaart van
Nederland schaal 1:200.000. Stichting voor Bodemkartering, Wageningen.
Veenenbos, J.S. & Van der Knaap, W., 1954. Onderzoek naar de bodemgeschiktheid voor de
bloembollencultuur, alsmede enkele bouwtechnische gegevens ten behoeve van het uitbreidingsplan
Wassenaar. Stichting voor Bodemkartering rapport 386, Wageningen.
Vink, T., 1954. De Rivierstreek. Bosch & Keuning, Baarn.
Vos, P.C., E.C. Rieffe & E.E.B. Bult, 2007. Nieuwe geologische kaart van Den Haag en Rijswijk.
Afdeling Archeologie, Dienst Stadsbeheer, gemeente Den Haag; Bureau Monumentenzorg en
Archeologie, Rijswijk.
Wansleeben, M., 1982. Kartering van de stroomruggen in de Utrecht stad. Internal rapport, Boratorium
Physical Geography, Univ. of Utrecht.
Zonneveld, J.I.S., 1948. Opmerkingen naar aanleiding van een luchtfoto-geologisch onderzoek in de
Rijnstreek. Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlands Aardkundig genootschap LXV: 781-791.
II Roman Rhine
II Roman Rhine
II Roman Rhine
II Roman Rhine
Aarts, A.C. (Ed.), 2012. Scherven, schepen en schoeiingen; archeologisch onderzoek in een fossiele
rivierbedding bij het castellum van De Meern. Basisrapportage archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 43,
Utrecht.
Berendsen, H.J.A. & S.Wynia., 1993. Oude rivierlopen rond het Fort te Vechten. Rijn en Lek 27-3: 17-
23.
Bettink, J.G.H.D. & A. Wassink,,1975. Romeinse resten op de Anna’’s hoeve te Zwammerdam.
Westerheem XXIV: 255-268.
Blom, E., 2005. Woerden Barwoutswaarder. ADC-rapport 318, Bunschoten.
Blom, E. & W.K. Vos (Eds.), 2008. Woerden-Hoochwoert. De opgravingen 2002-2004 in het Romeinse
Castellum Laurium, de vicus en van het schip de ‘Woerden 7’. ADC Monog. 2, Amersfoort.
Bogaers, J.E. & J.K. Haalebos, 1983. Op zoek naar een castellum in Woerden. Spiegel Historiael 18-
6: 302-309.
Bult, E.J. & D.P. Hallewas, 1986. De opgravingscampagne op het Marktveld te Valkenburg (Z.H.). in
1987 en 1988. In: Bult E.J. & Hallewas D.P. (Eds.): Graven bij Valkenburg III, het archeologische
onderzoek in 1987 en 1988. Eburon, Delft: 1-36.
De Weerd, M.D. & J.K. Haalebos, 1973. Schepen voor het opscheppen. Het scheepsarcheologisch
onderzoek te Zwammerdam: inheemse en Romeinse vaartuigen in het haventerrein van het castellum
Nigrum Pullum. Spiegel Historiael 7/8: 386-397.
De Kort, J.W., 2006. Plangebied Groepenburg, polder Breeveld. Gemeente Woerden; opgraving met
beperkte vraagstelling. RAAP-rapport 1386, Amsterdam: 23 pp.
De Vries, W.J. & Van Zijverden, W.K., 1991. Kartering van een restgeul bij het fort te Vechten. Internal
rapport, Boratorium Physical Geography, Univ. of Utrecht: 27 pp.
Graafstal, E.P., 2002. Logistiek, communicatie en watermanagement. Westerheem 51: 2-27.
8. Haalebos, J.K., 1977. Zwammerdam Nigrum Pullum; ein Auxiliarkastell am Niedergermanische Limes.
Cingula 3, Amsterdam: 319 pp.
Haalebos, J.K., 1998. Woerden-Laurium; een inventarisatie van de opgravingen in het centrum van de
stad. Unpublished Katholieke Univ. Nijmegen: 44 pp.
Hessing, W.A.M., Polak, M., Vos. W.K. & Wynia S.L. (Eds.), 1997. Romeinen langs de snelweg:
Bouwstenen voor Vechtens verleden. Abcoude/Amersfoort: 87 pp.
Hallewas D.P. &R.M. van Dierendonck, 1993. The Valkenburg-Marktveld and Valkenburg-the Woerd
Excavations, 1985-1988: a Preliminary Report. In: Van Dierendonck, R.M., Hallewas D.P. & Waugh
K.E. (Eds.): The Valkenburg Project I: Introduction and Detail Studies. Nederlandse Oudheden 15,
Amersfoort: 11-46.
Hissel, M., 2008. Restanten van een Romeinse limesweg. Archeologisch onderzoek naar sporen van
een Romeinse limesweg en nederzettingsporen bij de toekomstige overslagterminal in Alphen aan
den Rijn (Zuid-Holland). AAC-rapport 38, Amsterdam: 69 pp.
Jansen, B., 2000. Rijksweg A2. Leidsche Rijn (km 56.6 tot 59.7). Een Aanvullende Archeologische
Inventarisatie. RAAP-rapport 604, Amsterdam: 23 pp.
Jansen, B., 2001. Rijksweg A2. Leidsche Rijn (km 59.7 tot 62.5). Een Aanvullende Archeologische
Inventarisatie. RAAP-rapport 668, Amsterdam: 35 pp.
Jansen, B., I. Briels & A.J. Tol, forthcoming. Castellum-terrein Fectio, gemeente Bunnik: een
archeologisch onderzoek i.k.v. de publieksopenstelling. RAAP-rapport 1778, Amsterdam.
Jansma, E. & J.-M.A.W. Morel (Eds.), 2007. Een Romeinse Rijnaak, gevonden in Utrecht-De Meern.
Resultaten van het onderzoek naar de platbodem ‘De Meern 1’. Rapportage Archeologische
Monumentenzorg 144, Amersfoort: 144 pp.
Kruidhof, C.N., 2008. Centrumplan Hazerswoude-Rijndijk, gemeente Rijnwoude; archeologisch
vooronderzoek: een bureau- en inventariserend veldonderzoek. RAAP-rapport 1761, Amsterdam: 89
pp.
Langeveld, M.C.M. & A. Luksen-IJtsma, 2010. Wegens Wateroverlast. LR39 De Balije II:
rivierdynamiek, wachttorens en infrastructuur in de romeinse tijd in een rivierbocht . Basisrapportage
Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 11, Utrecht: 266 pp.
Lesparre-de Waal, M.S. & J.W. de Kort, 2006. Plangebied Parkeerterrein Willemstraat, gemeente
Bodegraven; archeologisch vooronderzoek: een inventariserend veldonderzoek door middel van
proefsleuven . RAAP-raaport 1269, Amsterdam: 49 pp.
Luksen-IJtsma, A., 2010. Klokken gieten naast de kerk. Opgravingen op het Pieterskerkhof in Utrecht .
Basisrapportage Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 50, Utrecht: 114 pp.
Müller, M., 2002. Plangebied Barwoudswaarder-West, gemeente Woerden; een inventariserend
archeologisch onderzoek . RAAP-notitie 105, Amsterdam: 16 pp.
Nokkert, M., Aarts A.C. & Wynia, H.L., 2009. Vroegmiddeleeuwse bewoning langs de A2 (LR51-54);
Een nederzetting uit de zevende en achtste eeuw in Leidsche Rijn. Basisrapportage archeologie
Gemeente Utrecht 26, Utrecht: 475 pp.
9. Olthof, D.M. & Brienen-Moolenaar, W.P., 2004. Verkennend archeologische onderzoek op de locatie
Zonneveld te Hazerwoude-Rijndijk. ArcheoMedia rapport A04-434-Z, Nieuwerkerk aan den IJssel: 25
pp.
Ozinga, L.R.P, Hoekstra, T.J., De Weerd, M.D. & Wynia, S.L., 1989. Het Romeinse castellum te
Utrecht: de opgravingen uit 1936,1938, 1943/44 en 1949 uitgevoerd onder leiding van A.E. Giffen met
medewerking van H.Brunsting, aangevuld met latere waarnemingen. Broese Kemink, Utrecht: 191 pp.
Ploegaert, P.H.J.I., 2006. Zwammerdam ‘De Hooge Burch’ en ‘De Bruggen; Aanvullend Archeologisch
Onderzoek en Archeologische Begeleiding. ADC rapport 540, Amersfoort: 47 pp.
Polak, M. & Wynia, S. L., 1991. The Roman forts at Vechten, a survey of the excavations 1829 – 1989.
Oudheidkundige mededelingen uit het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden 71, Leiden: 125-156.
Polak, M., Kloosterman, R.P.J. & Niemeijer, R.A.J. (Eds.), 2004. Alphen aan den Rijn – Albaniana
2001-2002, Opgravingen tussen de Castellumstraat, het Omloopkanaal en de Oude Rijn. Libelli
Noviomagenses 7, Nijmegen: 327 pp.
Schiltmans, D.E.A., 2005. Plangebied Sportcomplex Boshuizerkade, gemeente Leiden; archeologisch
vooronderzoek: een bureau- en inventariserend veldonderzoek (verkennende fase). RAAP-rapport
1218, Amsterdam: 23 pp.
Stevens, F., 2004. Plangebied sportvelden Hoge weide, gemeente Utrecht, een inventariserend
archeologisch onderzoek. RAAP-rapport 1041, Amsterdam: 28 pp.
Tol A. & Jansen, B., 2003. Onderzoeksgebied Groepenburg en rotonde, polder Breeveld, gemeente
Woerden; een inventariserend archeologisch onderzoek. RAAP-rapport 894, Amsterdam: 37 pp.
Van den Berg, J.M. & De Kort, J.W., 2005. Plangebied voormalig Van Gend en Loosterrein; een
inventariserend archeologisch onderzoek: proefsleuven. RAAP-rapport 1210, Amsterdam: 37 pp.
Van der Kamp, J., 2004. Twee IJzertijdvindplaatsen langs de snelweg. Basisrapportage archeologie
Gemeente Utrecht 4, Utrecht: 24 pp.
Van der Kamp, J., 2007. Vroege Wacht. LR31 Zandweg: Archeologisch onderzoek van twee eerste
eeuwse houten wachttorens in Leidsche Rijn. Basisrapportage archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 16,
Utrecht: 222 pp.
Van der Kamp, J., 2009. Werk aan de weg; LR31 Zandweg: Archeologisch onderzoek aan de
verspoelde sectie van de limesweg. Basisrapportage archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 21, Utrecht: 150
pp.
Van Dockum, S.G., 1998. Vleuten De Meern, Hoge Woerd. In: Kok, D.H., Van Dockum S.G. &
Vogelzang, F. (Eds.): Archeologische Kroniek Provincie Utrecht 1994-1995. Stichting Publikaties Oud-
Utrecht, Utrecht: 128-131.
Van Grinsven, P.F.A. & Dijkstra, M.F.P., 2005. De vroeg-middeleeuwse nederzetting te Koudekerk
aan den Rijn: een bijna vergeten opgraving in de Lagewaardse Polder. AWN-rapport Afdeling
Rijnstreek, Leiden: 162 pp.
Van Tent, W.J., 1975. Excavations along the limes. BerROB 23: 123-134.
Van Tent, W.J., 1996. Archeologische kroniek van de provincie Utrecht over de jaren 1970-1979.
Stichting Publikaties Oud-Utrecht, Utrecht: 13-16.
10. Van Tent, W.J., 1996. Woerden, Oranjestraat. In: Kok, D.H., Van Dockum, S.G. & Vogelzang F.
(Eds.): Archeologische Kroniek Provincie Utrecht 1988-1989. Stichting Publikaties Oud-Utrecht,
Utrecht: 74-75.
Vos, W.K. & Blom, E., 2003. Archeologisch onderzoek naar de Romeinse vindplaatsen De Balije en
Context Schip in de gemeente Utrecht. ADC-rapport 171, Bunschoten: 119 pp.
Vos, P.C., Borsboom, A. & Bunnik, F., 2002. Aanvullende archeologische inventarisatie (AAI)
uitgevoerd in het kader van de verbreding en gedeeltelijke verdieping van het zuidelijke deel van de
rijksweg A4 bij Leiderdorp. TNO-rapport 02-174-B, Utrecht: 20 pp.
Wynia, H.L., 2004. Utrecht-Vleuten/ De Meern, Rijngeul. In: Kok, D., Kok, R. & Vogelzang F. (Eds.):
Archeologische Kroniek van de Provincie Utrecht 2002-2003. Gemeente Utrecht, Utrecht: 213-16.
III Roman forts
III Roman forts
III Roman forts
III Roman forts
For a comprehensive list of excavations and surveys of the castella: Chorus (forthcoming).
Blom, E. &. Vos, W.K. (Eds.), 2008. Woerden-Hoochwoert. De opgravingen 2002-2004 in het
Romeinse Castellum Laurium, de vicus en van het schip de ‘Woerden 7’. ADC Monog. 2, Amersfoort:
462 pp.
Bogaers, J.E. & Haalebos, J.K., 1983. Op zoek naar een castellum in Woerden. Spiegel Historiael 18-
6: 302-309.
Bogaers, J.E. & Haalebos, J.K., 1987. Opgravingen in Alphen aan den Rijn in 1985 en 1986.
Westerheem 32: 296-302.
Brandenburgh, C.R. (Ed.), 2006. Archeologisch onderzoek Roomburg 2003. Bodemonderzoek in
Leiden 17, Leiden: 168 pp.
Brandenburgh, C.R. & Hessing, W.A.M., 2005. Matilo-Rodenburg-Roomburg. De Roomburgerpolder:
van Romeins castellum tot moderne woonwijk. Primavera pers, Dienst Bouwen en Wonen van de
Gemeente Leiden, Leiden: 112 pp.
De Haan, M.J.A,, 2004. Fort Vechten, gemeente Bunnik; Onderzoek in het kader van de Actualisering
van het Monumenten Register (AMR-project) uitgevoerd door RAAP i.s.m. de ROB (RCE). Internal
report, monumentdossier Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed, Amersfoort.
De Jager, D.H., 2000. De Hoge Woerd, gemeente Vleuten-De Meern: Aanvullend boor- en
weerstandsonderzoek bij het Romeinse castellum van De Meern. RAAP-Rapport 531, Amsterdam: 34
pp.
Dijkstra, H. & Ketelaar, F.C.J., 1965. Brittenburg. Raadsels rond een verdwenen ruïne. Fibulareeks 2,
Bussum: 136 pp.
Glasbergen W., 1972. De Romeinse Castella te Valkenburg (ZH): De opgravingen in de dorpsheuvel
in 1962. Cingula 1, Groningen: 157 pp.
Glasbergen, W. & Groenman-van Waateringe, W.,1974. The pre-Flavian garrisons of Valkenburg Z.H.
Cingula 2, Amsterdam: 50 pp.
11. Groenman-van Waateringe, W. & Van Beek, B.L., 1988. De Romeinse Castella te Valkenburg (Z.H.).
Zeventiende opgravingscampagne 1980, werkput VI 1. In: Bloemers, J.H.F. (Ed.): Archeologie en
oecologie tussen Rijn en Vlie. SPP 2, Assen/Maastricht: 1-120.
Haalebos, J.K., 1977. Zwammerdam Nigrum Pullum; ein Auxiliarkastell am Niedergermanische Limes.
Cingula 3, Amsterdam: 319 pp.
Haalebos, J.K., 1998. Woerden-Laurium; een inventarisatie van de opgravingen in het centrum van de
stad. Unpublished Katholieke Univ. Nijmegen: 44 pp.
Haalebos, J.K & Lanzing, J.J., 2000. Aanvullend archeologisch onderzoek aan de Groenendaal te
Woerden. ADC-rapport 25, Bunschoten: 28 pp.
Haalebos, J.K & Vos, W.K., 1999. Aanvullend archeologisch onderzoek in Woerden. Woerden AAO
vindplaats ‘hoek Molenstraat/Kazernestraat. ADC-rapport 5, Bunschoten: 36 pp.
Haalebos, J.K. & Franzen, P.F.J. (Eds.), 2000. Alphen aan den Rijn – Albaniana 1998-1999.
Opgravingen in de Julianastraat, de Castellumstraat, op Het Eiland en onder het St.-Jorisplein,
Nijmegen. Libelli Noviomagenses 6: 200 pp.
Habraken, J. & Van Mousch, R., 2004. Bodegraven, Oude Bodegravense weg / Overtocht;
Inventariserend veldonderzoek door middel van proefsleuven. BAAC-rapport 03.184/04.016, Den
Bosch: 50 pp.
Hallewas, D.P., 1986. Alphen aan den Rijn: Julianastraat. In: Hallewas, D.P. & Woltering, P.J. (Eds.)::
Archeologische kroniek van Holland over 1985. Holland 18: 305-308.
Hazenberg, T., 2000. Leiden-Roomburg 1995-1997: Archeologisch onderzoek naar het Kanaal van
Corbulo en de vicus van het castellum Matilo. Rapportage Archeologische Monumentenzorg 77,
Amersfoort: 60 pp.
De Hingh, A.E. & Vos, W.K., 2005. Romeinen in Valkenburg (ZH), de opgravingsgeschiedenis en het
archeologische onderzoek van Praetorium Agrippinae. Hazenberg Archeologie Leiden, Leiden: 187
pp.
Jongkees, J.H. & Isings, C., 1963. Opgravingen op de Hoge Woerd bij De Meern (1957, 1960).
Archaeologica Traiectina V, Groningen: 100 pp.
Kalee, C.A. & Isings C. (Eds.), 1984. 150 jaar graven naar het Romeins castellum in De Meern.
Historische Vereniging Vleuten, De Meern, Haarzuilens, Utrecht: 26 pp.
Kloosterman, R.J.P., 2011. Lichtegaard 9. Archeologisch onderzoek naar het castellum en het
bisschoppelijk paleis (in Utrecht). Basisrapportage Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 41, Utrecht: 54 pp.
Kok, R.S., 1999. Archeologische inventarisatie stadshart, gemeente Alphen aan den Rijn. Gemeente
Alphen aan den Rijn, Alphen aan den Rijn: 136 pp.
Kloosterman, R.P.J. & Polak, M., 2007. De Romeinse nederzetting Fectio bij Fort Vechten: kartering
van opgravingen en bodemverstoringen. Auxilia 7, Nijmegen: 60 pp.
Oud, S.P., 1995. Brittenburg: hoektorens en muurstukken. Westerheem XLIV: 225-30.
Oude Rengerink, J.A.M., 1994. Archeologisch booronderzoek op vier terreindelen in het plangebied
Roomburg-Matilo te Leiden. RAAP-rapport 92, Amsterdam: 40 pp.
13. Hallewas, D.P. & Van Dierendonck, R.M, 1993. The Valkenburg-Marktveld and Valkenburg-the Woerd
Excavations, 1985-1988: a Preliminary Report. In: Van Dierendonck, R.M., Hallewas, D.P. & Waugh,
K.E. (Eds.): The Valkenburg Project I: Introduction and Detail Studies. Nederlandse Oudheden 15,
Amersfoort: 11-46.
Langeveld, M.C.M. & Luksen-IJtsma, A., 2010. Wegens Wateroverlast. LR39 De Balije II:
rivierdynamiek, wachttorens en infrastructuur in de romeinse tijd in een rivierbocht . Basisrapportage
Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 11, Utrecht: 236 pp.
Van der Kamp, J., 2007. Vroege Wacht. LR31 Zandweg: Archeologisch onderzoek van twee eerste
eeuwse houten wachttorens in Leidsche Rijn. Basisrapportage archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 16,
Utrecht: 222 pp.
Van Dierendonck, R.M., 1997. Valkenburg-Marktveld: military and civilian occupation in the vicinity of
a frontier fort. In: Groenman-van Waateringe, W., Van Beek, B.L., Willems W.J.H. & Wynia S.L. (Eds.):
Roman frontier studies 1995, Proceedings of the XVIth Int. Congress of Roman Frontier Studies.
Oxbow Monograph 91, Oxford: 547-554.
Van Dierendonck, R.M., 2004. Five Postholes and a Ditch: The Valkenburg-Marktveld Timber Watch
and Signal Tower. In: Vermeulen, F., Sas, K. & Dhaeze, W. (Eds.): Archaeology in Confrontation.
Aspects of Roman Military Presence in the Northwest. Studies in honour of prof. Em. Hugo Thoen.
Archaeological Reports Ghent Univ. 2, Gent: 73-102.
Van Dierendonck, R.M., D.P. Hallewas & K.E. Waugh (Eds.), 1993. The Valkenburg Project I:
Introduction and Detail Studies. Nederlandse Oudheden 15, Amersfoort:419 pp.
Kok, R.S., 2001. Archeologische inventarisatie gemeente Alphen aan den Rijn. Afdeling Ruimtelijke
Ordening en Volkshuisvesting Gemeente Alphen aan den Rijn, Alphen aan den Rijn: 170 pp.
Jansen B., 2006. Bestemmingsplangebied De Meern, Gemeente Utrecht. Archeologische
vooronderzoek: een bureau- en inventariserend veldonderzoek. RAAP-rapport 1412, Amsterdam: 34
pp.
Vos, W.K. & Blom, E., 2004. Definitief Archeologisch Onderzoek (DAO) in Alphen aan den Rijn langs
het Goudse Rijpad. ADC-rapport 226, Bunschoten: 73 pp.
Vos, W.K., 2009. Bataafs platteland; het Romeinse nederzettingslandschap in het Nederlandse
Kromme-Rijngebied. Ph.D. Diss, Free Univ. of Amsterdam / Nederlandse Archeologische Rapporten
35, Amersfoort: 362 pp.
Wynia, H.L., 2004. Utrecht-Vleuten / De Meern, Groot Zandveld. In: Kok, D., Kok R. & Vogelzang F.
(Eds.): Archeologische Kroniek van de Provincie Utrecht 2002 – 2003. Provincie Utrecht, Utrecht: 194-
195.
V Roman canals
V Roman canals
V Roman canals
V Roman canals
Brandenburgh, C.R. & Hessing, W.A.M., 2005. Matilo-Rodenburg-Roomburg. De Roomburgerpolder:
van Romeins castellum tot moderne woonwijk. Primavera pers, Dienst Bouwen en Wonen van de
Gemeente Leiden, Leiden: 112 pp.
14. Boekelo, M. & De Graaf, V.W., 1995. De Mare. Wat is het nou precies? Internal rapport, Boratorium
Physical Geography, Univ. of Utrecht: 12 pp.
De Kort, J.W. & Raczynski-Henk, Y., 2008. Plangebied Rietvinklaan 5, Gemeente Leidschendam
Voorburg. Archeologisch onderzoek: een bureau- en inventariserend onderzoek (proefsleuven).
RAAP-rapport 1428, Amsterdam: 58 pp.
Hazenberg, T., 2000. Leiden-Roomburg, 1995 – 1997: archeologisch onderzoek naar het kanaal van
Corbulo en de vicus van het castellum Matilo. Rapportage Archeologische Monumentenzorg 77,
Amersfoort: 60 pp.
Hessing, W.A.M., F. Kleinhuis & M. van Veen, 1991. Leidschendam Rietvinkpolder. Jaarverslag ROB
1990, Amersfoort: 71-72.
Kooistra, L.I., 2005. Plantenresten in de randzone van de vicus bij Matilo (Leiden-Roomburg).
BIAXiaal 250, Zaandam: 15 pp.
Polak, M. & De Groot, T. (Eds.), 2009. Vondsten langs de Limes . Rapportage Archeologische
Monumentenzorg 167, Amersfoort: 106 pp.
Van Asch, T. & Weiss, E., 1964. Veldwerk verslag De Meern. Internal repport, Boratorium Physical
Geography, Univ. of Utrecht.
Van der Klei, J., 1964. Profiel van de gracht van Corbulo bij Leiden. Westerheem XIII: 95-102.
Van Dockum, S.G., 1997. Vleuten De Meern, Meerndijk.. In: Kok, D.H., Ter Brugge, J.P., Van
Dockum, S.G. & Vogelzang, F. (Eds.): Archeologische Kroniek Provincie Utrecht 1992-1993. Stichting
Publikaties Oud-Utrecht, Utrecht: 112-114.
Van Dockum, S.G., 1998.,Vleuten De Meern, De Mare. In: Kok, D.H, Van Dockum, S.G. & Vogelzang
F. (Eds.): Archeologische Kroniek Provincie Utrecht 1994-1995. Stichting Publikaties Oud-Utrecht,
Utrecht: 131.
Van Tent, W.J., 1975. Excavations along the limes. BerROB 23: 123-34.
Vos, P.C. (Eds.), 2007. Geologisch onderzoek bij het waarderend archeologische onderzoek met
betrekking tot de Corbulograchtafzettingen aan de Veursestraatweg 118 te Leidschendam
(opgegraven in mei 2004). TNO-rapport 2007-U-R0199/b, Utrecht: 24 pp.
VI Settlements (Rural settleme
VI Settlements (Rural settleme
VI Settlements (Rural settleme
VI Settlements (Rural settlements and vici)
nts and vici)
nts and vici)
nts and vici)
Aldred, J., Sprey, S. & Wassink, A., 1992. Romeinse bewoningssporen langs de Oude Rijn ten westen
van Alphen. Westerheem XLI: 158-167.
.
.
.
Bakels, C. & Stronkhorst, M., 2004. Wonen in het duin vóórdat er sprake was van Holland’s Duinen.
Hollandsche Duinen 45: 3-9.
Bakker, A., 2000. Aanvullend Archeologisch Onderzoek in de gemeente Vleuten-De Meern (provincie
Utrecht). Vindplaats De Meern-Meentweg. ADC-rapport 29, Bunschoten: 26 pp.
Bakker, A.M. & Van der Kam, R., 2007. Utrecht, Oosterkade/Ledig Erf. In: Kok, D., Kok, R. &
Vogelenzang, F.(Eds.): Archeologische Kroniek f Provincie Utrecht 2004-2005. Gemeente Utrecht,
Utrecht: 94-102.
15. Beunder, P.C., 1986. Castella en havens, kapellen en hoven. Van albania tot Laurum, via
Bode(lo)graven en Zwadenburg: enkele notities over: de oudste geschiedenis, de Romeinse keizertijd,
en de vroege Middeleeuwen in de Rijnstreek rond Alphen a/d Rijn, Zwammerdam, Bodegraven en
Woerden: 30 jaar snuffelen naar het verleden in Midden-Holland. Historische Kring, Bodegraven: 139
pp.
Beunder, P.C., 1980. Tussen Laurium (Woerden) en Nigrum Pullum (Zwammerdam?) lag nog een
castellum. Westerheem XXIX-1: 2-33.
Bloemers, J.F.H., Sarfatie, H., Buisman, A., Van Dijn C. & Greving, K., 1973. Valkenburg, gem.
Valkenburg (Z.-H.) Romeinse nederzetting. Jaarverslag ROB 1972, Amersfoort: 19- 23.
Bloemers, J.H.F. & De Weerd, M., 1983. Het kampdorp van de Brittenburg. Leids Jaarboekje jaargang
75: 245-251.
Bloemers, J.H.F. & De Weerd, M., 1984. Van Brittenburg naar Lugdunum. Opgravingen in de bouwput
van de nieuwe uitwateringssluis in Katwijk, 1982. In: Anes, P.S., Bloemers, J.H.F., Boomgaard,
J.E.A., De Leeuw, W., Sentis-Senden, L. & De Weerd, M.D. (Eds.): De uitwateringssluizen van
Katwijk 1404 – 1984. Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland Leiden, Leiden: 41-51.
Blom, E., 2008. Aan de rand van castellum Laurium. Een archeologische opgraving in de Havenstraat
in Woerden. ADC-Rapport 1386, Amersfoort: 32 pp.
Blom, E. & Roessingh, W., 2007. Aan de rand van het Romeinse Rijk, archeologisch onderzoek in de
Munnikenpolder te Leiderdorp. ADC-rapport 802, Amersfoort: 82 pp.
Blom, E., Lanzing, J.J. & Vos, W.K., 2004. Woerden-Kerklein, deelgebied B en C en het schip de
‘Woerden 7’. ADC-Rapport 254, Amersfoort: 68 pp.
Bogaers, J.E. & Haalebos, J.K., 1987. Opgravingen te Alphen aan den Rijn in 1985 en 1986.
Westerheem XXXVI: 40-52.
Brandenburgh, C.R. (Ed.), 2006. Archeologisch onderzoek Roomburg 2003. Bodemonderzoek in
Leiden 17, Leiden: 168 pp.
Brandenburgh, C.R. & Hessing, W.A.M., 2005. Matilo-Rodenburg-Roomburg. De Roomburgerpolder:
van Romeins castellum tot moderne woonwijk. Primavera pers, Dienst Bouwen en Wonen van de
Gemeente Leiden, Leiden: 112 pp.
Bult, E.J. & Hallewas, D.P. (Eds.), 1986. Graven bij Valkenburg, I. Het archeologisch onderzoek in
1985 Eburon, Delft: 59 pp.
Bult, E.J. & Hallewas, D.P. (Eds.), 1987. Graven bij Valkenburg, II. Het archeologisch onderzoek in
1986. Eburon, Delft: 119 pp.
Bult, E.J. & Hallewas, D.P. (Eds.), 1990. Graven bij Valkenburg, III. Het archeologisch onderzoek in
1987 en 1988, Delft: 209 pp.
De Hingh, A.E. & Vos, W.K., 2005. Romeinen in Valkenburg (ZH), de opgravingsgeschiedenis en het
archeologische onderzoek van Praetorium Agrippinae. Hazenberg Archeologie Leiden, Leiden: 187
pp.
De Weerd, M.D., 1986. Recent excavations near the Brittenburg. A rearrangement of old evidence. In:
C. Unz (Ed.), Studien zu den Militärgrenzen Roms, III. 13. Int. Limeskongreß, Aalen, Vorträge,
16. Stuttgart, 1983 (Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor-und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg, 20)
284-90.
Den Hartog, C.M.W., 2009. Sportpark Terweide 2; LR41-42 Archeologisch onderzoek Sportpark
Terweide . Basisrapportage Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 18, Utrecht: 166 pp.
Den Hartog, C.M.W., 2010. Appelaantje. LR55: Een vroegmiddeleeuwse nederzetting
aan de Wilhelminalaan bij Vleuten . Basisrapportage Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 30, Utrecht: 222
pp.
Den Hartog, C.M.W., forthcoming. Nieuw licht op de Marnixlaan: een archeologisch onderzoek naar
het kartuizerklooster Nieuw Licht. Basisrapportage Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 66, Utrecht.
Dijkstra, M.F.P. & Flamman, J.P., 2002. Inventariserend veldonderzoek in het plangebied ‘De Horn’
gemeente Rijnsburg. Een archeologisch onderzoek in het kader van het Frisia project van de univ.
Amsterdam. AAC-publicatie 9, Amsterdam: 35 pp.
Franzen, P.F.J., J.K. Haalebos & E. van der Linden, 2000. Aanvullend archeologisch onderzoek op
het terrein De Hooge Burch te Zwammerdam . ADC-rappprt 68, Bunschoten: 18 pp.
Goossens, T.A., 2010. Archeologisch onderzoek op het Haagwegterrein tussen de Hoflaan en de
spoorlijn te Leiden. Bodemonderzoek in Leiden 29, Leiden: 57pp.
Haalebos, J.K. & Franzen, P.F.J. (Eds.), 2000. Alphen aan den Rijn – Albaniana 1998-1999.
Opgravingen in de Julianastraat, de Castellumstraat, op Het Eiland en onder het St.-Jorisplein,
Nijmegen. Libelli Noviomagenses 6: 200 pp.
Haarhuis, H.F.A. & Graafstal, E.P., 1993. Vleuten-Harmelen, een archeologische kartering,
inventarisatie en waardering . RAAP-rapport 80, Amsterdam: 124 pp.
Hallewas D.P. & Van Dierendonck, R.M.,1993. ,The Valkenburg-Marktveld and Valkenburg-the Woerd
Excavations, 1985-1988: a Preliminary Report.. In: R.M. van Dierendonck, D.P. Hallewas & K.E.
Waugh (Eds.): The Valkenburg Project I: Introduction and Detail Studies. Nederlandse Oudheden 15,
Amersfoort: 11-46.
Hazenberg, T., 2000. Leiden-Roomburg 1995 – 1997: archeologisch onderzoek naar het kanaal van
Corbulo en de vicus van het castellum Matilo. Rapportage Archeologische Monumentenzorg 77,
Amersfoort: 60 pp.
Hessing, W.A.M., Polak, M., Vos. W.K. & Wynia S.L. (Eds.), 1997. Romeinen langs de snelweg:
Bouwstenen voor Vechtens verleden. Abcoude/Amersfoort: 87 pp.
Hissel, M., 2006. Munnikenpolder: een archeologische begeleiding ter plaatse van de vindplaatsen 3
en 4; kort verslag van de begeleiding van de ontgronding in het plangebied Munnikenpolder
(gemeente Leiderdorp, provincie Zuid-Holland. AAC-notitie 16, Amsterdam: 31pp.
Jansen B., 2006. Bestemmingsplangebied De Meern, Gemeente Utrecht. Archeologische
vooronderzoek: een bureau- en inventariserend veldonderzoek. RAAP-rapport 1412, Amsterdam: 34
pp.
Kloosterman R.P.J. & Polak, M. (Eds.), 2009. Archeologisch onderzoek op de locatie A4/W4 in
Leiden-Roomburg 2005 – 2006. Bodemonderzoek in Leiden 26, Leiden: 75 pp.
Kok, R.S., 1999. Archeologische inventarisatie stadshart, gemeente Alphen aan den Rijn. Gemeente
Alphen aan den Rijn, Alphen aan den Rijn: 136 pp.
19. Van Rooien, C.A.M. & Wynia, H.L., 1998. Zuidelijke binnenstad. In: Kok, D.H., Van Dockum, S.G. &
Vogelzang F. (Eds.): Archeologische Kroniek Provincie Utrecht 1994-1995. Stichting Publikaties Oud-
Utrecht, Utrecht: 103-124.
Van Tent, W.J., 1978. A native settlement at Jutphaas municipality of Nieuwegein. BerROB 28, 199-
239.
Vos, W.K., 2009. Bataafs platteland; het Romeinse nederzettingslandschap in het Nederlandse
Kromme-Rijngebied. Ph.D. Diss, Free Univ. of Amsterdam / Nederlandse Archeologische Rapporten
35, Amersfoort: 362 pp.
Vos, W.K. & Blom, E., 2003. Archeologisch onderzoek naar de Romeinse vindplaatsen De Balije en
Context Schip in de gemeente Utrecht. ADC-rapport 171, Bunschoten: 119 pp.
Vos, W.K. & Blom, E., 2004. Definitief Archeologisch Onderzoek (DAO) in Alphen aan den Rijn langs
het Goudse Rijpad. ADC rapport 226, Bunschoten: 73 pp.
Vos, W.K. & Lanzing, J.J., 2000. De opgravingen in Valkenburg-Veldzicht 1994 – 1997. Rapportage
Archeologische Monumentenzorg 78, Amersfoort: 51 pp.
Vos, W.K., Blom E. & Hazenberg, T., 2010. Romeinen in Woerden. Het archeologische onderzoek
naar de militaire bezetting en de scheepvaart van Laurium. Hazenberg Archeologie, Leiden: 239 pp.
Weterings, P. & Y. Meijer, 2011. Op zoek naar de weg. LR60: onderzoek naar de Romeinse limesweg
in De Meern, Utrecht. Basisrapportage Archeologie Gemeente Utrecht 33, Utrecht: 200 pp.
20. Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Appendix C
Supplement to Chapter 5
This is part of the manuscript: Van Dinter, M., L.I. Kooistra, M.K. Dütting, P. van Rijn (†), and C. Cavallo, 2013.
Could the local population of the Lower Rhine delta supply the Roman army? Part 2: Modelling the carrying
capacity of the delta using archaeological, palaeo-ecological and geomorphological data. Journal of Archaeology
in the Low Countries 5-1, 5-50.
Parameter values and underlying assumptions used in the modelling of the
carrying capacity of the Lower Rhine delta (Chapter 5)
The list of assumptions is subdivided in the following topics:
- Population size
- Military module
- Rural demand and supply
21. Population size
Population size
Population size
Population size
- The areas occupied by the military constructions include 3.5 ha for forts incl. ditches and a
construction-free zone, 0.1 ha for the watchtowers, 10 ha on average for the vici, 2 ha for each of the
two cemeteries per fort and c. 30 m broad zone for the military road. The total area occupied is
relatively small (resp. c. 0.4 and 1.7 km2 in total in Early and Middle Roman Period) and are therefore
not accounted for in our calculations for land use.
- The area that the farm yards occupied in the Rhine-Meuse delta varied between 0,5 to 2 ha (Bakels
& Stronkhorst 2004; Heeren, 2009; Van der Velde 2008; Van Londen 2006; Vos, 2009) and is not
considered in our calculations for land use, because it turned out to be insignificant (less than 1%
resp. 5 % in Early and Middle Roman Period).
Ad 5.3.2.1 Military population
- With minimum estimates of c. 250 soldiers per fort (Glasbergen & Groenman-van Waateringe 1974)
and a maximum of c. 480-500 (one cohort, cohors quingenaria peditata), we assume in our
calculations that 350 soldiers were stationed in each of the small castella downstream of fort Vechten
(best guess). Vechten is counted as a double fort with 700 soldiers.
- The garrisons of the watchtowers are assumed to be derived from the fort garrisons (Van der Kamp
2007).
- The military installations are permanently occupied.
- The size of the army does not change during the research period, AD 40 -140.
- Only fort Vechten had a vicus in the Early Roman Period (AD 40 – 69; Hessing et al. 1997).
- In the Middle Roman Period (AD 70 – 140), all forts had a vicus (Blom & Vos 2008; Brandenburgh &
Hessing 2005; De Hingh & Vos 2005; Hazenberg 2000; Haalebos 1977; Kok 1999; Langeveld
forthcoming; Montforts 1995; Ploegaert 2006; Vos 1997; Vos & Lanzing 2000).
- The number of people living in the vicus was equal to that of the garrison in the adjacent fort
(Sommer 1984; idem 1991), implying 350 vicus-inhabitants per fort downstream of fort Vechten in the
Middle Roman Period. In our calculations the vicus of Vechten contains 700 inhabitants in both the
Early and Roman Period.
22. Ad 5.3.2.2 Rural population
- It is assumed that the number of settlements south of the river Rhine doubled in the Middle Roman
Period compared to their number in the Early Roman Period.
- It is assumed that the number of settlements north of the river Rhine was equal in the Early and
Middle Roman Period.
- To account for eroded and non-discovered settlements, a correction factor of 15% was applied to the
number of reconstructed rural settlements (Vos 2009).
- Excavation data in the research area show that the majority of the settlements comprised one or two
farmsteads in both the Early and Middle Roman Period (Bakels & Stronkhorst 2004; Den Hartog 2009;
Van der Mark 2001; Van der Velde 2008; Van Dockum 1995; Van Grinsven & Dijkstra 2005; Van Tent
1978; Vos 2009; Vos & Blom 2004). Therefore, an average - referred to as settlement-unit - has been
used in the calculations. Large settlements reconstructed in the Kromme Rijn area with a minimum of
3 - 4 farmsteads are counted double (Vos 2009).
- Previous research indicates that one household in prehistoric times consisted of 5 to 8 people
(Bloemers 1978, 55; Willems 1986, 236). Hence, one settlement-unit is inhabited by c. 10 people. In
our calculations, a figure of 9.75 ((5+8) x 1.5)/2) people is used, equally distributed over the different
age categories, i.e. children, young adults (10-14 year), adults and old adults, being c. 2.5 (2.4375 =
9.75/4).
Table C1: Reconstructed rural settlements according to original ARCHIS-data (January 2009).
Early &
Early &
Early &
Early & Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Northern dunes 17 - - 17
Northern levees 16 15 18 49
Southern dunes 7 - - 7
Southern levees 9 18 110 137
Total 210
210
210
210
23. Table C2: Reconstructed rural settlement-units divided over early Roman and Middle Roman Period
according to first two assumptions in section 3.2.2.
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period (AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40 –
–
–
– 69)
69)
69)
69)
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Northern dunes 8.5 - - 8.5
Northern levees 8 7.5 9 24.5
Southern dunes 3.5 - - 3.5
Southern levees 4.5 9 55 68.5
Total 105
105
105
105
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period (AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70 –
–
–
– 140)
140)
140)
140)
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Northern dunes 8.5 - - 8.5
Northern levees 8 7.5 9 24.5
Southern dunes 7 - - 7
Southern levees 9 18 110 137
Total 177
177
177
177
24. Table C3: Reconstructed rural settlement-units divided over early Roman and Middle Roman Period
corrected for eroded and non-discovered settlements (15%).
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period (AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40 –
–
–
– 69)
69)
69)
69)
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Northern dunes 9.775 - - 9.775
Northern levees 9.200 8.625 10.350 28.175
Southern dunes 4.025 - - 4.025
Southern levees 5.175 10.350 63.250 78.775
Total 120.750
120.750
120.750
120.750
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period (AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70 –
–
–
– 140)
140)
140)
140)
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Northern dunes 9.775 - - 9.775
Northern levees 9.200 8.625 10.350 28.175
Southern dunes 8.050 - - 8.050
Southern levees 10.350 20.700 126.500 157.550
Total 203.550
203.550
203.550
203.550
25. Military module
Military module
Military module
Military module
Ad 5.3.3.1. Wood demand
Assumptions for wood demand:
Forts:
- To reconstruct the timber needed to build the forts, a 3D fort-wood model was constructed (by Van
Rijn †). Firstly, a model was established for the earliest fort of Alphen aan den Rijn because the
excavation of this fort provided the most detailed information on lay-out and dimensions of its
structures and timber (Van Enckevort 1987; Van Rijn 2000; idem 2004; Chorus forthcoming).
Missing information on upper structures and roof constructions was provided through
reconstructions (e.g. Davison 1989). The total volume of timber used for this earliest fort Alphen -
phase 1a - is 1,751 m3, varying from 513 m3 for the rampart including gates and towers (1295 m2 x
0.37 m3/m2 + 130 m2 x 0.27 m3/m2), 324 m3 (= (551 + 130 m2) x 0.33 m3/m2) for principia and
praetorium, 408 m3 (1890 m2 x 0.22 m3/m2) for the barracks, 131 m3 (608 m2 x 0.22 m3/m2) for the
fabrica, 43 m3 (138 m2 x 0.31 m3/m2) for the granary and for a structure of unknown function 59 m3
(275 m2 x 0.22 m3/m2). Paving of the open spaces required 273 m3 (40 m2 x 0.08 m3/m2). Based
on the assumption of similar ground plans of the other forts, but with varying perimeters and
division of built-up against open space depending on the fort’s size, the volumes of timber needed
for each of the other forts were calculated. The total volume for one time construction of all forts in
the Early Roman Period came to 27,088 m3, and in the Middle Roman Period to 29,533 m3 (Table
C4 and C5).
26. Table C4: Reconstructed wood consumption for timber (m3) for one time construction of the Roman
forts in the Early and Middle Roman Period (numbering of the various phases after Chorus in prep.); *
ground plan unknown, m3 = average taken from 7 known forts; ** assumed to be as large as Vechten
2, *** ground plan unknown, m3 = average taken from 6 known forts.
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Katwijk* 2229 Katwijk*** 2488
(Valkenburg 1-1a) (2697) (Valkenburg 4, Flavian) (2927)
(Valkenburg 2-3) (2906) (Valkenburg 5, Trajanic/Hadrianic) (2971)
Valkenburg average 2802 Valkenburg average 2949
Roomburg 1910 Roomburg*** 2488
Alphen 1 1751 Alphen, Flavian 2163
Bodegraven 2020 Bodegraven*** 2488
Zwammerdam 1* 2229 Zwammerdam 2, Flavian 2232
Woerden, pre-Flavian 2020 Woerden, Flavian 2020
De Meern 1910 De Meern*** 2488
Utrecht 1,2 2618 Utrecht 3,4, Flavian 2618
Vechten 1** 7599 Vechten 2 7599
Total
Total
Total
Total 27088
27088
27088
27088 Total
Total
Total
Total 29533
29533
29533
29533
Other military complexes:
- Volumes of timber for these structures are calculated with a 3D-model based on the field drawings
and the dimensions of the excavated features.
- Assuming that the river was completely watched over in between the forts, the number of
reconstructed watchtower complexes is estimated at 20 (= resp. 6, 8 and 6 for the three regions).
A watchtower covers c. 20 m2 (Langeveld & Luksen-IJtsma 2010; Van der Kamp 2007; Van
Dierendonck 2004). When 0.37 m2/m3 is used (for similar structures within the forts), c. 7.5 m3 of
wood is assumed to be needed for the one time construction of a watchtower complex.
- The number of granaries outside each fort is estimated at two (Hallewas et al. 1993) and - based
on similar structures within the forts (Glasbergen 1972, fig. 51; Groenman-Van Wateringe 1977,
27. 233; Polak et al. 2004, 97) - 43 m3 of wood was needed to build a granary (for one time
construction).
Vici:
- Hardly anything is known about the size or number of houses in vici in this area. Therefore, these
figures are estimated.
- A vicus house is estimated to cover an average of 180 m2 (8 x 20 - 25 m; Langeveld forthcoming).
- A vicus is assumed to include 60 houses. Using 0.19 m2/m3 for simple structures, the total volume
of timber needed for a one time construction of one vicus is 2,052 m3.
Infrastructural works:
- For paths in the Early and Middle Roman Period, it is assumed that 8500 trunks/km were used
consisting of alder poles with diameter of 0.06 m and a length of 3 m (based on field drawings of
Valkenburg-Marktveld 1986; Hallewas et al. 1993). The total path length of 33 km is equally
divided over the regions (11 km per region), resulting in a total of 2,379 m3 wood for a one time
construction or 793 m3 per region.
- The first archaeologically traceable Roman road connecting the forts only appeared at the end of
the first century AD (Luksen-IJtsma 2010). The track of the road of AD 99/100 mostly consists of a
parallel row of posts on either side of the raised roadbed, mainly oak. It is assumed that 6300
trunks were used for 1 km path consisting of poles with diameter of 0.13 m and a length of 3 m,
resulting in 250.86 m3/km. Reconstruction over a total distance of 66 km (Luksen-IJtsma 2010)
results in 16,557 m3 of wood for a one time construction over 66 km or 5,515 m3 per region (22
km).
- In AD 123/125 the road and river infrastructure was drastically renewed (Luksen-IJtsma 2010).
The road of AD 123/125 shows two different types of wood construction, a lighter and a heavier
one. Although part of the timber (mainly oak) for this road was imported (Visser & Jansma 2009),
local repairs were conducted with alder which was most likely locally retrieved (Luksen-IJtsma
2010, 97). We calculate the total amount of wood needed for a one time construction. Estimates of
the lengths of the two differently constructed segments are based on their position in the palaeo
landscape, and set at 33 km each and equally divided over the regions. The lighter construction is
similar to that of the road from AD 99/100, except that the posts are larger and set closer together.
The heavy construction is a dike-like structure of sods and earth within two parallel rows of posts,
enforced by tie beams and cladding against the inside of the posts, and wooden reinforcement of
the road ditches. In our calculations, 336.8 m3 wood was needed per km for the lighter
construction, resulting in a total of 11,115 m3 wood for one time construction or 3,705 m3 per
region (11 km), and for the heavier construction 419.2 m3 was needed per km, resulting in a total
of 13,834 m3 wood for a one time construction or 4,611 m3 per region (11 km).
28. - Waterfront installations, such as revetments, are estimated at 33 km length per region. In our
calculations, 3,455 poles with a diameter of 0.10 m and 3 m length were used, resulting in 81.41
m3/m2 and 2,687 m3 per region in the Early Roman Period. These figures are also used for the first
30 years of the Middle Roman Period. After AD 99/100, the wood needed is included in the road-
and river infrastructure of AD 99/100 and 123/125 (both lasting 20 years in our calculations).
- In the western region, the Corbulo canal is included, measuring 10 km in length, with revetments
on both sides. Assuming that these revetments were similar to the revetments along the river
Rhine, 81.4 m3/m2 wood was used, resulting in a total of 1,628 m3 wood for a one time
construction.
- Furthermore, quays are added per fort each measuring 1,125 m2. In Valkenburg-Marktveld –
northern gully (nr. 164/165) 15.35 m3 wood was needed for 81 m2 (based on field drawings). For
1,125 m2, an equivalent of 231.26 m3 wood was needed for one time construction (= per fort).
Renovation and repair of all structures:
- Every 10 years the initial amount of timber for first construction of all structures is assumed to
have been used for renovation and repair of all structures, due to the necessity of constant repair
in view of (i) the use of less robust wood taxa (alder, ash and elm), (ii) the archaeologically
attested problems with repeated flooding, (iii) the various adaptations observed in the forts.
Therefore, the initial amounts of all structures in the Early Roman Period is multiplied by a factor 3
resp. 7 in the Middle Roman Period, with the exception of both roads of which the repair has been
calculated over 20 years (AD 99/100 till c. AD 120, and AD 123/125 till AD 140).
Total timber:
- According to our calculations, 135,220 m3 of timber was needed for the military population in the
Early Roman Period and 509,226 m3 in the Middle Roman Period (Table C5).
Firewood:
- The watchtower garrisons are assumed to be derived from the fort garrisons (section 3.2.1; Van
der Kamp 2007). So, their fuel consumption is not calculated separately.
- The calculations of the consumption of firewood are based on a study of pre-modern agrarian
societies relating to Europe’s different climatic zones, and is for this region set at 14.000 kCal per
person a day (Malanima 2009a and b). As mostly alder is (most likely) used for firewood and 1 kg
of alder provides in heat value 7.6 GJ/kg, this amounts to 3,9 kg per person a day. Taking into
account small-scale fuel consuming industries such as workshops for the manufacturing and
29. repair of iron ware for the army, and cremation practices, etc., a daily consumption of 6 kg of
firewood per person for the people in the forts and vici is assumed.
- Alder with a moisture content of 15% has a specific weight of 500kg/m3.
- The presence of bath houses has not been established in our area till c. AD 150 (Vollgraff & Van
Hoorn 1941; Haalebos 1977, 65; Polak et al. 2004, 20), so their fuel consumption has not been
taken into account.
- According to these assumptions, 597,870 m3 firewood was needed for the military population in
the Early Roman Period and 2,360,820 m3 in the Middle Roman Period (Table C5).
Table C5: Reconstructed wood consumption for timber and fuel (m3) of military population per region;
total wood including reparation and repair.
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period (AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40 –
–
–
– 69)
69)
69)
69)
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Forts 6941 8020 12128 27089
Watchtowers 45 60 45 150
Granaries 258 344 344 946
Vici 0 0 4104 4104
Path 793 793 793 2379
Revetments 2687 2687 2687 8061
Quays 640 853 853 2346
Corbulo Canal 1628 0 0 1628
Total timber (for one time construction) 12992 12757 20953 46702
Total timber in 30 years 34090 38270 62860 135220
Firewood forts in 30 years 137970 183960 183960 505890
Firewood vici in 30 years 0 0 91980 91980
Total firewood in 30 years 137970 183960 275940 597870
Total wood in 30 years 172060
172060
172060
172060 222230
222230
222230
222230 338800
338800
338800
338800 733090
733090
733090
733090
30. Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period
Middle Roman Period (AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70 –
–
–
– 140)
140)
140)
140)
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Forts 7925 8903 12705 29533
Watchtowers 45 60 45 150
Granaries 258 344 344 946
Vici 6165 8208 8208 22581
Path 793 793 793 2379
Road AD 99/100 5515 5515 5515 16545
Road AD123/125 light construction 3705 3705 3705 11115
Road AD 123/125 heavy construction 4611 4611 4611 13833
Revetments 2687 2687 2687 8061
Quays 640 853 853 2346
Corbulo Canal 1628 0 0 1628
Total timber (for one time construction) 33963 35678 39466 109107
Total timber in 70 years 157837 162438 188951 509226
Firewood forts in 70 years 321930 429240 429240 1180410
Firewood vici in 70 years 321930 429240 429240 1180410
Total firewood in 70 years 643860 858480 858480 2360820
Total wood in 70 years 801697
801697
801697
801697 1020918
1020918
1020918
1020918 1047431
1047431
1047431
1047431 2870046
2870046
2870046
2870046
Assumptions for wood yields/supply:
- Yields of the Roman woodlands can only be estimated. The estimates are based on certain
components that determine the yields of modern woodlands, such as taxon, age and diameter of
trunks at breast height. The first two components can relatively easily be determined on unearthed
Roman wood remains, whereas the diameter of trunks at breast height can only be estimated.
- The ages of the trees felled in Roman times were provided through dendrochronological research.
- The original diameters of the Roman tree trunks were reconstructed from the dimensions of the
timber and the conversion methods employed (Van Rijn forthcoming). This made it possible to
31. compare the relation between trunk diameter and age in yield tables of modern wood with those
from the Roman remains and to estimate the yields of various types of Roman woodlands.
- The estimated yields of the ‘bog fringing forest’ are deduced from Casparie 1982, 155.
- The total wood volume of the whole tree is 120% of the volume of timber from the tree (Daamen
2010, 5). The surplus comes in the form of branch wood. This wood can be used for fuel, but has
also been used to solidify the wet subsoil. Therefore, the surplus is not taken into account in the
calculations of woodland area used.
- Regeneration of woodlands has been taken into account (regeneration factor = RF). In the Early
Roman Period, the woodland on the high and low levees close to the forts were probably not
allowed to regenerate for safety reasons and can only have been felled once. The surrounding
terrain will have been used for other purposes, such as cemeteries, roads, paths etc. However,
the woodlands on the low levees, the high flood plains and the barrier plains, which were used for
fuel both by the Roman army and rural settlements, are assumed to regenerate in 10 years. The
system of alder coppicing in the Middle Roman Period aimed at a constant production of wood for
poles and fuel. The rotation cycles for the production of timber in the coppices were set at 12
years and for firewood at 8 years (based on ring counts of Roman material (Van Rijn 2004; Lange
2010) and information from coppice experts). The woodlands on the low levees and the high flood
plains which delivered timber to the rural settlements are assumed to regenerate in 15 years,
while the forest for fuel which were situated on the low levees, the high flood plains and in the
barrier plains are assumed to regenerate in 10 years .
- The proportion of the various woodlands most probably supplying the wood was estimated (used
ratios: 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 1).
- We assume that the wood for the Roman army and vici was retrieved from areas south as well as
north of the river in both the Early and the Middle Roman Period, especially the peat areas with
fen woodland.
Ad 5.3.3.2 Demand of vegetable food
Common food assumptions:
- A 30-year-old legionary soldier with a height of 1.70 metres needs 3 x 103 kCal of energy a day
(Roth 1999).
- The diet of soldiers does not differ substantially from one another’s although there may have been
a difference in ethnic background (and thereby maybe in initial food preference or taboos) and in
the composition of the garrisons (De Weerd 2006; Polak 2009; idem in press).
- The population of the vici consisted of men, woman and children. We assume that the composition
of the vicus population is comparable to those of the rural settlements and therefore the diet and
calorie-intake in our calculations are assumed to be equal to that of the rural settlements. As one
settlement-unit requires c. 22 x 103 kCal (section 3.4.2; 9.75 persons; Gregg 1988, 143), the
32. energy requirements for a vicus with 350 people equals that for c. 36 settlement-units and is c. 80
x 104 kCal per day.
Demand:
- It is assumed that 90% of the energy requirements of both the soldiers and the vici inhabitants
was derived from cereals and products derived from cattle. The remaining 10% was derived from
other plant-based categories or other animal products (Kooistra 1996, 67).
-
It is assumed that 75% of this 90%, so 67.5 % in total, can be attributed to cereals both for the
soldiers and the vici inhabitants (Jobse-Van Putten 1995, 48; Kooistra 1996, 70-73).
-
Hence, a soldier needed c. 2.0 x 103 kCal from cereals per day (67.5% of 3 x 103 kCal) and a
vicus with 350 people c. 53.5 x 104 kCal.
- It is assumed that 50% of the cereal needs of the military and the population of the vici was
fulfilled by imported cereals. The other half was fulfilled by emmer and barley, which could be
produced locally. Our calculations are only based on the demand of the cereals that could be
derived from the immediate surroundings.
Production - arable farming
- It is assumed that one kg of emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon) and barley (Hordeum) produced in
the Rhine-Meuse delta in Roman times provided 3.1 x 103 kCal (Kooistra 1996, 67).
- Botanical research has shown that crop rotation was used in the Roman period (Kooistra 1996,
306-322). In this model calculations are made for a two-course rotation system whereby a field
would be cultivated one year and lay fallow the next.
- For sowing seed, 200 kg of cereals per ha is assumed. The yield is estimated at 1,000 kg of grain
per ha (see discussion in Kooistra 1996, 67).
- It is assumed that in the Early Roman Period, cereals for the army came from both sides of the
river Rhine. In the Middle Roman Period, when the frontier was established, cereals for the army
and vici were no longer derived from land located north of the river Rhine (Kooistra 2009).
Ad 5.3.3.3 Demand of animal food
Demand:
-
It is assumed that 90% of the energy requirements of the military population was derived from
cereals and products derived from cattle. It is assumed that 25% of this 90%, so 22.5% of total
diet, can be attributed to meat products both for soldiers and vici inhabitants (Jobse-Van Putten
1995, 48; Kooistra 1996, 70-73).
33. - Hence, the needs of calories per soldier, in terms of meat and meat products, are calculated to
have been 675 kCal per day (22.5% of 3 x 103 kCal) and those of a vicus with 350 people c. 18 x
104 kCal per day.
Production - Animal husbandry:
- Bone material in the archaeological record shows that cattle from the Late Iron Age and Roman
Period in the research area is relatively small and that its size is comparable with cattle from the
Bronze Age (Lauwerier 1988). No data are available on the caloric value of herds kept by the
farmers in the Roman period in the Rhine-Meuse delta. Therefore, we use figures from a study on
cattle from the Bronze Age (IJzereef 1981).
- In order to assess the herd size needed to sustain one indigenous settlement-unit, calculations
were made by combining data on herd size, composition and slaughter patterns (Gregg 1988),
and the calorific value of Bronze Age cattle as reconstructed for this area (IJzereef 1981).
- Cattle was kept for both milk and meat production as attested by the bone material in the
archaeological record.
- Assumptions from Gregg (1988) on sex ratio by birth (1:1) and on herd size (stable, no growth) are
applied.
- Gregg (1988) assumes a loss of 40% of the annual meat production due to disease, loss,
predators and inability to recapture the dead animal. Because of deforestation in the study area,
presumably fewer predators were present in comparison to Gregg’s study. Therefore, the
assumed loss in this study is taken to be 30%.
- Figures on calories from slaughtered cattle in various stages of life are taken from IJzereef (1981):
an adult cow/oxen/bull weighs 200 kg - equal to c. 48 x 104 kCal - and a calf weighs 35 kg - equal
to c. 5.5 x 104 kCal (IJzereef 1981).
- As IJzereef (1981) gives no data on heifers, we assume for heifers a weight of around 75% of
mature cows/bulls, but with the same ratio of meat (30%), fat (20%) and other (10%) as cows. The
remaining 40% of weight is bones, skin and other non-edible parts.
- Numbers of heads in this publication always indicate the herd size in winter time when it is at its
smallest.
- The size of a viable herd for reproduction would be at least 30 heads in winter time (Gregg 1988).
- A herd with 30 heads in winter yields in total c. 2.3 x 106 kCal of meat per year (Table C6) and a
herd with 50 heads c. 3.8 x 106 kCal (Table C7).
34. Table C6: Yields of meat (in Cal) from a herd with 30 heads in winter.
In winter
(N)
In spring
after
calving (N)
Dead or
slaughtered
(N)
Calorie
output per
animal
(Cal)
Total per
category
(Cal)
Calves 0 9 2 55580 111160
Yearling 7 0 0 0 0
Heifers 8 15 2 359850 719700
Oxen 2 2 0 0 0
Cows 11 11 3 479800 1439400
Bulls 2 2 2 479800 959600
Total 30 39 9 1375030 3229860
After loss (only
After loss (only
After loss (only
After loss (only
70% usable)
70% usable)
70% usable)
70% usable) 2260902
2260902
2260902
2260902
Table C7: Yields of meat (in Cal) from a herd with 50 heads in winter.
In winter
(N)
In spring,
after
calving (N)
Dead or
slaughtered
(N)
Calorie
output per
animal
(Cal)
Total per
category
(Cal)
Calves 0 15 3 55580 166740
Yearling 12 0 0 0 0
Heifers 10 22 4 359850 1439400
Oxen 7 7 0 0 0
Cows 19 19 4 479800 1919200
Bulls 2 2 4 479800 1919200
Total 50 65 15 1375030 5444540
After loss (only
After loss (only
After loss (only
After loss (only
70% usable)
70% usable)
70% usable)
70% usable) 3811178
3811178
3811178
3811178
35. Feeding cattle:
- The food needs for the herds have been calculated for both meadows (hay) and pasture.
- The regular flooding of the river Rhine certainly contributed to a rich vegetation in the flood basins.
Nowadays, naturally managed landscapes are able to provide c. one large herbivore per ha
expressed in AU (AU = animal unit; 1 AU means a herbivore with an estimated weight of 450 kg;
Bokdam 2003, 18; De Vries et al. 2011, 13; Kuitert 2004, 76). Cattle in the Late Iron Age and
Roman period are assumed to have been smaller than nowadays: c. 1.15 m wither height and c.
200-250 kg in weight (IJzereef 1981; Lauwerier 1988, 168). Therefore, the assumption is made
that during the Roman period two to three bovines could graze on one ha of meadow. In order to
calculate the minimum number of ha needed in Roman times, we calculated with three bovines
per ha.
- The food needs for the herds have been calculated for both hay and pasture, assuming that a
suckling calf eats 15% of mature animals and heifers 80%. Cows, bulls and oxen are assumed to
have the same intake of fodder (100%; see also Gregg, 1988, 107).
- A limiting factor for animal husbandry must have been the high groundwater level and the regular
flooding of the river Rhine. Due to winter flooding the grazing area would have been severely
limited during four months a year. Therefore the assumption is made that cattle were fed with hay
during four months a year. This hay might have been stored in the oversized horrea (Heeren
2009, 189). In an early Roman rural settlement near Utrecht a 1,27 m long scythe was unearthed
that might have been used to hay in the meadows (Den Hartog 2009, 71).
- A mature Iron Age cow would consume around 189 kg of hay per month (Groenman-Van
Waateringe & Van Wijngaarden-Bakker 1987). So, this would amount to 756 kg (= 189 x 4) of hay
per mature cow per year.
- It is assumed that the grasses were of the slow-growing natural varieties that would contain more
dry matter than the present-day commercial meadows. The weight loss from grass to hay as a
result of loss of moisture is assumed to have been 40%.
- The yield of one ha of meadow in the Late Iron Age Rhine basin is assumed to have been 3,000
kg of hay. This assumption is based on the hay yields cited by Kreuz (1995, 81) and those of
unmanured meadows in the Netherlands (unpublished data Natuurmonumenten). In order to
calculate with optima and thus to arrive at the minimum number of ha needed in Roman times,
calculations with an annual yield of 3,400 kg of hay have been carried out.
- Grazing on the stubble left on the fields after harvesting and on fallow land – respectively 3.3 ha
per settlement-unit - has been taken into account.
36. Rural demand and supply
Rural demand and supply
Rural demand and supply
Rural demand and supply
Ad 5.3.4.1 Wood demand
The assumptions for the wood demand of the rural settlements:
- The calculations for timber of the settlements are based on the archaeologically attested surface
area (Van der Velde 2008; Bult & Hallewas 1987). In the Early Roman Period the average surface
of farmstead and storage facilities is c. 82 m2 and in the Middle Roman Period c. 103 m2. With 1.5
farms per settlement and 0.21 m3 /m2 for the buildings, a total of 28.5 m3 wood is needed per
settlement-unit.
- Every 10 years the initial amount of timber for first construction is assumed to have been used for
renovation and repair of all the structures in the settlement, due to the use of less robust taxa
(alder, ash and elm).
- The calculations of the consumption of firewood are equal to those based on a study of pre-
modern agrarian societies relating to Europe’s different climatic zones, and is for this region set at
14,000 kCal per person a day (Malanima 2009a and b). As mostly alder is used for firewood, this
amounts to 3,9 kg per person a day. For the rural settlements the daily consumption per person,
including the local production of pottery, is raised to 5 kg, taking into account that there is less of
industrial activity than in the forts and the vici (Pers. Comm. P. Malanima, University of Naples,
Italy, 1-5-2010).
- It is assumed that the wood was retrieved in the settlement’s surroundings.
- The total rural demand for timber is 9,402 m3 in Early Roman Period and 46,267 m3 in the Middle
Roman Period and for fir wood resp. 114,236 m3 and 467,833 m3 (Table C8).
Table C8: Reconstructed wood consumption for timber and fuel (m3) for rural settlements per region
including reparation and repair; N = north of the river Rhine; S = south of the river Rhine.
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period
Early Roman Period (AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40
(AD 40 –
–
–
– 69)
69)
69)
69)
West
West
West
West Central
Central
Central
Central East
East
East
East Total
Total
Total
Total
Timber rural settlements N 1476 699 777 2953
Timber rural settlements S 699 855 4895 6449
Total timber 2176 1554 5672 9402
Firewood rural settlements N 9609 9609 10676 29894
Firewood rural settlements S 5338 11744 67260 84342
Total firewood 14947 21353 77937 114236
Total wood 17122
17122
17122
17122 22907
22907
22907
22907 83609
83609
83609
83609 123638
123638
123638
123638
37. Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle Roman Period
Roman Period
Roman Period
Roman Period (AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70
(AD 70 –
–
–
– 140)
140)
140)
140)
Timber rural settlements N 4309 2041 2268 8618
Timber rural settlements S 4082 4763 28804 37649
Total timber 8392 6804 31072 46267
Firewood rural settlements N 26904 22420 24911 74236
Firewood rural settlements S 24911 52314 316373 393598
Total firewood 51815 74734 341284 467833
Total wood 60207
60207
60207
60207 81538
81538
81538
81538 372356
372356
372356
372356 514100
514100
514100
514100
Ad 5.3.4.2 Arable farming
Demand:
- The energy requirement of the inhabitants of one settlement-unit is c. 22 x 103 kCal per day
(Gregg 1988,143), which they produced themselves.
- It is assumed that 90% of the energy requirements of the agrarian population was derived from
cereals and products derived from cattle. The remaining 10% was derived from other plant-based
categories or other animal products (Kooistra 1996, 67).
-
It is assumed that 75% of this 90% can be attributed to cereals (Jobse-Van Putten 1995, 48;
Kooistra 1996, 70-73).
-
Hence, a settlement-unit needed c. 15 x 103 kCal from cereals per day.
-
We assume that the agrarian population of the Limes zone mainly cultivated and consumed
emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon) and barley (Hordeum) (Kooistra 2009).
-
Hardly any imported food plants have been found in the agrarian settlements (Kooistra et al. in
2013).
Production:
- It is assumed that one kg of cereals produced in the Rhine-Meuse delta in Roman times (emmer
wheat (Triticum dicoccon) and barley (Hordeum) provided 3.1 x 103 kCal (section 3.3.2; Kooistra
1996, 67).
- In this model, calculations are made for a two-course rotation system whereby a field would be
cultivated one year and lay fallow the next (section 3.3.2).
38. - In the Roman period, a field of cereals would have been sown using a method of broad casting by
hand (Kooistra 1996, 67). For sowing seed, 200 kg of cereals per ha is assumed. The yield is
estimated at 1,000 kg of grain per ha (section 3.3.2).
- It is assumed that farmers kept some cereals in reserve for their own use. In this model, the total
amount of cereals needed per settlement (surplus excluded) comprises the amount of food
needed annually plus half of that amount kept in reserve (50%) plus the amount of cereals
necessary for sowing.
- The harvest period would have lasted 14 days and one man could harvest 0.25 ha per day or 3.5
ha in total in two weeks (Gregg 1988). The rest of the family would have carried out the transport,
drying and threshing of the crop.
- Based on these assumptions, a settlement-unit needed 3.3 ha of cultivated arable land to satisfy
their own needs for cereal food = ((kCal settlement-unit from cereals per day / kCal one kilo of
cereals) x 365 days) + (half of that amount of cereals which will be kept in reserve) / (yield of
cereals per ha – sowing seed) = ((15 x 103 / 3.1 x 103) x 365) + ((15 x 103 / 3.1 x 103) x 365) / 2) /
(1000 – 200). Including fallow land (the same amount), 6.6 ha land would be needed every year
for cereal production.
- It is assumed that cereals were cultivated as a summer crop, with sowing in early spring and
harvesting at the end of July or beginning of August. Therefore, the fields had to be situated in
locations that were dry from March through the summer, e.g. on the high levees and the dunes
(Table 5.1; Kooistra 1996).
Ad 5.3.4.3 Animal husbandry
The assumptions made for production and consumption of meat and meat products are listed below:
- The energy requirement of the inhabitants of one settlement-unit is c. 22 x 103 kCal per day
(Gregg 1988,143), which they produced themselves.
- It is assumed that 90% of the energy requirements of the agrarian population was derived from
cereals and products derived from cattle. The remaining 10% was derived from other plant-based
categories or other animal products (Kooistra 1996, 67).
-
It is assumed that 25% of this 90% can be attributed to meat and meat products (Jobse-Van
Putten 1995, 48; Kooistra 1996, 70-73).
-
Hence, a settlement-unit needed c. 5 x 103 kCal from meat and meat products per day, equivalent
to c.1.8 x 106 kCal per year (section 3.3.3).
- It is assumed each farmstead kept one herd of 50 heads (section 3.3.3).
- A herd of 50 heads will annually yield a total of 3.8 x 106 kCal (Table C7). This is more than
sufficient to satisfy the needs of a settlement-unit. It means that a herd of 50 heads will produce a
yearly surplus of c. 2.0 x 106 kCal, an equivalent of c. 4 mature cows (section 3.3.3).
- An area of at least 26.1 ha of pasture and meadow was needed to sustain an extra viable herd of
50 heads, consisting of at least 16 ha (= 47.85/3) of pasture and at least 10.1 ha (= (45.6 x
39. 756)/3400) of meadow to sustain the herd’s needs during the winter months (section 3.3.3). When
taking into account 3.3 ha of fallow land, only 12.7 ha (=16 - 3.3) of pasture would be needed for a
settlement-unit (section 3.3.3).
Ad 5.3.4.4 Rural surplus production
Arable farming :
- It is assumed that the same men harvested the cereals needed by the agrarian population as that
needed by the military. As one settlement-unit consists of c. 3.66 adult men (section 3.2.2: 2,4375
x 1.5), and one man could harvest 3.5 ha in total in two weeks (section 3.4.2), these men can
harvest a maximum of 12.8 ha.
- To satisfy their own needs for cereal food a settlement-unit needed 3.3 ha (section 3.4.2). The
maximum amount of arable fields that can be harvested for surplus production is therefore 9.5 ha.
- It is assumed that in the Early Roman Period, cereals for the army could be produced on both
sides of the river Rhine. In the Middle Roman Period, cereals for the army and vici were no longer
derived from land located north of the river Rhine (Kooistra 2009).
Animal husbandry:
- It is assumed that one herd of 50 heads will produce a yearly surplus of c. 2.0 x 106 kCal (= (3.8 –
1.8) x 106 kCal), an equivalent of c. 4 mature cows, when the needs of the settlement-units in the
area are taken into account (section 3.4.3).
- An extra herd of 50 heads will annually yield a total of 3.8 x 106 calories (Table C7), an equivalent
of c. 8 mature cows, as the needs of the settlement-units are already taken into account.
40. Appendix D
Appendix D
Appendix D
Appendix D
Supplement to Chapter 6
This is part of the manuscript: Van Dinter, M., K.M. Cohen, W.Z. Hoek, E. Stouthamer, E. Jansma and H.
Middelkoop, 2017. Late Holocene lowland fluvial archives and geoarchaeology: Utrecht’s case study of Rhine river
abandonment under Roman and Medieval occupation, and its international relevance. 20-yr FLAG special issue on
Fluvial Archives, Quaternary Science Reviews 1-39.
This Appendix contains the following topics:
- Section A; Data
- Section B: Reconstruction
The mother database - an Excell file with remarks and height of vegetation horizons, elevation levels and
composition of deposits, thickness and age of cultural layers and various remarks (all in Dutch and as) - is
available through doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.5151166
The digital repository also holds digital map data (GIS files) and is available through doi:10.17026/dans-
zrz-qm5n.
41. 2
Section A
Section A
Section A
Section A –
–
–
– Data
Data
Data
Data
Table
Table
Table
Table D1
D1
D1
D1:
:
:
: A list of archaeological excavations and surveys in the research area used for the
palaeogeographical reconstruction. A more extensive version of this table (with remarks in Dutch,
information on height and thickness of the layers (m O.D.), and presence and datings of archaeological
finds) is available as part of the digital data repository.
Abbreviations used are: c = channel deposits, l = levee deposits, f = flood basin deposits (clay), r =
residual channel deposits (rR= edge residual channel), x = crevasse deposits, a = aeolian deposits, v =
vegetation horizon (palaeosol), p = peat, ? = interpretation uncertain
ROM = Roman, ME = Medieval, Caro = Carolingian
ABKU = Archeologische en Bouwhistorische Kroniek Utrecht
AKPU = Archeologische Kroniek Provincie Utrecht
Nr. Name excavation Scource Xcoord Ycoord Geological
teinterpretation
1 Leeuwstraat (1947)
1947; Intern Archeologie
Gemeente Utrecht Pandhuis,
Zylab 135920 456300 r?
2 Achter Sint Pieter 22 Vollgraff et al., 1946 136975 455865 cl
3 Neude Oostzijde
Fotos Gemeente Utrecht
Archeologie, Graafwerk
Weijers jaren '40 136630 456165 cl
4 Neude Kantoorflat
Fotos Gemeente Utrecht
Archeologie, Graafwerk
Weijers jaren '40 136545 456075 cl
5 AchterClarenburg ABKU1926-1972 136305 455895 r
6 Achter Sint Pieter ABKU1926-1972 136970 455960
7 Biltstraat spoorweg ABKU1926-1972 137990 456405
8 Boothstraat 1a ABKU1926-1972 136840 456230 r?
9 Choorstraat-Massegat ABKU1926-1972 136645 455940 cl v flooding
10 Hamburgerstraat ABKU1926-1972 136925 455645
11 Maliebaan ABKU1926-1972 137675 455995
12 Domplein 1949 ABKU1926-1972 136800 455870
13 Van Hoornekade ABKU1926-1972 135040 457955 r/ME erosion
14 1e Korte Baanstraat 8 ABKU1926-1972 137500 455705 r?
15
Lange
Nieuwstraat/Hamburgerstraat ABKU1926-1972 136869 455625 Roman
16
Hengeveldstraat/Alexander
Numankade ABKU1926-1972 137445 456990 fp
17 Oude Gracht 129 - 131 ABKU1926-1972 136470 455965 r?